Construction Equipments and EIA

EECQ – 5222
27th May 2021
By:
Dr. David Stower. PhD,
C.Eng, F.ASCE
Department of Civil and
Construction Engineering
Technical University of Kenya
construction equipment 1
CONTEN
T
 Introduction
 Factors behind the selection of

construction equipments
 Types of construction equipments
 Selection criteria for various construction equipment
 Plant and equipment acquisition
INTRODUCTIO
N 3
 In the case of huge construction projects;

 Proper use of the appropriate equipment contributes to
economy, quality, safety, speed and timely completion of a
project.
 Equipment are use for highway projects, irrigation,
buildings, power projects etc.
 15-30% of total project cost has been accounted towards
equipment and machinery.
construction equipment
INTRODUCTIO
N
⚫ Good project management in construction must vigorously
pursue the efficient utilization of labor, material and
equipment.
⚫ The use of new equipment and innovative methods has
made possible wholesale changes in construction
technologies in recent decades.
⚫ The selection of the appropriate type and size of
construction equipment often affects the required amount
of time and effort and thus the job-site productivity of a
project.
⚫ It is therefore important for site managers and construction
planners to be familiar with the characteristics of the major
types of equipment most commonly used in construction.
ADVANTAGES OF UTILIZING THE
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
5
 Increase the rate of output through work progress with

the
best effective and efficient methods.
 Reduce the overall construction costs especially for
large contracts.
 Carry out activities which cannot be done manually or to
do them more economically and much faster.
 Eliminate the heavy manual work by human thus
reducing
fatigue and eliminates various other hazards and health issues.
 Maintain the planned rate of production where there is
a
shortage of skilled or unskilled labor.
 Maintain
construction equipment the high quality standards often required by
FACTORS AFFECTING SELECTION
OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
6
 USE OF EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE WITH THE ORGANIZATION

 SUITABILITY FOR JOB CONDITION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
CLIMATIC AND OPERATING CONDITIONS
 UNIFORMITY OF TYPE
 SIZE OF EQUIPMENT
 USE OF STANDARD EQUIPMENT
 COUNTRY OF ORIGIN
 UNIT COST OF PRODUCTION
 AVAILABILITY OF SPARE PARTS AND SELECTION OF

MANUFACTURERS
 SUITABILITY OF LOCAL LABOUR FOR OPERATION
FACTORS BEHIND THE SELECTION OF
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS
7
 Economic Considerations
 Company-Specific
 Site-Specific
 Equipment-Specific
 Client And Project-Specific
 Manufacturer-Specific
 Labour Consideration
ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS
The economic considerations such as owning
costs, operating labour costs and operating fuel
costs of equipment are most important in selection
of equipment.
Besides, the resale value, the replacement costs
of existing equipment, and the salvage value
associated with the equipment are also important.
COMPANY-SPECIFIC
The selection of equipment by a

company maybe governed by its policy on
'owning' or 'renting’.
While emphasis on 'owning' may result in
purchase of equipment keeping in mind the future
requirement of projects, the emphasis on 'renting'
may lead to putting too much focus on short-term
benefits.
SITE-
SPECIFIC
Site conditions-both ground conditions as
well as climatic conditions-may affect the
equipment-selection decision.
For example, the soil and profile of a site may
dictate whether to go for a crawler-mounted
equipment or a wheel-mounted equipment. If
there is a power line at or in the vicinity of site,
one may go for a fixed-base kind of equipment
rather than a mobile kind of equipment.
EQUIPMENT-SPECIFIC
Construction equipments come with high
price tags. While it may be tempting to go for the
equipment with low initial price, it is preferable
to opt for standard equipments.
Such equipments are manufactured in large
numbers by the manufacturers, and their spare
parts are easily available, which would ensure
minimum downtime. Besides, they can also fetch
good salvage money at the time of their disposal.
CLIENT AND PROJECT-
SPECIFIC
The owner/client in a certain project may
have certain preferences that are not in line with
the construction company's preferred policies as
far as equipment procurement is concerned.
The schedule, quality and safety
requirements demanded of a particular project
may in some cases force the company to yield to
the demands of the client.
MANUFACTURER-SPECIFIC
A construction company may prefer

to buy equipment from the
same manufacturer again and again,
and that too from a specific dealer.
This may be to bring in uniformity in
the equipment fleet possessed by
the company or because the company is
familiar with the working
style of the manufacturer and the dealer.
LABOUR
CONSIDERATION
Shortage of manpower in some situations may
lead to a decision in favour of procuring equipment
that is highly automated.
Further, the selection of equipment may be
governed by the availability or non-availability of
trained manpower.
OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN CONSTRUCTION OF
ANY PROJECT
15
 Excavation
 Digging of large
quantities of earth
 Moving them to distances which are sometimes fairly long
 Placement
 Compacting
 Leveling
 Dozing
 Grading
 Hauling
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION
EQUIPMENT
16
1. Earth-moving equipment
2. Hauling equipment
3. Hoisting equipment
4. Conveying equipment
5. Aggregate and concrete production equipment
6. Pile-driving equipment
7. Tunneling and rock drilling equipment
8. Pumping and dewatering equipment
EXCAVATOR
17
⚫ Excavator is the machine used for construction activities.

⚫ Excavator is the machine that can excavate the soil of
various types forcefully and then using hydraulic system a
hydraulic force is generated and utilizing this force bucket
is pull back towards the machine. They are primarily used
for digging, demolition, forestry work, grading,
landscaping, heavy lifting, and brush cutting.
⚫ Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting
of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform
(known as the "house").
⚫ Excavator comes in numerous sizes depending on bucket
size, length of boom, length of arm, and operation speed
Excavators are used in many
ways: 18
 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations

 Material handling
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Forestry work
 Demolition
 General grading/landscaping
 Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes
 Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining
 River dredging
 Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile driver
CRAWLEREXCAVATOR
Crawler excavator runs on two endless tracks (chain wheel
system). These types of excavators are used in hilly areas
where risks of sliding of machinery are on the verge. Crawler
type excavator has low ground pressure because of spreading
of load on large area. Therefore, it is also used where soil
support is weak.
WHEEL EXCAVATOR
Wheel excavator runs on wheels and are used for excavation
and loading of dump trucks and most of the time it is only
used for plain ground operations. Because of wheel, it is not
suitable for hilly areas due to low grip value to the ground.
VARIOUS KIND OF EXCAVATORS
1.Compact Excavators
2.Crawler Excavators
3.Dragline Excavators
4.Long Reach Excavators
5.A Suction Excavators
1.COMPACTEXCAVATOR
They are wheeled machines weighing at least 0.7 tones. The
movement of compact lifters is enhanced by hydraulic fluid powered
by hydraulic cylinders. The compact excavators consist of a work group,
under carriage and house. The house is used for slewing while the
undercarriage is a major support to the workgroup and house. The
work group consists of a boom, arm and bucket
2.CRAWLER EXCAVATORS
This are the main excavators on the market. They are build to
release heavy work such as mining. They are usually very big and
very large and they always come with very high horsepower. This
is one of the most well-known type of excavator in the world
3.DARGLINE EXCAVATOR
(1) LIFTING CRANES
lifting cranes contain units that are easily dismembered and
ferried by trailers. The small cranes are used for civil engineering
tasks such as road, pond and port construction.
(2) HEAVY DUTY BUILT IN
SITE
The larger build on site equipment is used mainly in the mining
of tar and sand. The dragline has a boom and bucket. The bucket
of the dragline is moved with the aid of ropes powered by a
motor.
4.LONG REACH EXCAVATOR
It is an excavator with a long arm. The length of the arm is
suited for destruction activities. It is able to reach the top of
buildings and methodically crumple the structures.
5.A SUCTION EXCAVATOR
It is also known as a vacuum excavator. This equipment
lifts and clears debris on land through its suction pipe.
The suction pipe measures a foot in width. It consists of
a nozzle with handles used to control the machine. The
suction pipe has teeth used to cut the earth during
excavation. An air lance water jet is used to loosen the
earth before sucking it out. Suction excavation is used
for safely identifying and removing underground
elements.
EX C AVATOR
ATTAC HMEN TS
BACK HOE
BUCKET
LOADER BUCKET
MULTI GRAPPLE
BOTTOM DUMP BUCKET

SCISSORS
ROCK DRILLS
USES OF EXCAVATORS
Usage
Excavators are used in many
ways: Digging of trenches, holes,
foundation Material handling
Brush cutting with hydraulic
attachments Forestry work
forestry
mulching
demolition
General
grading/landsca
ping
Mining, especially, but not only open-pit
mining River Dredging
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR
EARTHWORK
The selection ofEQUIPMENTS
earthmoving equipment is mainly
dependent on the following factors:
 Quantities of material to be moved
 The available time to complete the work the job
conditions
 Height of the excavation
 The prevailing soil types, the swell and compaction
factors,
etc.
 The job conditions include factors such as availability
of loading and dumping area, accessibility of site, traffic
flows and weather conditions at site.
 Disposal of the excavated material
 Distance of excavation site to hauling units
In order to plan the number of Earthwork
Equipment needed, the planner first determines
the following:
 The suitable class of equipment for earthwork-for
example, if the soil to be excavated is loose and marshy,
and bulk excavation is involved In the project, one may
opt for a dragline.
 The appropriate model of equipment based on
different characteristics such as payload of bucket and
speeds required. For example, draglines come in different
capacities ranging from 0.38 cum to 3.06 cum;
scrapers in capacities ranging from 8 cum to 50 cum and
so on.
 The number of equipment needed for the project to
carry out the given quantity.
 The number of associated equipment required to
support the main equipment
Types of EARTH
EXCAVATION
EQUIPMENTS
32
1. POWER SHOVEL
2. BACK HOE
3. DRAG LINE
4. CLAM SHELL
Construction Equipments
POWER
 LONG-LASTING.
SHOVEL
 EXCAVATE ALL TYPES OF EARTH EXCEPT HARD
ROCK
TYPES:
 WHEEL MOUNTED (HIGH SPEED - FIRM GROUND)
 CRAWLER MOUNTED (LOW SPEED - UNSTABLE SOIL)

BASIC PARTS:
* TRACK * CABIN
SYSTEM
* CABLES * RACK &
STICK
* BOOM FOOT * SADDLE
PIN BLOCK
* BOOM POINT * BUCKET ( Size = .375 m 3 to 5
33
SHEAVE m 3)
POWER
OPERATION: SHOVEL
CABLE CONTROLLED & IT MAKES OUTWARD STROKES WHILE DIGGING.
APPLICATIONS:
 CLOSE RANGE OF WORK.
 VERY HARD MATERIALS, BIG SIZED BOULDERS.
DIGGING IN GRAVEL BANKS, CLAY PITS, CUTS IN ROAD WORKS, ROAD

SIDE BERMS Etc.,
FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:

* CLASS OF MATERIAL * DEPTH OF CUTTING
* ANGLE OF SWING * SKILL OF OPERATOR
* SIZE OF HAULING UNITS * JOB CONDITION
34
Power
Shovel
POWER SHOVEL
36
POWER SHOVEL
37
POWER SHOVEL
38
Old  new
39
BACK
• HOE
ALSO TERMED AS HOE, BACK SHOVEL AND PULL SHOVEL.
• USED TO EXCAVATE BELOW THE SURFACE OF EQUIPMENT - IT CAVES INTO THE

GROUND.
BASIC PARTS:
* BOOM * JACK BOOM
* BOOM FOOT DRUM * BOOM SHEAVE
* STICK, BUCKET * BUCKET SHEAVE
OPERATION:
• SIMILAR TO SHOVEL EXCEPT IT MAKES INWARD STROKES WHILE DIGGING.
APPLICATION:
• DIGGING BELOW MACHINE LEVEL LIKE TRENCHES, FOOTINGS, BASEMENTS.
• TO TRIM THE SURFACE (DRESSING).
40
BACK
HOE 41
 A backhoe, also called a rear actor or back actor, is a

piece of excavating equipment or digger consisting of
a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated
arm.
 The section of the arm closest to the vehicle is known as the
boom, and the section which carries the bucket is known as
the dipper or dipper-stick .
 The boom is generally attached to the vehicle through a
pivot known as the king-post, which allows the arm to slew
left and right, usually through a total of around 200
degrees.
42
⚫ It is hinged in three places, making it resemble an

arm: a shoulder joint attached to the tractor, an
elbow sticking up in the air, and a wrist, where a
relatively narrow bucket is attached. The bucket is
extended away from the tractor, lowered, and filled
by dragging toward the tractor -- then raised and
moved to the side before being dumped. Extending
and raising a backhoe reduces overall stability, so
before the backhoe is used outriggers are extended
for safety.
BACK
HOE 43
44
BACK HOE
45
BACK HOE
46
APPLICATION
47
⚫ It is the most suitable machine for digging below the

machine
level, such as, trenches, footings, basements etc.
⚫ It can be efficiently used to dress or trim the surface avoiding the
use of manual effort for dressing the excavated the surface.
DRAG
LINE 48
⚫ The drag line is so name because of its prominent

operation of dragging the bucket against the
material to be dug.
⚫ Unlike the shovel, it has a long light crane boom
and the bucket is loosely attached to the boom
through cables.
⚫ Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and
dump over larger distances than a shovel can do.
⚫ Drag lines are useful for digging below its track
level and handling softer materials.
 Crawler mounted
- Low travel speed, soft ground,
large projects
 Wheel mounted
- high travel speed, firm ground &
scattered job
 Truck mounted
- high travel speed, firm ground &
scattered jobs
 Walking draglines
DRAG
BASIC PARTS: LINE
* BOOM * HOIST CABLE
* DRAG CABLE * HOIST CHAIN
* DRAG CHAIN * BUCKET
APPLICATIONS:
o Dragging softer material and below its track level
o It is very useful for excavating trenches when the sides are permitted to
establish their angle of repose without shoring.
o It has long reaches.
o Excavation canals and depositing on the embankment

without
for hauling
50
units.
DRAG
LINE
FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:
• TYPE OF MATERIAL
• DEPTH OF CUTTING
• SIZE AND TYPE OF BUCKETS
• SKILL OF OPERATOR
• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS & METHOD
• ANGLE OF SWING
• LENGTH OF CRANE BOOM
• JOB CONDITION
51
 Output = dragline capacity × C × F
where C = cycles/hr
F = correcting factor
Advantages Disadvantages
 Can work from the ground  Less digging force.
surface while shovel has to  As the boom length
be taken into the pit. increases the bucket size
 Hauling equipments need must be decreased.
not to go in the pit.  Output is less than shovel.
 Excavated material
disposed in one
operation.
 High range than
53
54
DRAG
LINE
55
DRAG
LINE
56
Clam shell
57
⚫ This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a clam

which is like a shell-fish with hinged double shell.
⚫ The front end is essentially a crane boom with a specially
designed bucket loosely attached at the end through cables as in a
drag line.
⚫ There are hydraulic clamshell buckets that are mounted on the
stick of hydraulic hoes.
⚫ The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in cubic
meters.
⚫ The basic parts of clam shell bucket are the closing line, hoist
line, sheaves, brackets, tagline, shell and hinge.
Application
58
• Used for handling loose material such as crushed stone,

sand,
gravel, coal etc.
• Main feature is vertical lifting of material from one location to
another.
• The two jaws of a clamshell bucket clamp together when
the bucket is lifted by the closing line.
• Mainly used for removing material from coffer dam, sewer main
holes, sheet-lined trenches, well foundations etc.
⚫
Clam shell
60
CLAM
SHELL61
CLAM
SHELL62
COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES
OF
EQUIPMENT
Power
S.No. Items of comparison Back hoe Drag line Clam shell
shovel
1
Excavation in hard soil or
Good Good Not good Poor
rock
Excavation in wet soil or Moderately Moderately

2 Poor Poor
mud good good
Distance between footing

3 Small Small Long Long
and digging
Moderately Precise but

4 Loading efficiency Very good Good
good slow
Fairly away Fairly away

5 Footing required Close to work Close to pit
from pit from pit
Digs at or
Digs at or
Digs below Digs below below footing
6 Digging level above footing
footing level footing level level
level
Shortly more More than the

More than
7 Cycle time Short than power other
power shovel
shovel equipment
63
Constru ction Equipments
EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENTS
1. TRACTORS
2. SCRAPERS
3. BULL DOZERS
4. MOTOR GRADERS
5. FRONT END
LOADERS
64
TRACTO
RS
Multi-purpose machines used mainly for pulling and
pushing the other equipment.
Tractors may be classified as
a)Crawler type tractor- Used to move bull dozers, scrapers.
The crawler has a chain by which these tractors can be
very effective even in the case of loose or muddy soils. The
speed of this type dose not exceed 12 kmph normally.
b) Wheel type tractor- The engine is mounted on four
wheels. The main advantage is higher speed, sometimes
exceeding 50 kmph it is used for long-distance hauling and
good roads.
65
Applications
 CLEARING & EXCAVATING
MACHINERY
 HAULING & CONVEYING MACHINERY
66
TRACTOR
67
CRAWLER TRACTOR
68
WHEEL
TRACTOR
69
COMPARISON BETWEEN CRAWLER
AND WHEELED TRACTORS
Crawler type Wheeled type
1. Slow speed 1. Greater speed
2. More compact and powerful and can 2. Con handle only lighter jobs
handle heavier jobs
3. costly 3. cheaper
4. Cost of operation and maintenance is 4. Operational and maintenance cost is
high less
5. Stick control for steering 5. Wheel steering control
6. Moves on rough roads only 6. Moves on rough as well as
good roads
7. Used for short distances 7.Used for longer distances
8. Requires skillful operation, 8. Lesser skills required for operations,
maintenance and repairs maintenance and repairs
70
SCRAPER
S
• Used to load and haul a wide variety of materials
• Economical over wide range of haul lengths and haul conditions
• Self loading – not dependent on other equipment
• Not as efficient as exclusively designed machines
• Off highway and <1 mile scraper is better than trucks
• Ability to deposit loads in layers of uniform thickness
• It cannot be used on rocky ground either as this causes excessive wear. It
takes between 30 seconds or one minute for the scraper to load itself
• The bowl capacity ranges from 5 cum to 20 cum and takes nearly
halfto one minute for loading.
• It’s blade cuts a thin slice of a earth usually between 100 mm to 250mm
thick over a distance of nearly 30 m
71
CONSTRUCTION
Parts : Bowl, Apron and
Ejector Bowl:
Loading and carrying
component
Has a cutting edge that extends horizontally across front bottom
edge Lowered for loading, raised during travel
Apron:
Front wall of the bowl, independent of bowl
Raised during loading and dumping, lowered during haulage – to
avoid
spillage
Ejector:
Rear vertical wall, gets activated and moves forward, helps positive
discharge of material
STANDARD
USAGE
Loading and transporting earth over short distances (i.e.
>2miles) Unfortunately it cannot be used to transport materials
over long
distances because of heating of the tires
www.terex.com/main.php?obj=prod&action=VIEW&id=21&nav=prod&cid=e3959eefdc65adcc4e0e616b833694b1
SCRAPER
CAPACITY: S
•HEAPED CAPACITY OF THE BOWL.
OPERATION:
• While digging cutting edge enters the ground by lowering the bowl,
the front apron is raised
• Edge is raised, apron is lowed while hauling.
• While dumping ejector is used.

⚫ Either self-propelled or towed, it consists of a wagon with a gate
having a bladed bottom. The blade scrapes up earth as
the wagon pushes forward and forces the excavated material into
the wagon. When the wagon is filled, the gate is closed, and the
material is carried to the place of disposal. The scraper is the
dominant tool in highway construction.
74
TYPES
Based on method of loading & number of
axles
1. Pusher Loaded ( Conventional )
a) Single powered axle
b) Tandem powered axles
2. Self Loading
a) Push – pull, tandem powered axles
b) Elevating type
c) Auger type
• Crawler tractor pulled
• Wheel tractor pulled
• Towed Scraper
• Open and Coal Bowl Scraper
• Elevating Scraper
PUSHER
LOADED
High speeds on
favorable
haul roads
35 mph (50 km/hr)
when fully loaded
Lack of high
tractive effort reqd
for loading
Necessary
to supplement with
help loading
SELF LOADING -
PUSH
–Tandem
PULL TYPE
powered axle scrappers having a
cushioned push block & bail mounted at front
A hook on the rear above the usual back
push block
These features enable one another during
loading
Trailing scrapper pushes the lead scrapper as
it
loads
lead scrapper pulls the lead scrapper to assist
in loading
SELF LOADING – ELEVATING
TYPE
Self contained loading &
hauling
Loading Chai
mechanism: mounted n
elevator
vertically on front of – mounted
bowl
Disadvantages: Weight of
elevator assembly – wt
dead haul
during
cycle
Applications:
high production spreads,
utility work,
shifting material during high
dressing up
grading operations
behind
AUGER
TYPE
Can self load in difficult conditions
Ex: Laminated rock, granular materials, frozen material
Has independent hydrostatic system located at centre of the
bowl
Types – Single and Tandem powered
Dis:
• Non – load wt is added haul (wt
during mechanism) of
• More costly to own and operate
TOWED
SCRAPER
ELEVATING
SCRAPER
OPEN BOWL
VOLUME OF
SCRAPER
Struck or Heaped capacity
of the bowl (Cubic yard)
Struck capacity: Volume
that a scraper would hold
if the top of the material
was struck off even at the
top of the bowl
Heaped capacity: struck
capacity plus a heaped
load at a 2:1 angle on top
up to a point in the centre
(1/3 more than struck)
SAE – 1:1
SAFETY
PROCEDURES AND
PRACTICES
Never operate a scraper at speeds that are unsafe,
especially with full pans
Always wear a safety belt. Uneven terrains may cause
a scraper to tilt
Be sure that communication between ground employees
is clear and evident
Proper maintenance and daily checks ensure safe
operating conditions
Source: Integrated Publishing: http://www.tpub.com/content/engine/14081/css/14081_267.htm

SAFETY
PROCEDURES AND
PRACTICES
Be sure that proper brakes and ropes are all in working
order
Only trained employees should operate and work
near scrapers
Do not operate scrapers on unsafe slopes
SCRAPER
S
87
SCRAPER
S
88
SCRAPER
S
89
SCRAPER
S
90
SCRAPE
R 91
BULL
•
DOZERS
VERSATILE EQUIPMENT- ESSENTIALLY A HEAVY STEEL
BLADE MOUNTED ON THE FRONT OF TRACTOR.
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON:
POSITION OF - PERPENDICULAR BLADES TO

BLADES
THE DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT
- BLADES AT AN
ANGLE
MOUNTING - WHEEL MOUNTED
- CRAWLER
MOUNTED
CONTROL - CABLE
CONTROL
- HYDRAULIC
92
CONTROL
BULL
DOZERS
CONSTRUCTION:
 CONSIST OF HEAVY BLADE WITH CONCAVE PROFILE.
 BLADE IS ATTACHED TO THE BODY WITH TWO ARMS,

A
SUPPORTING FRAME & HELD BY TWO PUSH ARMS
APPLICATION:
 SPREADING EARTH FILL
 CLEARING, OPENING UP PILOT ROADS
 BACK FILLING TRENCHES
 CLEARING CONSTRUCTION SITES
93
Bull dozer
94
Crawler Dozers
⚫ It is equipped with special clearing blades which are

excellent machine for loud clearing.
⚫ Heavy ripping of rock is accomplished by crawler
dozers with use of rippers which are mounted rear
of dozers.
CRAWLER BULL
DOZERS 96
crawler mounted bulldozers
TYRE MOUNTED BULL
DOZERS 98
Con
Front Casting mounted bulldozers
ANGLED BULL
DOZERS 100
TYPES OF BULL DOZERS
BLADE 101
Constr
Factors affect output of machinery
a. Efficiency of operator
b. Nature of soil
c. Topography of area
d. Type of equipment
e. Weather
What is tilt ?
⚫ In some machines either end of the blade can be

raised or lowered in the vertical plane of the blade
called Tilt.
⚫ The movement takes place within the vertical plane
of the blade.
⚫ Tilting enables the concentration of dozer driving
power on a limited portion of the length of the blade.
What is pitch?
⚫ The top of the blade can pitched forward or

backward varying the angle of attack of the cutting
edge. it is known as pitch.
⚫ This is pivotal movement about the point of
connection between the dozer and blade.
⚫ When top of blade pitch forward, the bottom edge
moves back. This increase the angle of cutting
edge attack.
What is angling?
⚫ Blades which are mounted on a C frame can be

turned from the direction of travel. It is known as
angling.
⚫ This features are not applicable for all blades.
⚫ Turning the blade in such a way that it is not
perpendicular to the direction of the travel of the
dozer is known as angling.
⚫ Angling causes the pushed material to roll off the
traveling end of trailing end of blade.
⚫ This process of rolling material off one end of the
blade is known as side casting.
APPLICATIONS
108
Bull dozers are mainly used for the following operations

1. For spreading the earth fill
2. For opening up pilot roads through mountainous and rocky
terrains.
3. Clearing construction sites.
4. Maintaining haul roads
5. Clearing land from the trees and stumps
6. back-filling trenches at construction sites by dragging
the earth from one place to another
Advantages of Crawler mounted dozer
⚫ It delivers greater attractive effort especially when

operating soft grounds as loose or muddy soil.
⚫ Capacity to travel over muddy surface.
⚫ Work on different type of soil.
⚫ Ability to travel on rough surface, which may reduce
the cost of maintaining the hauling roads.
Advantages of Crawler mounted dozer
⚫ Greater flotation due to the lower pressure under

the track.
⚫ Good for short distance jobs.
⚫ Greater use in different type of jobs.
⚫ Can push large blade loads.
⚫ Speed is slow about 8 to 16 kmph.
Advantages of Wheel mounted dozer
⚫ Provide higher travel speed from 13 to 42 kmph

on the job or from one job to another job.
⚫ Eliminates the necessity of hauling equipment
required to transport the dozer to the job.
⚫ Greater output, especially when considerable travel
is necessary.
⚫ Less fatigue to operator.
Advantages of Wheel mounted dozer
⚫ It is good for long distance.

⚫ It can travel on paved highways without damaging
the surface.
⚫ It is best for handling loose soil.
⚫ It can push moderate blade load.
A grader, also commonly referred to as
a road grader, a blade, a maintainer,
or
a motor grader, is a construction
machine with a long blade used to create
a flat surface. Typical models have three
axles with the engine and cab situated
above the rear axles at one end of the
vehicle and a third axle at the front end
of the vehicle, with the blade in between.
Some construction personnel refer to the
entire machine as "the blade."
In civil engineering, the grader's purpose
is to "finish grade" (refine, set precisely)
the "rough grading" performed by heavy
equipment or engineering vehicles
such as scrapers and bull dozers
MOTOR GRADERS
o they may be either towed or motorised.
ousually self propulsive.
CONSTRUCTION:
• The grader typically consist of three axles, with the engine
and cab situated top, the rear axles at one end of the vehicle
and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade
in between.
• Front of the grader frame is supported on a pair of front wheels
& rear on tandem wheels.
• Curved blade is supported on the circle and be turned
through 360 degree.
• Blade has replaceble edges.
• Cutting Depth - 2-4CMS.
114
MOTOR GRADERS
SPEED:
 LIGHT DUTY - 6-10 KM/HR.
 HEAVY DUTY - 2-3 KM/HR.
 NORMAL DUTY - 4-6 KM/HR.
USES:
* GRAVEL ROAD REPAIRING * ROAD SHOULDER RESHAPING
* BANK CUTTING * DITCH FILLING
* BASE COURSE SPREADING * MATERIAL MIXING
* SNOW, LAND CLEARANCE * FROZEN TOP SOIL, ASPHALT

BREAKING
115
MOTOR GRADERS
116
MOTOR GRADERS
117
FRONT
LOADERS
• Also known as a front end loader, bucket loader,
scoop loader, or shovel,
• The front loader is a type of tractor that is normally
wheeled and uses a wide square tilting bucket on the
end of movable arms to lift and move material around.
• The loader assembly may be a removable attachment
or permanently mounted on the vehicle. Often times,
the bucket can be replaced with other devices or tools,
such as forks or a hydraulically operated bucket.
118
FRONT
LOADERS
• Larger style front loaders, such as the Caterpillar 950G or
the Volvo L120E, normally have only a front bucket and
are known as front loaders, where the small front loaders
are often times equipped with a small backhoe as well and
called backhoe loaders or loader backhoes
• Loaders are primarily used for loading materials into
trucks, laying pipe, clearing rubble, and also digging.
Loaders aren’t the most efficient machines for digging, as
they can’t dig very deep below the level of their wheels,
like the backhoe can.
• front loaders are used to transport building materials such
as pipe, bricks, metal bars, and digging tools. Front
loaders are also very useful for snow removal as well, as
you can use their bucket or as a snow plow.
119
FRONT
LOADERS
120
RIPPER
The ripper is the long claw-like device on the back of the

bulldozer. Rippers can come singly (single shank/giant
ripper) or in groups of two or more (multi shank rippers).
Usually, a single shank is preferred for heavy ripping. The
ripper shank is fitted with a replaceable tungsten steel
alloy tip.
Ripping rock lets the ground surface rock be broken into
small rubble easy to handle and transport, which can then
be removed so grading can take place
With heavy bulldozers the lava is shattered, allowing
agriculture. Also, hard earth can be ripped and
decompacted to allow planting of orchards where trees
could not otherwise grow.
121
122
CONTEN
TS
Introduction to Cost of Owning and
Operating Construction Equipment
 Ownership cost
 Operating cost
 Effect of Depreciation & tax on
selection of alternatives
 Equipment life & Replacement
Alternatives
 Conclusion
INTRODUCTIO
N The Plant, equipment and tools used in
construction operations are priced in the following
three categories
1. Small tools and consumables
2. Equipment usually shared by a number of work
activities
3. Equipment used for specific tasks
Total equipment cost comprises two
separate components
 Ownership cost
 Operating cost
OWNERSHIP
COST
Ownership costs are fixed costs. Almost all of
these costs are annual in nature and include:
 Initial Cost
 Depreciation
 Investment Cost
 Insurance Tax and Storage Cost

INITIAL
COST
On an average, initial cost makes up
about 25% of the total cost invested during the
equipment’s useful life. This cost is incurred for
getting equipment into contractor’s yard, or
construction site, and having the equipment
ready for operation. Many kinds of ownership and
operating costs are calculated using initial cost
as a basis, and normally this cost can be
calculated accurately. Initial cost consists of the
following items:
• Price at Factory + extra equipment + sales tax

• Cost of shipping
• Cost of assembly and erection
DEPRECIATION
The decline in market value of a piece
of equipment due to age, wear, deterioration and
obsolescence. Depreciation can result from:
• Physical deterioration occurring from wear and tear of the machine
• Economic decline or obsolescence occurring over the passage of time
In the appraisal of depreciation, some

factors are explicit while other factors have to be
estimated. Generally the asset costs are known
which include:
• Initial cost
• Useful life
• Salvage value
DEPRECIATION
How ever, there is always some

uncertainty about the exact length of the useful
life of the asset and about the precise amount
of salvage value, which will be realized when
the asset is disposed. The Depreciation
methods are
• Straight line method
• Sum of year digit method
• Sinking fund method
• Declining balance method

STRAIGHT LINE
METHOD
It is the simplest to understand as it makes the
basis assumption that the equipment will lose the same
amount of value in every year of its useful life until it
reaches its salvage value. The depreciation in a given
year can be expressed by the following equation
D = (C – S) / N
n
Where Dn = Depreciation in year n

C = The initial cost
S = The salvage value
N = The useful life (years)
SUM OF YEAR DIGIT
METHOD
It tries to model depreciation that actual market
value of a piece of equipment after 1year is less than the
amount predicted by SL method. Thus more annual
depreciation in the early years of a machine’s life and
less in its later years. The depreciation in a given year
can be expressed by the following equation
D = (year n digit) * (C – S) / ∑N
n
Where = Depreciation in year n

Dn year n = The reverse order
digit = The initial cost
C = The salvage value
= The useful life (years)
S
DECLINING BALANCE
METHOD
The depreciation for a given year is calculated
on the basis of the undepreciated balance
(instantaneous book value), rather than the original
cost. Further the method does not take into account
any salvage value of the asset. The factor can be
determined using simple interest formula and also
special tables developed for the purpose.
D n = (M/N) * BVn-1 BVn = BVn-1 - Dn

M = constant (Generally 2)
= The useful life (years)
N = Opening book value at year n
SINKING FUND
METHOD
The method works in terms of a “sinking fund
factor”, which is determined on the basis of the initial
and salvage values of the asset, the service life and rate
of (compound) interest. The factor can be determined
using simple interest formula and also special tables
developed for the purpose.
D = (C – S ) * f
n

C = The initial cost
= The salvage value
S = sinking fund factor
f = The useful life (years)
N
INVESTMENT
COST Investment (or interest) cost
represents the annual cost (converted into an
hourly cost) of capital invested in a machine. If
borrowed funds are utilized for purchasing a
piece of equipment, the investment cost is
simply the interest charged on these funds. If it
is purchased with company assets, an interest
rate that is equal to the rate of return on
company investment should be charged.
INSURANCE TAX AND STORAGE
COSTS Insurance cost represents the cost
incurred due to fire, theft, accident and liability
insurance for the equipment.
Tax cost represents the cost of
property tax and licenses for the equipment.
Storage cost includes the cost of
rent and maintenance for equipment storage
yards, the wages of guards and employees
involved in moving equipment in and out of
storage, and associated direct overhead.
TOTAL OWNERSHIP
COST The total equipment ownership cost
is calculated as the sum of depreciation,
investment cost, insurance cost, tax and
storage cost.
This should expressed as an hourly
cost and used for estimating and for charging
equipment cost to projects, it does not include
job overhead or profit. Therefore if the
equipment is to be rented to others, profit
should include to obtain an hourly rental rate.
OPERATING
COST Ownership costs are also called “variable”
cost. Because they depend on several factors such as the
number of operating hours, the types of equipment used,
and the location and working condition of the operation.
 Maintenance & Repair cost

 Tire cost
 Consumable cost
 Mobilization & Demobilization cost
 Equipment Operator cost
 Special Items cost
THE EFFECT OF DEPRECIATION
AND TAX ON SELECTION OF
ALTERNATIVES
The effect of depreciation and taxes is key
factor on selection of alternative equipments.
EQUIPMENT LIFE AND
REPLACEMENT
ALTERNATIVES
Once a piece of equipment is
purchased and used, it eventually begins to
wear out and suffers mechanical problems. At
some point, it reaches the end of its useful
life and must be replaced. The Equipment
replacement decision involves determining
when it is no longer economically feasible to
repair.
 Equipment Life
 Replacement alternatives
EQUIPMENT
LIFE Construction equipment life can be defined in three
ways.
 Physical life:
Age at which the machine worn out and can no longer reliably
produce.
 Profit life:
The life over which the equipment can earn a profit.
 Economic life:
Time period that maximizes the profit over the equipment life.
REPLACEMENT
ALTERNATIVES
The owners have to take
replacement decision in correct time to avoid
losses. As there are many factors involved,
adopting the most appropriate method is also
important. In determining the optimum
replacement timing some analysis minimum
cost, maximum profit and payback period are
to be consider.
CONCLUSIO
N
The selection of the appropriate
type and size of construction equipment and
its operation, maintenance affects the required
amount of time and effort and thus the job-
site productivity of a project.
It is therefore important for site
managers and construction planners to be
familiar with the characteristics of the major
types of equipment most commonly used
in construction.
?
By:
EECQ – 5222 Dr. David Stower.
PhD, C.Eng, F.ASCE
27th May 2021 Department of Civil and
Construction Engineering
Technical University of Kenya
Contents:
• Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)-
INTRODUCTION
• Impacts :
• Evolution of EIA
• Benefits of EIA
• The process of EIA
• Contents of EIA Report
• List of projects requiring EIA
• EXTERNALITIES OF EIA
• Conclusions
INTRODUCTION
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) refers to the evaluation of the
environmental impacts likely to raise from a major project significantly
affecting the environment.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process which ensures that all
environmental matters are taken into account quite early in the project at
planning process itself. It takes into consideration not only technical and
economic considerations but also, traditional aspects like impact on local
people, biodiversity etc.
In Kenya the Environmental Management and Coordination Act (EMCA), 1999, is the
framework law on environmental management and conservation (NEMA, Public
Complaints Committee, National Environmental Tribunal, National Environment Action
Plan Committees, County Environment Committees).
The Act provides for environmental protection through;
 Environmental Impact Assessment
 Environmental Audit and Monitoring
 Environmental restoration orders, conservation orders and easements.
• A tool used to identify the environmental, social and
economic impacts of a project
prior to decision-making.
• It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage
in project planning and design, find ways and means to
reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local
environment and present the predictions and options to
decision-makers.
• By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits
can be achieved, such as reduced cost and time of project
implementation and design, avoided treatment/clean-up
costs and impacts of laws and regulations.
IMPACTS
• The impact of an activity is a deviation (a change) from
the baseline situation that is caused by the activity.
• The baseline situation is the existing
environmental situation or condition in the absence of
the activity.
TYPES OF IMPACTS
Ecological Impact Environmental impacts:
Fisheries, forests, plantation, eutrophication 1. Depletion of
natural
Physico-chemical Impact resources.
Erosion and Siltation, drainage congestion /water 2. Destruction of habitats.
logging, regional hydrology/flooding, obstruction 3. Change in ph, oxygen level,
to waste water flow, dust /noise pollution toxicity of water.
Impact on Human Interest
Loss of agricultural lands, generation of 4. Increase in toxicity of air.
employment opportunities, navigation and boat 5. Global warming.
communication, commercial and
facilities,
service industrial activities, irrigation facilities 6. Ozone depletion.
EVOLUTION OF EIA
EIA is one of the successful policy innovations of the 20th Century for environmental
conservation. Thirty-seven years ago, there was no EIA but today, it is a formal process in
many countries and is currently practiced in more than 100 countries. EIA as a mandatory
regulatory procedure originated in the early 1970s, with the implementation of the
National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the US. A large part of the initial
development took place in a few high-income countries, like Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand (1973-74). However, there were some developing countries as well, which
introduced EIA relatively early - Columbia (1974), Philippines (1978).
The EIA process really took off after the mid-1980s. In 1989, the World Bank adopted EIA
for major development projects, in which a borrower country had to undertake an EIA
under the Bank's supervision
BENEFITS OF EIA
 Lower project costs in the long-term

 Increased project acceptance
 Improved project design
 Informed decision making
 Environmentally sensitive decisions
 Increased accountability and transparency
 Reduced environmental damage
 Improved integration of projects into their environmental
and social settings
BENEFITS OF EIA
PROCESS OF EIA
EIA process includes following steps:

† Screening
† Scoping
† Impact analysis
† Impact mitigation
† Reporting
† Review
† Decision making
† Monitoring
PROCESS OF EIA
† Screening: to determine which
projects or developments require a full
or partial impact assessment study;
† Scoping: to identify which potential

impacts are relevant to assess (based
on legislative requirements,
international conventions, expert
knowledge and public involvement), to
identify alternative solutions that
avoid, mitigate or compensate adverse
impacts on biodiversity (including the
option of not proceeding with the
development, finding alternative
designs or sites which avoid the
impacts, incorporating safeguards in
the design of the project, or providing
compensation for adverse impacts),
and finally to derive terms of reference
for the impact assessment;
† Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives, to predict and identify
the likely environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, including the
detailed elaboration of alternatives;
† Reporting the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or EIA report, including an

environmental management plan (EMP), and a non-technical summary for the general
audience.
† Review of the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS), based on the terms of reference
(scoping) and public (including authority) participation.
† Decision-making on whether to approve the project or not, and under what conditions; and
† Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing. Monitor whether the
predicted impacts and proposed mitigation measures occur as defined in the EMP. Verify the
compliance of proponent with the EMP, to ensure that unpredicted impacts or failed
mitigation measures are identified and addressed in a timely fashion.
CONTENT OF EIA REPORT
A description of the project
An outline of the main alternatives studied by the developer, and an indication

of the main reasons for this choice
A description of the aspects of the environment likely to be significantly affected
by the proposed project
A description of the likely significant environmental effects of the proposed
project
Measures to prevent, reduce and possibly offset adverse
environmental effects
A non-technical summary
An indication of any difficulties (technical deficiencies or

lack of know-how) encountered while compiling the required
information
MOST DEFINITIONS RECOGNIZE THE FOLLOWING FOUR BASIC PRINCIPLES
I. Procedural principle; EIA establishes a systematic method for

incorporating environmental considerations into decision-making;
II. Informational principle; EIA provides the necessary elements to make
an informed decision;
III. Preventive principle; EIA should be applied at the earliest opportunity
within the decision-making process to allow the anticipation and
avoidance of environmental impacts wherever possible; and
IV. Iterative principle; the information generated by EIA is made available
to interested parties to elicit a response which in turn should be fed
back into EIA process.
DATA REQUIREMENTS
• PROJECT
Type
Size
Location
• AREA OF
POTENTI
AL
IMPACT
Physical resources
Biological resources
Economic
development
resources
Quality of life
Other existing and
planned projects
The Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) should be prepared on the basis of the existing
background pollution levels vis-a-vis contributions of pollutants from the proposed plant.
The EIA should address some of the basic factors listed below:
• Meteorology and air quality
Ambient levels of pollutants such as Sulphur Dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon
monoxide, suspended particulate matters, should be determined at the center and at 3
other locations on a radius of 10 km with 120 degrees angle between stations. Additional
contribution of pollutants at the locations are required to be predicted after taking into
account the emission rates of the pollutants from the stacks of the proposed plant, under
different meteorological conditions prevailing in the area.
• Hydrology and water quality
• Site and its surroundings
• Occupational safety and health
• Details of the treatment and disposal of effluentS(liquid,air and solid) and the methods of
alternative uses
• Transportation of raw material and details of material handling
• Control equipment and measures proposed to be adopted
EIA RELATED STUDIES
SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (SIA)
• Social Impact Assessment (SIA) includes the processes of analysing, monitoring
and
managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and
negative, of planned interventions and any social change processes invoked by
those interventions (Vanclay, 1999).
• The analysis should include the use of land, culture, the main economic activities
e.g.
tourism, agriculture, employment levels and impact on service provision e.g.
education, water use, traffic, energy use etc.
• Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable
biophysical and human environment.
• Social Impact Assessment assumes that social, economic and biophysical
impacts are interconnected.
• Social Impact Assessment (SIA) is therefore done to ensure that there is no
mismatch
between the development and socio-cultural and economic of the project
area.
EIA RELATED STUDIES
HEALTH IMPACT ASSESSMENT (HIA)
• Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely absence
of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946).
• In most EIAs, HIA is usually included under SIA. HIA is now emerging as a key component
of EIA because health is determined by a multiplicity of factors including socio-economic
and environmental factors.
• There is no clear definition about where health concerns end and where environmental or
social concerns begin.
• HIA is a broad concept that may be interpreted in different ways by a range of different
users but all imply an interest in the safeguarding and enhancement of human health and
a concern that human activities and decisions, in the form of development projects, plans,
programs and policies can affect human health in both positive and negative ways.
STRATEGIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT (SEA)
SEA is undertaken much earlier in the decision-making process than EIA - it is therefore seen
as a key tool for sustainable development. „Strategic Environmental Assessment aims to
incorporate environmental and sustainability considerations into strategic decision making
processes, such as the formulation of policies, plans and programs.‟
LIST OF PROJECTS REQUIRING AN EIA
(A) Energy
1. Hydroelectric power generation over 50 MW.
2. Thermal power generation over 200 MW.
3. Transmission lines (11 KV and above) and grid stations.
4. Nuclear Power plants.
5. Petroleum refineries.
(B) Manufacturing and Processing
6. Cement Plants.
7. Chemicals projects.
8. Fertilizers plants.
9. Food processing industries including sugar mills, beverages, milk and dairy products
with total cost of Rs. 100 Million and above.
10. Industrial Estates (including export processing zones)
6. Man-made fibers and resin projects with total cost of Rs. 100 Million and above.
7. Pesticides (manufacture or formulation).
8. Petrochemicals complex.
9.Synthetic resins, plastic and man-made fibers, paper and paperboard, paper pulping,
plastic products, textile (except apparel), printing and publishing, paints and dyes, oils
and fats and vegetable ghee projects with a total cost more than Rs. 10 Million.
10. Tanning and lather finishing projects.
(C) Mining and Mineral Processing.

11. Mining and processing of coal, gold, copper, sulphur and precious stones.
12. Mining and processing of major non- ferrous metals, iron and steel
rolling.
13. Smelting plants with total cost of Rs. 50 Million and above.
(D)Transport
1. Airports.
2. Federal or provincial highways (except maintenance, rebuilding or reconstruction
of existing roads) with total cost of Rs.50 million and above.
3. Ports and harbors development for ships 500 gross tons and above.
4. Railway works.
(E)Water Management, Dams, Irrigation and Flood Protection..

1. Dams and reservoirs with storage volume 50 million cubic meters and above or
surface area of 08 square kilometers and above.
2. Irrigation and drainage projects serving 15,000 hectares and above.
(F)Water supply schemes and treatment.

Water supply schemes and treatment plants with total cost of Rs. 25 million and above
(G) Waste Disposal
1.Waste disposal and / or storage of hazardous or toxic wastes (including land fill
sites incineration of hospital toxic waste).
2. Waste disposal facility for domestic or industrial waste with annual capacity more
than 10,000 cubic meters.
(H)Urban development and tourism.

3. Land use studies and urban plans (large cities).
4. Large scale tourism development projects with total cost more than Rs. 50 million.
(I)Environmentally Sensitive Areas.

1. All projects situated in environmentally sensitive areas.
EXTERNALITIES OF EIA
 POSITIVE EXTERNALITIES:
1. New jobs generated, economic growth stimulated.

2. Growth of local business enterprises supported.
3. Development of supporting and complementary industries.
4. Influx of capital and disposable income.
 NEGATIVE EXTERNALITIES:
• Social impacts:
1. Impacts on health of local population.
2. Increase in crime and deviant behavior.
3. Additional pressure on the existing physical infrastructure (sewage, water supply )
4. Decline in community cohesion.
5. Changed cultural values
BENEFITS OF THE EIA PROCESS
† Potentially screens out environmentally-unsound projects

† Proposes modified designs to reduce environmental
impacts
† Identifies feasible alternatives

† Predicts significant adverse impacts
† Identifies mitigation measures to reduce, offset, or eliminate major
impacts
† Engages and informs potentially affected communities and individuals
† Influences decision-making and the development of terms and
conditions
BENEFITS OF CONDUCTING EIA
† Facilitates informed decision making by providing clear, well structured dispassionate
analysis of the effect and consequences of proposed projects.
† Pre- emption or early withdrawal of unsound proposals.
† Assists in the selection of alternatives, including the selection of the best practicable
and most environmentally friendly option.
† Results in best practice prediction and mitigation of adverse effects of projects.
† Influences both project selection and design by screening out environmentally
unsound projects, as well as modifying feasible projects - Mitigation of negative
environmental and social impacts.
† Guides formal approval, including the establishment of terms and conditions of
project implementation and follow-up.
† Mitigation of negative environmental and social impacts.
† Serves as an adaptive, organizational learning process, in which the lessons of
experience are feedback into policy, institutional and project design - Enhancement of
positive aspects.
CONCLUSION
† Environment Impact Assessment is a very beneficial step to check, whether the

environment
project is friendly or not.
† Since economic development is result of interaction between natural resources and technology
supported by designed for people, so all human activity should be economic, social and
environment friendly.
† EIA certainly has a crucial role to play in addressing environmental issues surrounding
project
development and especially power projects.
† The integration of environment into development planning is the most important tool in
achieving sustainable development.
† Environmental protection and economic development must thus be dealt with in an integrated
manner.
† EIA process is necessary in providing an anticipatory and preventive mechanism for
environmental management and protection in any development.
† processes.
Several developing countries are still at the infancy stage of operationalization of their EIA
† The need for capacity building for quality EIA is also eminent in these countries.
† Despite these small setbacks, environmental impact assessment has become an integral part of
project planning one, which is continually being improved for posterity.
?

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EECQ – 5222

27th May 2021

 Factors behind the selection of

 In the case of huge construction projects;

 Increase the rate of output through work progress with

 USE OF EQUIPMENT AVAILABLE WITH THE ORGANIZATION

 AVAILABILITY OF SPARE PARTS AND SELECTION OF

 SUITABILITY OF LOCAL LABOUR FOR OPERATION

The selection of equipment by a

A construction company may prefer

⚫ Excavator is the machine used for construction activities.

 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations

BOTTOM DUMP BUCKET

 CRAWLER MOUNTED (LOW SPEED - UNSTABLE SOIL)

 VERY HARD MATERIALS, BIG SIZED BOULDERS.

DIGGING IN GRAVEL BANKS, CLAY PITS, CUTS IN ROAD WORKS, ROAD

FACTORS CONTROLLING OUTPUT:

* ANGLE OF SWING * SKILL OF OPERATOR

* SIZE OF HAULING UNITS * JOB CONDITION

• USED TO EXCAVATE BELOW THE SURFACE OF EQUIPMENT - IT CAVES INTO THE

* BOOM FOOT DRUM * BOOM SHEAVE

* STICK, BUCKET * BUCKET SHEAVE

• TO TRIM THE SURFACE (DRESSING).

 A backhoe, also called a rear actor or back actor, is a

⚫ It is hinged in three places, making it resemble an

⚫ It is the most suitable machine for digging below the

⚫ The drag line is so name because of its prominent

o Dragging softer material and below its track level

o It has long reaches.

o Excavation canals and depositing on the embankment

• SIZE AND TYPE OF BUCKETS

• SIZE OF HAULING UNITS & METHOD

• LENGTH OF CRANE BOOM

⚫ This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a clam

• Used for handling loose material such as crushed stone,

Excavation in wet soil or Moderately Moderately

Distance between footing

Moderately Precise but

Fairly away Fairly away

Shortly more More than the

 HAULING & CONVEYING MACHINERY

the front apron is raised

• Edge is raised, apron is lowed while hauling.

• While dumping ejector is used.

Source: Integrated Publishing: http://www.tpub.com/content/engine/14081/css/14081_267.htm

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON:

POSITION OF - PERPENDICULAR BLADES TO

 CONSIST OF HEAVY BLADE WITH CONCAVE PROFILE.

 BLADE IS ATTACHED TO THE BODY WITH TWO ARMS,

 SPREADING EARTH FILL

 CLEARING, OPENING UP PILOT ROADS

 BACK FILLING TRENCHES

 CLEARING CONSTRUCTION SITES

⚫ It is equipped with special clearing blades which are

⚫ In some machines either end of the blade can be

⚫ The top of the blade can pitched forward or

⚫ Blades which are mounted on a C frame can be

Bull dozers are mainly used for the following operations

⚫ It delivers greater attractive effort especially when

⚫ Greater flotation due to the lower pressure under

⚫ Provide higher travel speed from 13 to 42 kmph

⚫ It is good for long distance.

o they may be either towed or motorised.