Vibration Measurement & Control: by Brian Mclauchlan

Vibration Measurement & Control
by Brian McLauchlan
B. McLauchlan TAFE SI 2006

Authors Note: These notes are provided for student use in National
Module EA 7766L The notes are not to be reproduced in any form
without the authors written permission.

While every attempt has been made to ensure accuracy of the
materials in these notes, the author accepts no responsiblity for any
liability or loss in respect to the application of the information
presented.

Brian S. McLauchlan 1990 - 2007

TAFE Mechanical Engineering
1

TABLE OF SYMBOLS

.......................... ..density, kg/m
3
f........................... ..frequency, Hz
f
f
.............................forcing frequency, Hz
f
n
............................natural frequency, Hz
k.............................spring constant, N/m
m............................mass, kg
............................angular frequency, rad/sec
x.............................displacement in meters
X............................displacement in meters at time t
v.............................velocity in m/sec
a.............................acceleration in m/sec
2
y.............................position in meters

2

Table of Contents

Vibration - Concepts................................................................ 4

Vibration - Measurement........................................................ 13

Instrumentation For Vibration Measurement ............................. 27

Vibration Isolation................................................................. 43

Vibration - Human Effects ...................................................... 60

Balancing Of Machinery.......................................................... 67

Balancing Of Machinery.......................................................... 67

Vibration Specification ........................................................... 74

Appendix ............................................................................. 78

Vibration Exercises................................................................ 79

Glossary Of Vibration Terms ................................................... 84

3

Vibration - Concepts

1.1 Introduction

Many machines and processes in engineering generate vibration .
In a few cases this vibration is intentional as in vibrating sorting
screens, ultrasonic cleaners and earth compaction machines .
Mostly though, the vibration is an undesireable effect.
The vibration generated can cause a number of effects that are
troublesome . The most serious are related to fatigue and injury to
humans exposed either to the vibration directly or the effects of
noise caused by the vibration . Vibration may also contribute to
excessive wear, fatigue failure and other premature failure of
machine components.

Many vibration problems are due to inadequate engineering design
of a product, or the use of a machine in a manner that has not
considered the possible effect of vibration.

In this course we will investigate the basics of vibration with the
intent of being able to measure and assess problem areas . There
are many very complex vibration problems that require
sophisticated computer modelling to solve. It is often the case
however that awareness at the design stage will eliminate or reduce
the vibration to a level that is acceptable, using relatively simple
methods.

1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillation

The simple model of a spring and a mass may be used to
investigate the basic ideas of vibration . In this model a spring of
spring constant k, suspends a mass m . Spring constant is
measured in Newtons / meter (N/m) . Mass is of course, in
kilograms.

Figure one shows this model with a spring constant of 400 N/m
and a mass of 4 kg . If the mass is displaced down, then released,
the mass will oscillate at a frequency that is independant of the
amount of initial displacement. This frequency is called the
NATURAL FREQUENCY.

The equation that determines the natural frequency of this system
involves both the spring constant and the mass. As the spring
constant is increased, so the natural frequency increases.

4

m
k

Figure 1.1 - Vibrating Spring/Mass System

The effect of the increased mass is to decrease the natural
frequency so that the form of the relationship is:

fn
k
m
=
1
2

Our system in figure one thus has a natural frequency of 1.6 Hz.
Note that the angular frequency, , is related to the frequency f by
the factor 2 , so that this equation can be written as:

=
k
m

f 2 =
so

If our simple system is set in motion we may measure the
displacement over a period of time. We will find that the
displacement repeats after a time called the PERIOD, which is the
inverse of frequency . In the case of our example in figure one, the
frequency is 1.6 Hz and so the period is 0.625 seconds.

The fact that the vibration repeats is described by the term
PERIODIC and the motion of one period is called a CYCLE. If we
plot the cycle of displacement over the time of one period we will
find that the result is a curve like that in figure 2. This is a curve
that is able to be described by the familiar sine function.

x =A sin ( t )

5

where the magnitude x goes from a maximum value of A to a
minimum of - A over a cycle related to an angular function and
the time t . Where the object moves in this manner it is known as
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION.

V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
time

Figure 1.2 Displacement / Time For A Periodic Vibration

For displacement the sine function can be written as:

X = A sin ( t )

where

X - displacement from rest position, m at time t.
A - peak displacement, m.
- angular frequency, rad/sec
t - time, seconds.

1.3 Displacement - Velocity - Acceleration

In most considerations of vibration problems we will deal with one
of three possible parameters for vibration measurement. The first
we have described above. The other two are velocity and
acceleration. To understand the relationship of the three
parameters, displacement, velocity and acceleration is important to
an understanding of vibration.

6

Displacement - A measure of the distance a vibrating body moves.

Velocity - A measure of the speed of motion of a vibrating body.

Acceleration - A measure of the rate of change of speed (velocity) of
a vibrating body.

The equations for each can be written as shown below. ( Note: see
appendix A for details of the derivation of these equations.)

) sin( t A X =
displacement

velocity
) cos( t A X =

acceleration
) sin(
2
t A X =

For a particular vibration, the parameters in these equations, A and
, are constant and common. This means that these three
measures of vibrations are always related in a predictable way. This
is fine but does all this mathematics mean much in a real problem?

Well, let's consider the physical significance of these equations.

7

-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
time
Displacement Velocity Acceleration

Figure 1.3 Relationship Of Displacement,
Velocity & Acceleration

In figure 1.3, each of the above equations has been plotted for one
cycle, with the displacement as the reference for time zero. For
our vibrating spring - mass system this diagram shows that :

i.at time zero, the velocity is maximum with displacement and
acceleration zero. The mass is moving past its rest point.

ii.at 1/4 cycle later the velocity has reduced to zero with
displacement maximum and acceleration maximum in the other
direction. The mass has stopped at the peak of a cycle.

iii.at 1/2 cycle the displacement and acceleration have again
become zero while the velocity is a maximum. The mass is again
passing its rest point.

iv.at 3/4 cycle the displacement is at a negative maximum with
acceleration a maximum in the opposite direction. The velocity is
zero.

v.the cycle is complete with displacement, velocity and acceleration
at their original values.

We see from this that the mathematics describes what is happening
to the mass at any time in the cycle. We will use the various
measures of vibration - displacement, velocity and acceleration to
assess problems of machine vibration.

8

1.4 Units

Before any assessment can be made however, we must be aware of
the units used in vibration. These are summarised in the table
below.

PARAMETER UNITS USED

DISPLACEMENT m , mm , um

VELOCITY m/sec , mm/sec

ACCELERATION m/sec
2
, " g " ( % of 9.8
m/sec
2
)

Table 1.1 Units For Vibration Measurement

We will make use of these units but must first consider further the
problem of our vibrating spring mass system.

1.5 Forced Vibrations

So far we have caused the spring mass system to vibrate only at its
natural frequency. The mass is displaced and then released causing
a series of oscillations. What happens if the system is pushed by a
force that also oscillates ?
Figure 1.4 shows the system acted on by an external force causing
displacement of the base, that has a periodic nature.

x(t)
x'(t)
m

Figure 1.4 Forced Oscillations Of The Spring Mass System

We might expect some oscillation and that it will depend on the
frequency of the "EXCITING FORCE" and the natural frequency of
our spring mass system. If the differential equation for the system

9

is solved and the frequency response for the system is plotted we
have a diagram like that shown in figure 1.5.

0.01
0.1
1
10
0.1 1 10
Amplification
Frequency Ratio

Figure 1.5 Response Of 1 Degree Of Freedom System

Figure 1.5 calls our spring - mass system a ONE DEGREE OF
FREEDOM SYSTEM because the motion of the mass is described by
only one displacement measurement. (ie displacement is along one
axis only)

The response diagram shows some important information that shall
now be considered.
First, the mass has a response which theoretically goes to infinity
when the exciting force coincides in frequency with the natural
frequency. This response is known as RESONANCE.

In practice the response at resonance will not be infinite due to
losses in other parts of the system. However the resonant
behaviour is significant because the system responds with a greater
displacement than that applied!

This is clearly undesirable.

It can also be seen that below the resonance frequency, the
response climbs steadily and is always more than the applied
displacement. Above resonance however, the response drops

10

rapidly, showing less and less displacement with increases in
frequency.

How can this knowledge help us ?

If the frequency of the forced vibration is always above that of the
NATURAL FREQUENCY of the system, then the vibration of the mass
is less than the applied vibration. In fact, if the applied vibration is
more than 3 times the natural frequency, the vibration of the
spring/mass is less than 10% of the input vibration. This means
that we have ISOLATED the mass from the vibration to the extent
that only 10% of the vibration gets to the mass.

A similar situation applies if the mass in our system has the forcing
frequency applied to it directly. Consider a small diesel engine.
When operating, the rotating and reciprocating parts of the engine
will cause a vibration at the running speed of the engine. In our
simple model the engine is the mass and provides also the forced
vibration. We wish to isolate the vibration of the engine from the
mounting base of the engine.

If we use a spring mounting with a stiffness that ensures a
NATURAL FREQUENCY of 3 times less than that of the engine
running frequency, we will ISOLATE the mounting base of the
engine from 90% of the vibration produced by the engine.

1.6 Damping

In the section above, it was observed that the vibration at
resonance is limited by the system losses. The loss can be
controlled to provide a more suitable frequency reponse for the
system. The provision of suitable energy losses in a system is
termed DAMPING. Damping will have the effect shown in figure
1.6.

In the figure the term DAMPING RATIO is used to express the
amount of damping used. The value where damping ratio is equal
to 1.0 is called CRITICAL DAMPING.

11

Critical damping is defined by:

ccritical km = 2

Damping greater than critical will have a ratio greater than 1.0.
Damping less than critical, will have a ratio less than 1.0. Damping
causes the response at natural frequency to be reduced but causes
the shape of the response curve to alter at other points. This will be
discussed in detail in section

0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
0.1 1 10
Frequency Ratio
Amplification Ratio
0
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
Damping
Ratio
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0

Figure 1.6 Response to Forced Vibration (1 DOF Spring-Mass)

12

Vibration - Measurement

2.1 Introduction

The vibration of machines can be considered as an oscillatory
motion of part or all of the machine. So far we have seen that a
simple vibrating system, the spring/mass system, has a harmonic
motion. This motion can also be termed PERIODIC because it
repeats itself exactly over fixed time period. In this section we will
consider what other vibratory motions are possible and the basic
ideas for analysing these motions.

2.2 What Are We Measuring ?

The motion of the vibrating system is measured with the units
described in a previous section (1.4). What was not specified was
what amplitude was to be specified with these units. Figure 2.1
shows a sinusoidal waveform with the possible ways of measuring
amplitude.

-10
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
V
i
b
r
a
t
i
o
n
time
RMS
Peak Peak to peak

Figure 2.1 Measuring Vibration Amplitude

The equations of motion specify the PEAK amplitude (see 1.3) but
when measuring our measuring device could be constructed to
measure any of PEAK, PEAK to PEAK or RMS amplitude values.
Many measuring systems measure RMS (Root Mean Square) values
because this value is proportional to the power in the vibrations of a
system.

This means that care should be taken to establish what is being
measured by an instrument. In particular, when the procedure of

13

converting between displacement, velocity and acceleration is used,
the correct amplitude must be known for correct integration.

2.3 Harmonic Periodic Vibration

The vibration that has been described so far, that has a single
frequency and is sinusoidal can also be described as harmonic
periodic vibration. Harmonic is an alternative term for sinusoidal,
and periodic means repeating regularly.
A sinusoid is able to be described precisely by knowing its frequency
and amplitude.

2.4 Vibration That Is Not Harmonic

Our simple spring mass system gives rise to harmonic periodic
vibrations. This is not the only possible type of vibration that we
may encounter. In fact it is probably the least likely to be found in
most engineering systems.
We should first consider the possiblity of a vibration that is periodic
but not harmonic. That is, its motion is not described by a simple
sinusoidal signal, but the motion may repeat itself continuously in
time. Such a vibration can be termed periodic and an example is
shown in figure 2.3.

-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
time
Amplitude

Figure 2.3 Periodic Non Harmonic Vibration

If we wish to determine the frequency content of this signal, how
could it be done ? A mathematician called Fourier determined that
for any complex signal, its frequency content could be found by
considering the complex signal as the sum of a series of sine and
cosine functions. In the example above, which is the acceleration of
the piston in an engine, the signal can be analysed into two sine

14

signals of differing amplitude and frequency. In this example the
Fourier analysis can be seen to give the wave form in figure 2.3
using two harmonically related sinewaves. This is illustrated in
figure 2.4.

-15
-10
-5
0
5
10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
ti me
Ampl i tude

Figure 2.4 Fourier Components Of A Signal

So far we have dealt with relatively simple types of vibration. Much
of the time, however, we will be dealing with a vibration that is
much more irregular than those we have seen previously. This
irregular type of vibration is termed RANDOM VIBRATION.

Random vibration is characterised by irregular motion cycles that
never repeat themselves exactly. This means that the analysis will
be somewhat more complicated. In view of this added complexity,
you may be tempted to ask, how common is this type of vibration?.

Consider the motion of any form of vehicle used for transport, such
as cars, trains or aircraft. It is rare that any of these vehicles will
experience purely periodic vibrations. In fact much design effort is
expended to avoid certain periodic vibration that may result in
resonance and consequent damage due to excessive vibration
amplitude.

Vehicle Common periodic vibration
Car Suspension resonance from corrugated road surface
Aircraft Body vibration due to turbulence
Ship Roll due to sea swells
Rail wagon Yaw instability above design speed

15

Much machinery vibration can occur as random vibration with added
periodic components. It is thus a common and important type of
vibration to consider in engineering.

Random vibration may have a signal that is like that of figure 2.6.
This shows the complex nature of the motion of a component
experiencing this type of vibration.

Figure 2.6 Typical Random Vibration Signal

2.5 Analysis of Vibration Signals

Recall that a periodic harmonic signal can be completely specified
by an amplitude and a frequency. For other signals we are also
interested in these parameters.
To help express these we use a special graph called a frequency
spectrum that plots amplitude on the vertical axis and frequency on
the horizontal axis.

16

2.5.1 Spectrum Of A Periodic, Harmonic Vibration

What does the frequency spectrum of the vibration of our spring
mass system look like? We have only one frequency and a single
amplitude. The spectrum thus appears as a single line at the
natural frequency of the spring mass system with an amplitude
depending on the size of the motion of the mass. Figure 2.2 shows
a typical spectrum for our simple spring mass system.

Frequency
Amplitude

Figure 2.2 Frequency Spectrum Of Harmonic Vibration

If a complex periodic wave is broken up into its' Fourier
components, a frequency spectrum can also be constructed. If each
Fourier component is a sinusoidal signal of a certain amplitude the
spectrum will be a series of peaks on the spectrum. The example in
figure 2.4 is represented as a frequency spectrum in figure 2.5.

f1 f2 Frequency
Amplitude

Figure 2.5 Frequency Spectrum For The Signal Of Fig.2.3

In the frequency spectra shown above we have indicated an
amplitude. This could be the peak amplitude of the signal or it could
be the RMS amplitude.

17

Because the Fourier spectral analysis breaks a complex wave into
sine or cosine components the RMS or peak amplitude can be easily
converted from one to the other.

Amplitude
Time
Frequency
f1
f2

Figure 2.7 Creating a Frequency Spectrum

Figure 2.7 shows how the signal, which is varying in time, is broken
up into components which can be shown on the frequency
sprectrum graph.

The frequency spectrum is like a cross section at a point in time of
all the components that make up the signal being studied.

How can we analyse a random vibration signal ? What do we use for
amplitude ? What do we use for frequency ? It is clear that when
we have a periodic signal, we can predict from its appearance over
one cycle, the future cycles. With a random signal this is not
possible. Theoretically we have a signal that must be infinite in
length and the whole signal should be studied.

18

Fortunately statistics can be used to analyse the properties of this
infinite signal by using a sample from the signal. Like most
statistical procedures this means that the sample we take must be a
representative sample, otherwise our analysis will be inaccurate.

For example, if I intended to use a statistical method to find the
most popular food in Australia and I asked only adult males over 70
in Alaska for their opinion my results would not be particularly
valuable !

Similarly, when analysing vibration signals I must use a good
sample, usually determined by having a long enough sample where
conditions are stabilised. This means that the following will be
approximately constant:

Speed of a machine (eg velocity of a car; rpm of a motor)
Loading on a machine (eg power output of an engine)
Forced vibration (eg quality of a road surface that a car travels on)

Just what is a long enough sample under these conditions is
dependant on the frequency content of the signal and will be
further discussed in the data analysis section, but basically requires
that lower frequencies require longer recording times for the same
accuracy as higher frequencies. (see page 23)

2.5.2 Analysis Of Random Vibration Signals

A random vibration signal may be analysed using an amplitude
analysis and/or a frequency analysis method. The simplest means of
assessing random vibration is to measure the RMS signal level over
a period of time. This will give and idea of the average energy
content of the signal and is useful for many applications.

An analysis of the PROBABILITY of occurence of a particular
amplitude value will give an asessment of what sort of vibration
levels can be expected and how frequently a particular level will
occur. For example, a motor car travelling along a road will have
some vibration felt by the passengers continuously. Large bumps
will give larger vibration levels, but less frequently.

This type of analysis commonly results in a normal curve that is
met frequently in naturally occurring processes. Figure 2.8 shows
a Normal ( or Gaussian) curve generated by this type of analysis.

19

Frequency
Mean or average
Spread
Vibration Amplitude

Figure 2.8 Normal Curve From Vibration Amplitude Analysis

Like the other signals we have dealt with, we are commonly also
interested in the frequency content of the random vibration
signal.Fortunately, Fourier analysis is applicable to random signals
in the same way as other data. The Fourier analysis of a random
signal results in an infinite number of sinusoidal components of
different amplitudes and frequencies. The resulting spectrum is
theoretically a continuous curve rather than single line values.
Figure 2.9 shows the type of curve that could result from this type
of analysis.

20

Frequency
Amplitude

Figure 2.9 Frequency Spectrum For Random Vibration

Because we cannot deal with infinite numbers of amplitudes and
frequencies, this curve is usually approximated by a series of lines
representing frequency values.
A frequency spectrum for a random vibration is sometimes called a
spectral density or power spectrum. These are all measures of the
frequency content of a random vibration signal.

2.5.3 Filtering

We have seen how to classify the time behaviour of a signal and
that it can be broken into frequency components and expressed as
a frequency spectrum.
The question then arises as to how are we going to achieve the
frequency analysis to get a frequency spectrum. The basic idea of
frequency analysis rests on an understanding of filters. We have
heard of filters in mechanical systems. These are used to limit the
particle size passed through a fuel or lubricating system, for
example.

In a similar way electronic filters can be made which restrict the
frequencies that are allowed to pass through them. A filter may be
either a LOW PASS, HIGH PASS or BAND PASS FILTER.

The FREQUENCY RESPONSE CURVES for these types of filter are
illustrated in figure 2.10. The low pass filter will allow only
frequencies

21

up to a certain value to pass through. Any higher will be blocked.
In a similar manner the high pass filter will allow only those
frequencies above a certain level to pass through. The point where
the frequencies will become blocked can be changed by design.

Low Pass
High Pass Band Pass
A

Figure 2.10 Low Pass, High Pass And Band Pass Filters

The band pass filter can be considered to be a combination of a low
pass filter and a high pass filter. This gives a filter that will pass
frequencies over only a narrow range.
We can make such a narrow band filter with either a fixed value of
range or may make it a fixed width and variable frequency so we
can tune it to the band that we want.

It is this band pass filter that makes frequency analysis possible.
If a complex signal is measured by a transducer, the electronic
signal representing the transducer signal may be passed through a
band pass filter and the level measured. This level will be only the
amplitude of the frequencies that are passed by the filter. If a
range of filters are used then the whole range of frequency of
interest can be covered in small frequency increments. The most
common set of band pass filters used are in octave or 1/3 octave
bands. An octave covers a frequency range such that the lowest
frequency in the range is half the value of the highest frequency in
the range.

Filters for octave bands are generally labelled by the middle or
center frequency of the whole band. One third octave band filters
break each octave band range into three. Octave and 1/3 octave
filters are more commonly used for noise measurement, however
1/3 octave bands are used in a number of standards, especially
those concerned with human effects of vibration.

22

2.5.4 Narrow Band Analysis

To achieve the discrimination needed for vibration analysis, filters
with narrow bands are needed. This can be achieved by
constructing more filters OR by using a technique known as Fourier
Analysis.

Fourier Analysis is a mathematical technique that can determine
frequency content in as narrow bands as desired. It is usually
achieved using electronic systems such as an FFT analyser or a
computer. (note : FFT is Fast Fourier Transform, a mathematical
simplification to make the calculation quicker)

2.5.5 Limitations Of Frequency Analysis

The use of any filtering technique for frequency analysis must
consider the limitations of the equipment. Any filter does not cut off
completely those frequencies outside its bandwidth. There is also a
limitation on the minimum time required for a filter to accurately
determine the magnitude of the filtered data. This is called the
averaging time.

Limitations Of FFT Analysis

Due to the popularity of FFT analysis it is considered essential to
mention some important limitations in use of this technique.

a. averaging time - the averaging time must be carefully selected
to ensure that the amplitude is accurately measured. For many
acoustic measurements this will not be significant but the same
averaging for lower frequency analysis, often the case for vibration
work, may cause significant errors. The FFT process must average
(sometimes called "ensemble averaging") over a number of spectra
to give accurate amplitude results. The following should be
considered:

Number of Error Length of data record
spectra 95% c.i. for full scale frequency

100Hz 1kHz 10kHz
8....... ........ 2.8dB 32 3.2 0.32
16..... ........ 2.0dB 64 6.4 0.64
32..... ........ 1.46dB 128 12.8 1.28
64..... ........ 1.06dB 256 25.6 2.56

23

128... ........ 0.74dB 512 51.2 5.12
256... ........ 0.54 dB 1024 102.4 10.24
|______________________|
time in seconds

Notes: c.i. - confidence interval,this means that all data are within the error limit
specified with 95% confidence. (this means that there is a 95% probability that the
error will be no greater than that listed)

Length of data record - means how long the recording of the data must be, with
operating conditions constant, to give enough time for the analysis.

Table 2.2 Averaging Times For FFT Analysers

24

Example:

This table shows that for 95% confidence that if I require the
accuracy of the data to be no worse than +/- 0.54 dB, and I set a
maximum frequency of 1000 Hz on the analyser, I will require 256
averages. These 256 averages will take 102.4 seconds of data or
102.4/60 = 1.7 minutes.

The table has some important consequences. The time limits often
cause problems for data recording at low frequency. For instance,if
the analyser is now used at 100 Hz full scale setting,a recording of
17 MINUTES is required for the highest accuracy!
( 1024/60 = 17)

Often then, a trade off of accuracy and time recording must be
made.

b. windows - The FFT process is a mathematical simplification. It
relies on the correct data being input to give accurate answers. In
the FFT process a block of data is converted to digital information
and then frequency analysis is performed. The next block of data is
treated similarly and then averaged with the first block.
If the two blocks of data do not "fit together" like acontinuous wave,
the FFT analysis process will calculate non- existing frequencies !

To overcome the problem of data blocks with "non - fitting" ends a
process called WINDOWING is used. This process ensures that data
always fits together. A "window" here is a mathematical weighting
curve that is used to ensure that the sampling that occurs with the
FFT averaging process still has acceptable accuracy.

It uses windows called Hanning, Hamming or rectangular. The
Hanning and Hamming windows are for use with continuous
signals. The rectangular window is usually only used for analysis
of impulsive signals.

c. Anti - aliasing There is always a problem with limiting the
maximum frequency of a signal when converting from analogue to
digital, as required by FFT analysers and computers. When a signal
is to be digitised it is converted to a series of numbers. Each
number represents a sample point of the continuous wave that is
the acoustic or vibration data. If the sample points are taken too
far apart the frequency data is not able to be accurately specified.

25

This is because the sample data may represent the signal frequency
measured or multiples of that signal at higher frequency.

To prevent aliasing,the higher frequency components must be
removed by a LOW PASS FILTER. This filter is usually provided by
the manufacturers of FFT analysers but must be provided also when
using a computer for FFT analysis. This aspect is often overlooked
when using computer based systems and can lead to serious errors.

The frequency of sampling should then be set to be at least twice
the limiting frequency of the low pass filter.

It is preferable in fact to set the sample frequency higher for
greater confidence in the frequency data. The problem of aliasing
should not be overlooked as incorrect data analysis will result if
aliased data is used.

Like most instrumentation, it is possible to get out values from
frequency analysers that seem reasonable but may not be accurate.
Ensure that the correct procedure is used for any frequency
analysis.

time
Sample Period
Signal constructed from samples.
time
Sample Period
Signal constructed from samples.

Figure 2.10 Sampling to Eliminate Aliasing When Digitising

26

Instrumentation For Vibration Measurement

3.1 Transducers
A transducer is a device that converts a small amount of the
energy of the quantity to be measured into another form of
energy, usually electrical. This conversion is to allow for ease of
measurement as typically it is easier to record and analyse electrical
signals.

In vibration measurement, we may wish to measure the vibration
displacement, velocity or acceleration.The choice of measurement
will depend on how the data obtained from the measurement wil be
used. Because of this choice we have transducers suitable for
measuring each quantity. The transducers may make use of the
following techniques for energy conversion:

a.piezo - electric effect
b.piezo - resistive effect (silicon strain gauge)
c.inductance
d.capacitance
e.resistance
f.optical

3.1.1 Displacement Transducers

These may be either non - contact inductive or capacitance types,
resistance types or may use a DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER to
measure displacement. Alternately, double integration of an
accelerometer signal may be used to provide displacement.

The non-contact types are often used to measure shaft postion in
rotating machinery. They operate by sensing the change in a
magnetic or electrical field between the sensor and the shaft as the
shaft varies its motion relative to its bearings.

The differential transformer uses a set of three coils of wire wound
on a cylinder common to all. (fig 3.1) An alternating voltage is fed
to the center winding at a fixed frequency and level. A slug moves
inside the cylinder and its position determines the proportion of
signal induced in each of the other two coils.

27

Input
Output
Slug

Figure 3.1 Differential Transformer Displacement Transducer

The slugs' displacement is thus able to be determined. In use, the
coils are attached to a component and the slug to another so that
the relative displacement between the components is measured.
Resistance types use an electrical POTENTIOMETER (variable
resistor ) that moves in response to the displacement applied. The
potentiometer is supplied with a steady voltage and the varying
resistance provides a varying voltage signal proportional to
displacement.
The differential transformer and potentiometer types are usually
used for relatively low frequency measurement up to about 20 Hz.
Displacements up to about 300 mm can be measured.

Higher frequencies are possible with the other types (up to
200kHz) but often this is possible for only very small
displacements.

3.1.2 Velocity Transducers

Velocity measurement may make use of all the types of
transducers above, excepting the potentiometer type. In addition,
the signal from an accelerometer may be integrated to give
velocity.

3.1.3 Acceleration Transducers

Probably the most common vibration measuring transducer is the
accelerometer. The measurement of acceleration can be made by
many types of transducers and the signal is able to be integrated to
give either velocity or displacement signals.
(Note: although theoretically possible, the differentiation of signals from
displacement to velocity etc. are usually avoided due to stability problems with
electronic differentiation)
28

Piezo Electric Accelerometers
These are a very common type of accelerometer with a wide range
of frequency small size and rugged construction. They use a mass
that is attached to a crystal of material that varies its charge in
response to mechanical stress. (fig 3.2) If the mass is accelerated,
the crystal provides a signal proportional to the acceleration.

Piezo accelerometers cover a wide range of sensitivity from about
.00005 m/sec.sec (5 x 10 g) to 200, 000 m/sec.sec (20, 400g).

Electronics
Mass
Piezocrystal
Base
Connector

Figure 3.2 Basic Arrangement of a Piezoelectric Accelerometer

Piezo Resistive Accelerometers
These types of accelerometer use a silicon strain gauge. This type
of strain gauge is not the metal foil type commonly used for
engineering strain measurements.

The metal foil type is more linear and much easier to handle than
the silicon type.For permanent measurement situations however,
the silicon type has the advantage of giving higher sensitivity.

These accelerometers use a mass supported on a beam which has
the strain gauges attached.(fig.3.3) The strain in the beam is
proportional to the applied force and hence the acceleration. These
types can give good sensitivity and a response at zero Hertz, with
good high frequency response.

29

Base
Mass
Cantilever Beam
Strain Gages
Connector

Figure 3.3 Piezoresistive Accelerometer

They are usually larger than an equivalent piezo electric type with
the exception of some special micro types designed for very high
level acceleration measurements.

Servo Accelerometers

These types of accelerometer use a technique of measuring the
force required to restore a mass to its rest postion when
accelerated.This force is of course, proportional to the acceleration
applied to the accelerometer.This type of accelerometer can be
made very sensitive to low acceleration levels, with a frequency
response from 0 to up to 500 Hz.

3.1.4 Optical Transducers

Optical transducers have not been used extensively in general
purpose vibration measurement. Recently instruments have been
produced that allow relatively easy use of laser interferometer
techniques. Although very expensive, these methods are extremely
powerful for studying vibration of large surfaces or where a non-
contact measurement is needed, such as on fast moving machine
components.

3.2 Selection Of A Transducer

With any vibration measurement, we must have some idea of the
range of vibration amplitude and frequency that is to be measured
so that an appropriate transducer can be selected. We should not
simply select a transducer with very high amplitude and frequency
range performance, as the sensitivity small vibration levels may not
be adequate. Frequency response data is needed to select the
transducer and may be quite different for different transducer
designs.

30

The useable part of the frequency response is on the flat or LINEAR
part of the curve and if used outside this range, the results given
will be incorrect due to change of sensitivity.

Care should also be taken not to expose very sensitive transducers
to shock as they may be damaged. This includes transport in
vehicles to the measurement site. The mass of the transducer is
also important.Recall that the natural frequency of a vibrating
system is related to spring constant and mass in the system.
Adding a significant mass to the system will change the systems'
vibrational character. The transducer mass must thus be very
small compared to the system.

The type of environment should also be considered when choosing
the transducer.The temperature range, moisture level, dust,
possibility of impact etc. should all be taken into account. For very
difficult environments or permanent mounting in industrial
situations, special ruggedised types of transducer are available.

3.3 Transducer Mounting

A vibration transducer will measure ALL the vibration that occurs at
the measuring point. This means that the mounting of the
transducer must not provide additional vibration to that being
measured. Mostly this means that the transducer should be
connected well to the item being measured and any brackets used
for mounting should be very stiff.

31

Piezo-electric transducer attachment (Pt 1 courtesy Bruel & Kjaer)

32

Piezo-electric transducer attachment (Pt 2 courtesy Bruel & Kjaer)

33

3.4 Use Of Conditioning Amplifiers

Many of the transducers for vibration measuremnt require the use
of a CONDITIONING AMPLIFIER.This is an electronic device that :

amplifies the small signal from the transducer to a more
useful level and range
may provide power supply to the transducer
allows the measured signal to be recorded in other
instruments.
ensure that the signal from the transducer does not overload
the recording devices

A conditioning amplifier is not essential for some transducers, but
is recommended for all vibration measurement to ensure consistent
results. The conditioning amplifier is essential for piezo electric
transducers, due to the very small signal level generated by these
devices.

Some conditioning amplifiers also contain the integration circuits
needed to convert acceleration signals to either velocity or
displacement. Whatever conditioning is applied it must always be
remembered to isolate, electrically, the transducer from the
machine being measured when mains electrical supply is used.
This is to prevent electrical noise pickup by the earth connections.
(called ground loops)

Transducer
Conditioning Amplifier Meter or Other
Measuring Device

Figure 3.4 Conditioning Amplifier and Transducer

34

3.5 Calibration

In any measuring system the dimensions measured must be
assured to be correct. This is especially true where the system is
measuring complex data such as random vibration, as the data is
not easily determined to be correct by inspection. Calibration is the
term given to the process of comparing the measuring system to a
reference standard measurement and determining the
systems'response. In vibration measuring systems, calibration is
able to be carried out in the field, before measuring data, for most
types of transducer. In addition, regular recalibration checks of
transducers should be made by the equipment supplier or the
national standards authority. In Australia this authority is the
National Measurement Laboratory.

3.5.1 Methods Of Calibration

Calibration must use a reference source for vibration and a means
of determining the value of the reference.

a. Vibration exciters - These devices range from hand held size to
very large structural testing devices.
Some devices have a fixed, stable level of vibration that is suitable
as a reference for calibration without further equipment. Other
devices require the additional use of a reference accelerometer or
other transducer for determining the vibration level. The smaller
devices are suitable for smaller piezo electric transducers. The
larger devices are only limited by the mass of the transducer and
the available force from the exciter.

Calibrator
Transducer

35

b. Displacement calibration - For displacement transducers the use
of some length reference may be adequate for calibration. (static
only) For example, differential transformers may be calibrated by
gauge blocks or precisely machined reference gauges.

DVDT

Calibration reference length (guage blocks)

c. Static calibration with gravity - The use of servo accelerometers,
piezo resistive accelerometers or other types of transducer with a
response at zero Hz may allow the calibration to be done by tilting
in the earths' gravitational field.

Accelerometer
Angle to provide desired static acceleration due to gravity

acceleration= 9.81 x sin

36

d. Low frequency pendulum - A pendulum may be used to oscillate
an accelerometer in the earths' gravity to give low frequency
calibration.

Pendulum

Accelerometer

e. Centrifuge - An accelerometer may be placed in a centrifuge to
allow very high accelerations to be developed.

Centrifuge

Accelerometer

37

Many of the calibration systems described above are not suitable
for field work. Thus reliance must be placed on the sensitivity of
the transducer ( eg volts/g , mV/mm , mV/m/sec) and if this is
the case a calibration of the voltages in the system must be made
to give an accurate reference.

This can be done using the internal calibration on some
conditioning amplifiers or a precision voltage reference source.
Whenever possible, the whole vibration system should be
calibrated. That is, when the transducer is recieving the calibration
level, the amplifier and recording devices should also be operated to
record the level right through the system. This tends to prevent
errors in calculation of system performance as the data recorded
can be compared to the recorded reference signal.

3.6 System Errors

Any measurement system has an error associated with that
measurement. It is essential that some consideration of the level
of error of measurement be made. The frequently used estimate is
that of the method of expected error. This is a value that can be
expected for the ordinary circumstances. It is expressed as:

Error e e e e
n
= + + + +
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
......

the en are the errors for each part of the measurement (ie each
instrument )

For example, consider the following system:
a. transducer error +/- 1%
b. conditioning amplifier error +/- 1.5%
c. tape recorder error +/- 3%
d. frequency analyser error +/- 0.4%

Error = + + + 1 15 3 04
2 2 2
. .
2

= +/- 3.5 %

While this may appear to be a large error, it is typical of most field
measurements which are of the order of +/- 5% accuracy. Note
that this is not the worst case error which can be as much as 1 +
1.5 +3 + 0.4 = +/- 5.9 % for the example above. This is the
error that would occur if the worst error occurred in each instrument
at the same time. This process is also only considering system

38

errors, not errors of use of the equipment. Incorrect use, poor
calibration or malfunctioning equipment can give unpredictable
errors.

3.7 Measurement Of Shock

Comments about shock measurement have been left to this section
as this area is particularly sensitive to the concern of errors and
calibration. Transducers that are to measure shock must be
carefully constructed to give a sensitivity that is in the direction of
the measurement axis and no other. For example, some types
ofgeneral purpose accelerometers are adequate for general
measurement but under shock conditions they may exhibit
sensitivity in other directions leading to false results. It is
preferable that transducers for shock measurement be calibrated at
the levels of shock to be measured. This will ensure a reasonable
confidence in the transducer performance. At the same time the
conditioning amplifier should be considered as this must give a
rapid rise time to follow the impulse or shock data. The tape
recorder or data analyser also must be "fast enough" to record the
data reliably. Test them all at calibration if possible. Calibration
can be done using a falling pendulum which collides with a barrier.
This is a specialised area and assistance should be sought to
ensure accurate results.

3.8 Data Recording

Vibration data may make use of the following means of data
recording:

chart recorders
tape recorders
continuous analysis
digital recorders
computers

3.8.1 Recording On Paper Chart

a.Pen Recorders these may be used to record the amplitude
variations with time so that these can be studied manuallly. They
can't be used for signals that change much more rapidly than 200
Hz. They are useful to study variation in level with time, peak
levels and decay rates in buildings.

b.Printers - some printers can make a chart like the pen recorders.
More frequently they are used to give a permanent record of
vibration levels at various times during a measurement. Useful for
long term studies to give hard copy that can be plotted later.

39

c.LCD Chart Recorders - able to take high speed recordings up to
about 10 kHz, these chart recorders are often built as data loggers
with extensive hard drive or CD memory.

3.8.2 Continuous Analysis

Some instruments take in and analyse data continuously to provide
an overall assessment of vibration over a period of time. Data is
often processed or weighted by frequency to allow evaluation over
a specific range of frequencies and excluding others. This type of
analysis is often chosen to evaluate the effects of vibration on
humans.

3.8.3 Tape Recording

The tape recorder is a very valuable instrument for vibration
measurements. There are a number of ways of making tape
recordings. The performance of the different methods is affected
always by tape speed. For higher tape speeds, a higher frequency
response is possible.

a. Direct Recording - Direct recording (DR) the most common type
of acoustic recording method. A frequency range of 20 to 15 kHz is
typical, but higher maximum frequency is possible depending on
tape speed. Data must be replayed at the recorded speed to give
correct frequency information.

b. FM Recording - instrumentation tape recorders allow FM
(frequency modulation ) recording. The frequency range begins at
0 Hz and extends to a limit controlled by tape speed. For the same
tape speed the upper limit of FM is less than DR. FM is generally
more accurate than DR and is able to replay data at any tape speed
without loss of relative frequency data.

This allows for example, detailed analysis of fast changing data by
slowing down the tape speed. FM requires about 4 times more tape
than DR to accomodate the same data. (because of the frequency
range limits)

c.Digital Recording - Digital recording uses conversion of data to a
digital code which is then stored on tape. The coding of this method
makes it extremely accurate. New technology is making digital
recording available in compact devices that makes it very useful for
vibration recording. Digital recording requires more tape than FM
for the same data in a ratio about 2:3. Being used more
extensively as new equipment enters the market, especially in the
DAT format with special input electronics. This type of recorder

40

allows direct input to computer via a digital output port. This saves
a digitising process which is otherwise needed for computer data
processing.

3.8.4 Digital Memory

By coding the data into digits, it may be stored in an electronic
memory of the type used in computers. Devices such as event
recorders and some data loggers use this method. This technique is
usually only used for relatively short bursts of data such as
explosions due to the limits of storage of the memory.

3.8.5 Computers

Computers have been used for many years for data analysis.
Special input electronics modules have been available for
multichannel measurement and analysis. In recent years, the
development of high quality sound cards for PC and laptops have
provided a relatively low cost data entry system.

3.8.6 Calibration

Recording devices must be calibrated so that the recorded values
can be interpreted later. The most direct and simple way to
calibrate is to record the transducer calibration. This gives a
reference level on the recording device.

CALIBRATION is essential for confidence in measurement

41

3.9 Data Analysis Instrumentation

The use of correct instrumentation for data analysis will allow
thorough and meaningful results from vibration measurement. The
types of possible data analysis has been discussed. The type of
equipment needed to carry out these analyses will now be
described.

3.9.1 Vibration Meter

A very common and simple means of measuring vibration is to use
a vibration meter. This type of device gives an overall reading of
the vibration level, usually an RMS value. The vibration meter may
include signal conditioning and integrating sections so that an
accelerometer can be used for measuring acceleration, velocity or
displacement. This type of instrument may also include weighting
curves that may be used for the assessment of particular types of
vibration such as machinery or human comfort.

3.9.2 Weighting Curves

As with acoustic measurement, the use of weighting curves is also
common in vibration analysis. The weighting curve can be a filter
or it can be produced by numerically adjusting frequency data that
is produced by an FFT analyser. Weighting curves are used
primarily in vibration analysis for the assessment of human effects
of vibration. The numerical adjustment of data referred to above is
usually performed on a computer.

3.9.3 Frequency Analysers

Much use is made in vibration analysis of frequency analysers.
The most commonly used analyser is a constant bandwidth FFT
(Fast Fourier Transform) instrument. While it is possible to utilise
constant percentage bandwidth instruments such as one-third
octave analysers, as used in acoustic analysis, these instruments
generally cannot provide the detail needed at lower frequencies for
machine vibration analysis.

It is essential in most measurements of vibration that the frequency
can be determined with an accuracy that can discriminate between
the different parts that are causing vibration and this is easily
achieved with the FFT analyser.
FFT analysers are often implemented as hardware or firmware units
but may also be implemented as software applications in PCs or
laptops.

42

Vibration Isolation

4.1 Machine Vibration

All machinery has some vibration. This fact has already been used
to advantage in machine condition monitoring. In many cases
however we wish to either isolate the machine vibration from other
equipment or from people or isolate the equipment from vibration.
As we have seen already, the vibration of a spring mass system can
be expressed in the form of a frequency response curve. (see
figure 4.1).

4.1.2 Degrees Of Freedom

The curve in figure 4.1 is the response to forced vibration of a
"single degree of freedom " system. Such a system has motion that
is restricted to one direction of displacement. If the possible axes of
displacement are considered for three dimensions, (figure 4.2)

Figure 4.2 Position In Three Dimensions

it can be seen that for a general three dimensional position in space
of a single rigid body, that six degrees of freedom are possible. ( ie
six possible directions of displacement) The single degree of
freedom system then has only one possible direction of
displacement which may be either a translational or rotational
displacement. Very few real machines are single degree of freedom
systems. Most are composed of many parts with connections of

43

varying rigidity. This greatly increases the complexity of the
analysis of the machine and its' vibration.

Response to Forced Vibration
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
0.1 1 10
Frequency Ratio
Amplification Ratio
0
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
Damping
Ratio
1.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
0

Figure 4.1 Frequency Response Curve
One Degree Of Freedom System

For instance, many vehicle suspension systems are designed
considering all the degrees of freedom possible. (eg motor cars,
trains) This may require analysis of over 20 degrees of freedom !
This type of analysis can only be reasonably achieved by using
computer programs called simulations that solve the mathematical
models of the system continuously in time. Fortunately, for many
purposes use of a single degree of freedom system as an
APPROXIMATION to the real system is possible. In this course we

44

will only deal with single degree of freedom systems. It is essential
however to be aware of the limitation of this approximation when
designing vibration isolation for machines.

4.1.3 The Response Curve And Transmissiblity

The response curve shown in figure 4.1 has two axes. The
horizontal axis is the ratio between the natural frequency and the
applied ( "forcing ") frequency. The vertical axis is labelled
TRANSMISSIBILITY.

We have used this axis to determine either force ratio or
displacement ratio for the vibrating systems. The term
TRANSMISSIBILITY refers to the ratio of transmitted force or
displacement to that applied to the system. (see figure 4.3)

As an example, we may consider the reduction in force to the
foundation of a machine which has isolators providing a ratio of
forced to natural frequency of 4. This gives a TRANSMISSIBILITY of
0.04 (vertical axis, zero damping).

This means that force caused by the vibration of the machine when
operating (ie at the forcing frequency) will be reduced to 0.04 of the
original at the machine foundation or base. The transmissibility is
0.04 or a (1 - 0.04) x 100 = 96% reduction in force level.

The transmissibility is a description of the quality of performance of
a vibration isolation system and may be applied as a design
standard. It may describe either force or displacement reduction of
the system. Although we have only calculated single degree of
freedom examples, transmissiblity may be applied to any system.

An alternative means of expressing this requirement is the
ISOLATION. The isolation value is frequently used on data sheets
for commercial vibration control products.

Isolation is a measure of the reduction of vibration and is
expressed as a percentage. The calculation above for
Transmissibility = 0.04 showed that this was a 96% reduction in
vibration level. The 96% is the isolation.

This leads to the relationships:

Isolation % = (1- Transmissibility) x100

Transmissibility = (1- Isolation)
(note: use the decimal form of percentage to make this formula work; eg 96% =0.96)

45

m m
Input exciting force F
Force on support G
T = G/F
Input displacement Y
Displacement of Mass X
T= X/Y

figure 4.3 Showing Transmissibility for force and displacement

4.2 Static Deflection

When calculating the natural frequency of a system, the following
formula is used:

m
k
=

With any system the spring constant k must be determined to suit
the above formula and the transmissiblility required.

46

Consider the spring constant:

F = k x

where k = spring constant, N/m
F = force , N
x = displacement , m

If a machine is lowered onto an isolation system, the springs will
deflect from their unloaded position by an amount proportional to
the mass of the machine. This is called the static deflection. If the
static deflection is known we can calculate the spring constant. We
thus have, using the above equation;

k
F
x
=

so,
k
mg
x
static
=

If this information is substituted in the equation for natural
frequency we have:

=
mg
mx
static

or

=
g
x

We thus have another way of expressing the natural frequency of a
system in terms only of the static deflection. How is this useful ?
For a required transmissibility, say 0.1, we can determine the
required frequency ratio to be about 3.4 (figure 4.1) By knowing the
forcing frequency we determine the required natural frequency.

natural
=
forcing
/ 3.4

47

We may now determine the required static deflection directly from
the equation developed above. The suppliers of vibration isolators
often supply information in this form (static deflection and mass) so
that this simple relationship can be used for design.

4.3 Center Of Gravity

When machinery is being installed with vibration isolators it is often
necessary to consider the position of the center of gravity of the
machine. This is the position where all the mass of the machine can
be considered to act through a single point giving the same static
force.

If the center of gravity is known, vibration isolators can be
positioned at equal displacements from this point to ensure equal
loading. Equal loading on each isolator is preferable as this means
that all isolators are of the same type. This prevents confusion
during maintenance and minimises spare parts stock. The center of
gravity is calculated in the conventional method of mechanics using
moments about an arbitrary point.

It is preferable to mount the isolators vertically in the plane of the
centre of gravity. This will prevent some possible additional rocking
vibration.

This arrangement is not always practicable and is usually reserved
for machines that are very large or that have a particularly difficult
vibration problem. It should be seriously considered also in the
case of a machine that is very tall compared to its width.

These situations are illustrated in figure 4.3.

48

a) conventional mounting

Centre of Gravity

b) mounting in plane of center of gravity

Figure 4.3 Center Of Gravity And Mounting Of Isolators

4.3.1 Location Of Isolators

We have already observed that the isolators should be mounted so
as to have equal vertical static force. There are a number of other
practical concerns regarding the positioning of isolators so that they
operate as designed.

a)Horizontal spacing:

In figure 4.4 a) the isolators are shown positioned at equal spacing
from the center of gravity however, the isolators are also very close
together. This could cause problems of rocking vibration. It is thus
preferable to mount the isolators as far apart as is practicable.

49

b)Lateral loading:

If the isolators are to operate as desired it must be ensured that
the required spring constant is achieved. It is possible that the
arrangement of mechanical drives or other connections to the
machine will add stiffening to the spring constant of the isolators.

Remember that a decrease in the spring constant will increase the
isolation and so an increase in the spring constant will DECREASE
the isolation. Careful attention to the design will ensure that this
problem does not arise.

Figure 4.5 a) shows examples of designs that interfere with the
operation of the isolators. Methods of improving the design are
shown in figure 4.4 b).

a) close mounting (unsatisfactory)

b) far apart mounting (desirable)

Figure 4.4 Position Of Isolators

50

a) external loading on isolators (unsatisfactory)

b) correct design to remove isolator side loads

Figure 4.5 Design Of Isolator Installation

c) Connection of pipes electrical etc.

In a manner similar to that described in part b), the stiffness may
be effected by pipework or other connections to a machine that is
fitted with vibration isolators. Because this is not always a serious
reduction in spring constant, these items are often ignored. The
additional problem here is that the vibration may be transmitted
along these connections, causing excessive noise and potenially
excessive stresses that could lead to failure of parts.

This is illustrated in figure 4.6 a) where a number of unsatisfactory
arrangements are shown. In 4.6 b) alternative arrangements are
shown. Often these alternatives also provide allowance for thermal
expansion of machines and certainly will reduce the incidence of
failure in connections.

51

a) direct connection to machinery (unsatisfactory)

b) connections that isolate vibration

Figure 4.6 Connections To Vibrating Machines

d) Spring Constant with Multiple Isolators

In all the analysis, we have assumed a spring / mass system with a
specific spring constant but have only referred to one spring.

Most realistic isolation designs for machines require 4 or more
springs.

How do we relate the spring constant from the analysis to the
practical application?

Springs can be connected in either series or parallel as shown in
figure 4.7. The same results apply to either tension or compression
springs.

52

If K = 100 N/m for al l springs:
K total (Series) = 25 N/m
K total (Parallel) = 400 N/m
K
K
K
K
K K K K
K total = K + K + K + K
K total = 1 / (1/K + 1/K + 1/K + 1/K)
Series Parallel
Springs in Series or Parallel

Figure 4.7 Spring Constant for Multiple Springs

Figure 4.7 shows that springs in series decrease the spring rate
whereas the same springs in parallel increase the spring rate
(compared to the rate of a single spring)

When supporting a machine with multiple springs the spring
constant determined from the analysis must be divided by the
number of springs that will be used for support. The new spring
constant determined will be used to select the actual springs used.

For example, the required spring rate for isolation of machine
vibration might be 50kN/m. If 4 springs are to be used for
supporting the machine, then each spring will require a spring
constant of 50/4 =12.5 kN/m.

53

4.4 Types Of Isolators

4.4.1 Materials

Many materials may be used for isolation of vibration. A list of the
common types follows:

Material Form that it is used
felt felt mat
felt composites

cork cork blocks
cork composites

composite materials rubber with non - metallic
reinforcement
Neoprene and cork

rubbers natural rubber
synthetic rubbers

wire mesh

metal spring coil spring
leaf springs

air air bellows

Each material has an area of specific application related to the
available static deflection. This means that selection in some
applications may be limited to one type of isolator. Figure 4.8
shows the typical range of application for the types of material.

54

Deflection Natural Frequency Isolator
mm Hz
250
25
2.5
0.25
0.025
1.0
10
100
Air
Metal Springs
Rubbers
Cork

Figure 4.8 Areas Of Use Of Isolation Materials

4.4.2 Using Materials

FELT A matrix of textile fibres which is usually supplied in sheet
form. Usually used for applications where well balanced machines
are expected to produce vibrations at acoustic frequencies. It is
necessary to use a low loading per unit area to prevent settling and
loss of isolation. Often used between a concrete machine base and
the foundation or floor.

CORK A naturally occurring substance that is processed into
convenient shapes for use. Cork may be used for high compressive
loads at low acoustic frequencies (50 - 60 Hz)
More widely used than felt as the engineering properties are more
readilly available. Able to be treated against most industrial
contamination.

RUBBERS These materials offer a wide range of mouldable shapes
and properties that provide isolators for many applications. Rubber
materials have varying resistance to
industrial contaminants and the following should be considered:

1 Temperature of operation
2 Ozone
3 Sunlight

55

4 Liquids eg oils

The manufacturers'data should be consulted to ensure adequate life
in the particlular environment that is to be considered.

METAL SPRINGS Used in the range 3 - 10 Hz these isolators provide
the lower frequency area of isolation after the rubbers. A wide
range of spring types and sizes means that a suitable design is
usually able to be achieved and provide good environmental
performance. These springs however usually have very low
damping and generally require external damping to achieve desired
performance.

AIR SPRINGS Used for high isolation at low frequency and in some
cases where vibration amplitude is very small. The air spring
system can provide a constant hieght with varying load while
maintaining the required isolation performance.
Although more complex and costly than other systems, it is often
the only choice for high performance isolation.

4.5 Damping

The term damping has been mentioned previously and must be
considered in all isolation design. Damping refers to that part of a
vibrating system that provides loss of vibration energy, either
intentionally or unintenionally. Damping ensures that vibration
does not continue indefinitely after excitation of the system occurs.
Isolation materials have a degree of internal damping. Some values
are listed in table 4.1

Material Approximate damping ratio
steel 0.005
rubbers 0.05
air damping 0.17
felt/cork 0.06

Table 4.1 Damping Ratios Of Some Materials

The effect of damping appears in figure 4.1 as the damping ratio.
This is the ratio of actual damping to critical damping (see sect. 1
and 2).

56

It can be seen that the isolation effect reduces as damping
increases so why have damping ? Damping provides a limit to the
oscillations at resonance. For many machines operation at
resonance will not occur but may be experienced at start up or
during run down. Other machines may not be able to completely
avoid resonant operation and thus damping must keep oscillations
at an acceptable level. Damping also effects the natural frequency
of the system. The natural frequency of the system is altered by :

f f
nd n
= 1
2

where
fnd= natural frequency with damping

fn= natural frequency

= damping ratio

In many cases the effect is small, for example with rubber
isolators with a damping ratio of 0.05 the change in natural
frequency is less 0.2 %.

4.6 Real Isolation

Actual isolation may not be exactly as predicted by the one degree
of freedom model. The reductions at acoustic frequencies may be
less than that in the transmissiblity graph. This comes from the
simplified mathematics used for this system. In a real system the
mass and stiffness of the support structure are important in
achieving reasonable performance.

4.6.1 Support Structure

As a guide, the mass of the supporting structure should be at least
1000 times greater than the mass that is vibrating. The
foundation stiffness is also of concern because it acts as another
spring in the system. The natural frequency fn of the spring mass
system of the isolated machine should be lower than the lowest
natural frequency of the foundation structure. The natural
frequency of the foundation should also not be an exact multiple of
fn. To assist in this it is better to have as low stiffness isolator as
possible when the foundation is suspected of some significant
flexibility such as a suspended floor.
An example of this is a machine operating at 1500 rpm could be
isolated on a basement floor of a building with 95% isolation by a
static deflection of 8.6 mm.

57

For suspended floors such values as:

10 m span 10 mm static deflection
12 m span 10.7 mm " "
15 m span 11.2 mm " "

are recommended by a machine supplier.

4.6.2 Mounting Frame

Any frame that is used to mount a vibrating machine should be
designed with maximum feasible stiffness to prevent amplification
of vibration.

4.6.3 Lateral Stability

When designing any vibration isolation installations it is clear that it
is desireable to have a relatively large static deflection. This
provides minimum transmissibility. An isolator with low stiffness
(ie large static deflection) may also have a low lateral stiffness.
This may affect other modes of vibration but also may cause
problems with excessive motion of the isolated machine.

This type of problem is usually more significant if the machinery is
in motion as in a vehicle. Acceleration or retardation of the vehicle
will mean a large longitudinal or lateral force must be transmitted
by the vibration isolators. The large force and /or displacement
resulting could damage the isolators or even disconnect the
machine from its mountings.
To overcome this motion is often limited by safety stops or resilient
bumpers. This problem also often limits the practical spring
constants usable and hence place a limit on the realisable maximum
performance of isolators. Thus, even though it is theoretically
possible to achieve a reduction of 99. 99% of the vibration it may
not be practical due to the very low lateral spring constant leading
to instability.

4.7 Isolation Of Equipment From Base Vibrations

In most of the above examples we have been discussing the
isolation of a vibrating machine from the structure that is carrying
it. In some cases, such as the use of delicate equipment on a
vibrating machine, the isolation is to minimise the vibration recieved
by this equipment. Even with low transmissiblity isolation,
damage may occur to the sensitive equipment. This is because of
the resonant effect that we have already studied. Low level

58

vibrations that are transmitted can be amplified by a resonance in
the equipment.

To avoid this problem we must know what the resonances are. We
have seen already that most real systems are multi - degree of
freedom systems. The analysis for these systems is complex but
may often be achieved using finite element methods on a computer.

We can also experimentally study the response of the system to
vibration by placing the delicate equipment on a "shaker" like those
used for calibration but with the ability to provide a variable
frequency and level. Resonances of equipment can then be
observed by accelerometers or non-contact measurement using
laser interferometry.

4.8 Summary of Isolator Considerations

For practical design of isolators then we should consider:

the required transmissibility

b) even spacing from the center of gravity

c) positioning in the plane of the center of gravity

d) positioning of equipment to avoid loss of isolator performance

e) minimising vibration transmission through pipes etc.

f) the type of isolator material and its environment

g) damping of the isolator and need for additional damping

h) effect of the isolator at higher frequencies

i) support stiffness and mass

j) lateral stability of the isolators

59

Vibration - Human Effects

5.1 The Human Body

The human body is composed of soft tissue and a hard skeleton
with connections of firmer muscle tissue. This structure has then
basically a rigid frame with masses hung on resilient (springy)
mountings. This means that the human body can be considered
as a complex of spring mass systems that will respond to vibration.

There are two major areas of concern for the human effects of
vibration:

a.whole - body vibration (vibration applied to the entire body)
b.hand - arm vibration (vibration applied in a limited area of the
hand/arm as when using vibrating tools)

5.2 Whole Body Vibration

Interest in the response of the human body to vibration began with
the transport industries. Concern with passenger comfort in rail
vehicles, ships, aircraft and limits for military vehicles each
generated research into this area.

The research has shown many similarities but, as yet little
correlation between vibration levels and injury has been
established. The vibration criteria are thus not as clearly defined in
requirement as for instance noise exposure. In noise exposure, we
were concerned with damage to the human ear. What are the
effects on the human body from vibration ?

5.2.1 A Body Model

The human body can be modelled as a series of spring mass
systems made up of muscle and tissue as spring elements, body
organs as masses and connected via the skeleton.

The different spring - mass systems represent the different parts
of the body, for example, the internal organs are suspended by
tissues forming the spring mass system. Each system will have a
different natural frequency. This means that certain vibrations will
make different parts oscillate.

60

Figure 5.1 The Human Body as a Spring Mass System (Coerman et al)

5.3 Testing Human Vibration Sensitivity

Most of the testing for human vibration sensitivity has been done by
subjecting volunteers to varying sinusoidal vibration and recording
their response. This method does not completely establish the
response of the body to a complex vibration, such as multiple axis
vibration, but does give an indication of trends. This means that the
effects of random vibration, for instance, will not always follow the
same sensitivity curves Recent work (1997) has begun to address
this problem to get more accurate data..

61

5.3.1 Direction Of Vibration

For whole body vibration, the vibration may enter the body while in
a standing or seated position. The vibration may be horizontal,
vertical or lateral. The human body has differing sensitivity in each
of these directions due to differing stiffness in each plane. This
means that muscle effort is required to restrain the body parts,
leading to fatigue. The vibration may even interfere with the
organs' function, such as distortion of vision by vibration of the eye.
Excessive levels of vibration can lead to tissue damage or illness.
For example, oscillations from earth moving machinery may cause
spinal injury.

5.4 Vibration Criteria

Due to the differing uses for vibration criteria they been frequently
considered in separate categories of comfort limits and exposure
limits.

5.4.1 Comfort Limits

These limits are established to provide passenger comfort in the
transport of humans. Comfort limits are usually expressed in terms
of time of exposure. That is, a lesser comfort level is acceptable for
short duration trips and for longer trips lower levels of vibration
must be provided. This is to ensure that the passenger will not be
excessively fatigued at the end of the journey. Each mode of
transport has differing vibration source mechanisms. This leads to
differing comfort criteria. For example, ships must consider very
low frequency vibration which does not occur in most other forms of
transport. Aircraft have high frequency vibrations that are more
irregular than other transport.

5.4.2 Exposure Limits

These limits have been set to indicate the maximium levels that
humans can be exposed to in industrial situations. In using these
limits, it should be noted that the fatigue level will be higher and so
task performance will reduce. If these limits are to be used, they
should be considered as infrequent exposures as in an emergency
situation.

5.4 The ISO Standard

The vibration limits for human exposure have been expressed as an
ISO standard. This standard has been used as the basis for the
Australian Standard (AS2670) Although this standard is based on

62

pure sinusoidal vibration tests on subjects, it has become
acceptable to use this in the absence of more precise information.

It is a good guide for general industrial applications and as a start
point for establishing special purpose vibration standards.

Weighting curves are used to give a single value measure of
comfort levels. The Australian standard has also included the very
low frequency extension to the ISO standard that covers the motion
sickness region.

Modified criteria are used as guidelines for exposure limits to protect
against ill health or injury.

5.5 Instrumentation

Considering the frequency range of the human sensitivity to whole
body vibration, we can determine the frequency range and
sensitivity of the required measuring instruments.

The standard shows that a maximum level of 1.0 g will be
applicable for most measurements. The frequency range will be
between 50 and 100 Hz, depending on the likely vibration source
spectrum. For example, aircraft measurements will require up to
100 Hz, while motor vehicle measurements will be adequately
covered by a 50 Hz range. If motion sickness measurements are to
be made, the low frequency range, 0.1 to 1.0 Hz, must also be
considered. For these types of measurement, the use of servo
accelerometer or piezo resistive accelerometer types is common.
The piezo electric types sometimes cannot provide the low
frequency sensitivity, unless specially selected.
The measurement of vibration should be made at the point of
entry of the vibration to the human body. That is, if the subject is
seated, the vibration limits apply at the seat surface not the floor
that the seat is attached to.
This is because the seat itself may amplify the vibration that comes
from the floor.
The low frequency of the vibration data means that only FM tape
recorders can be used to record the information. A suitable
conditioning amplifier must also be selected.

As the measured data may be either weighted or unweighted the
assessment according to the standard will be in two possible
manners:

63

i. weighted data compared directly to the AS2670 curves to
determine the allowable exposure time

ii. unweighted data is first weighted in each frequency band and
then compared to the AS2670 curves.

In the first case, the RMS value from the instrumentation is directly
compared to the curves. The second case may utilise computer
calculation to speed the weighting and assessment process.

Where vibration is steady, the first method may give the most
rapid result. If vibration is unsteady, for example, random vibration
in a vehicle, an averaging process may be needed to ensure the
correct exposure is determined. This may be achieved by measures
at various levels that are typical of the environment and summing in
proportion to the time exposed at each level. This is equivalent to
the Leq method used for noise.

Alternatively, a sample may be taken over a representative period
using an integrating process to determine the total exposure.

5.6 Hand Arm Vibration

Whole body vibration is frequently able to be maintained at or
below fatigue levels so that significant injury is not normally of
concern. With hand arm vibration however, there is a real danger
of serious and permanent injury. Vibration at high levels applied to
the hands while using machinery or tools can cause disease of the
blood vessels, joints and blood circulation system.
The result is what is called "vibration white finger" or Reynauds'
disease. Circulation of the blood becomes so poor that fingers and
hands may turn white and in extreme cases permanent tissue
damage or gangrene may result. The type of machinery that can
cause this type of injury is that producing high levels of vibration
and which must be hand held for long periods of time. For
example:

Chainsaws, chipping hammers, rivetting guns, power grinders,
and hammer drills.

These types of machines may be found in many industries and are
often able to generate very high levels of vibration in human hands
and arms.

5.7 Hand Arm Exposure Limits

64

An ISO standard has been developed which forms the basis of the
AUSTRALIAN STANDARD. The Australian Standard also includes
reccommendations for medical recording of the effects of vibration
exposure to the hand arm. This is because of the relatively limited
experience in Australia with this disease. The standard specifies the
postition for measuring vibration levels as an axis system related to
the human skeleton at the wrist.

This is to standardise the level allowed in the measured direction.
The standard provides a weighting curve from which allowable
exposure can be determined.

65

5.8 Instrumentation

The most appropriate instrumentation for this work is an integrating
vibration meter with the standard weighting curve. This allows the
measurement of vibration directly in a weighted RMS value that can
be compared to the allowable exposure limits.

The placement of the accelerometer to measure this vibration is
probably the most difficult part of this type of measurement. The
requirement is to measure at the "3rd metacarpal" (ie knuckle) of
the exposed hand. To achieve this a special mounting for the
accelerometer is required. Many researchers have made their own
mountings but now commercial items such as that by Bruel and
Kjaer are available.

This type of measurement usually requires an miniature
accelerometer so that the instrumentation is not too bulky so that it
interferes with the operation of the machine being measured. In
use the three axes of vibration must be measured by successive
measurements after repositioning the accelerometer.

5.9 Action To Minimise Risk

The incidence of "vibration white finger" in Australia is presently less
than other areas as the climate is more favourable in this country.
The disease apparently has more rapid onset with cold extremities.
That is, where workers are exposed to lower temperature ranges
while operating the equipment. This does not mean that workers
are safe in Australia, only that they may require more time before
the injury appears. To protect operators then measurements must
be made so that doseage will be limited. The coupling of vibration
to the hand is also important so that the wearing of glove should be
ecouraged wherever possible. This is especially important where
low temperatures are experienced.

5.10 Building Vibration

The vibration experienced in buildings is not generally regarded as
dangerous to health. There is however some concern for discomfort
of humans in buildings, especially the taller ones that are subject to
wind sway. The ISO standard provides guidelines for acceptable
vibration levels for these situations.

66

Balancing Of Machinery

6.1 Reasons For Balancing

Balance refers to the even distribution of mass around the axis of
rotation. Any variation from this distribution results in imbalance.

Axis of Rotation & centre of
gravity aligned

Axis of Rotation & centre of gravity
misaligned (not balanced)

Figure 6.1 Distribution Of Mass Of A Rotating Machine

For any rotating machinery, any out of balance will cause a
rotating force proportional to the amount of unbalance. This force
will cause vibration that can lead to excessive wear and/or failure of
the machine. Unbalance is probably the most common source of
vibration in rotating machinery. For any machine except those that
rotate at very low speeds, balancing must be considered part of
manufacture and maintenance.

6.2 Unbalance Force

The force due to unbalance can be expressed by :

F mr =
2

where F represents the rotating force due to imbalance. The other
factors are m , the mass at radius r that is unbalanced , and w is
the angular velocity. Note that the unbalance force increases in
proportion to m or r but increases as the square of . Thus as
operating speeds are increased the need for balancing becomes
rapidly more important.

67

Rotating Force due to unbalance

Figure 6.2 Force due to unbalance

Notice that the force is rotating at the shaft speed so the frequency
of vibration due to unbalance is expected to be:

Frequency of unbalance (Hz) = RPM of shaft / 60

In the example in figure 6.1 the rotor is represented by a disc.
While some machines may be considered to be like this, for
example, fans, many machines have rotating parts that have a
considerable length. (See figure 6.3)

Real rotors may have unbalance in two planes that is of the same
mass but exactly 180 degrees out of alignment. Such a rotor is in
STATIC balance but will still give an out of balance force at each
bearing when run. This will be in the form of a couple formed by
the two out of balance forces. Such a rotor is not DYNAMICALLY
balanced.

Static balance can be achieved by ensuring the rotor does not
have a "heavy spot" when rotated at low speed. That is, the the
rotor does not stop at any preferred position when when allowed
to turn freely.

2 Plane Rotor Multi-Plane Rotor

Figure 6.3 Real Machine Rotors

68

The other alternative is that the out of balance masses will be of
differing sizes and at differing angular positions and radii. This is
the more common situation and will cause out of balance forces of
differing magnitudes and phase at each bearing.
A single rotor such as that in figure 6.1 is a 1 PLANE balancing
problem. The rotors in figure 6.2 are examples of 2 PLANE and
MULTI - PLANE balancing problems. In this course we will only
discuss solutions to 1 PLANE problems.

It can be seen that for any of these situations, the out of balance
force is always radial and rotates at the shaft running speed. This is
what allows us to detect unbalance by vibration measurements at
the bearings.

6.2 Severity Standards

Every real machine will have some amount of imbalance. Balancing
of a machine is to ensure that this imbalance is sufficiently small
to be tolerable. But what is tolerable ?

The international standard ISO 1940 gives recommended quality
grades for balance of rotors. This standard makes use of units of
unbalance that are determined by considering the mass of the
rotor to be eccentric from the axis of rotation by an amount that
causes an equivalent unbalance force.
The unbalanced force Fu can be expressed as :

F mr
u
=
2

Where m = unbalanced mass in grammes

r = radius from axis of rotation of m (in mm)

The equivalent effect of displacing the rotor mass can be
expressed by:

F Me
u
=
2

69

where :
M = mass of the rotor in kg
e = eccentricity of the rotor from rotation axis

From these equations :

Me mr
2 2
=

or

e
mr
M
=
g .mm / kg

This gives the units referred to in ISO 1940. There is some concern
in industry however that the balance quality grades were developed
some years ago and reflect the need and technology of low to
medium speed machines. It has been suggested that the ISO
standard be used as a guide to orders of magnitude and attempts
made to balance to as high a standard as possible, for a given
application.

6.3 BALANCING OF ROTORS (Single Plane Balancing)

In practice, a rotor may be balanced in place with simple vibration
measurements if it can be assumed to be a single plane rotor such
as a fan. Measurement of at least vibration level is required for
balancing. If angular shaft position can also be measured,
balancing will be more rapid. The measuring system will be
discussed in a later section.

6.3.1 The Four Run Method Of Balancing
This method requires only the measurement of vibration at the
bearing closest to the rotor to be balanced.
The method is as follows:
a Install the accelerometer on the bearing
b Place three marks at 120 degrees to each other on the rotor and
mark them 1 , 2 , 3.
c Run the machine and read the vibration level, Vi mm/sec.
d Attach a trial mass at point 1
e Run the machine and read the vibration level , A1 mm/sec
f Move the trial mass from point 1 to point 2
g Run the machine and read the vibration level , A2 mm/sec
h Move the trial mass from point 2 to point 3
i Run the machine and read the vibration level , A3 mm/sec
j Plot the data as circles.

70

k From the diagram measure Vf from the center of the first circle to
the intersection of the A1 , A2 , A3 circles.
l Calculate the magnitude of the balance mass by:

trial
i
f
balance
m
V
V
m =

m Place the balance mass at the same radius as that used for the
trial mass and in the direction of the vector Vf
n Check run the machine to ensure adequate balance

Note : the trial mass can be determined from :

Rotor mass Peak vibration level
m = x
angular velocity Radius of fixing

or

kg mm/sec
m = ------ x
r/sec mm

6.3.2 Balancing Using Vibration And Position Measurement

This method uses both measurement of bearing vibration and
shaft angular position. Instrumentation for this will be discussed
seperately. The method is as follows:

a Position the accelerometer on the bearing
b Position the shaft transducer
c Mark the rotor at 90 degree increments
d Run the machine and measure the vibration Vi, mm/sec
e Fix a trial balance weight at 90 degrees against rotation from the
angular position of the unbalance vector (use the previous
method for an estimate of the balance weight)
f Run the machine and meaure the vibration At, mm/sec
g Remove the trial weight.
h Plot the vector Vi to scale and position
i Plot the vector At to scale on this diagram
71

j Determine the magnitude of the balance weight from the ratio of
Vi to At, that is:

Vi
m
balance
= x m
trial
At

k Determine the direction of mounting from the angle OFB taken in
the direction against rotation and from the present position of
the trial mass.
l Position the calculated balance weight at the same radius used
for the trial weight m. Run the machine and check the vibration
to ensure adequate balance has been achieved.

6.4 BALANCING OF ROTORS (Two Plane Balancing)

Two plane balancing requires the determination of mass, angular
position and radius for the balance weight at each end of the rotor.
This requires many more trials than the methods above. Usually
this type of rotor is balanced in a commercial balancing machine.

6.5 BALANCING OF ROTORS (Multi - Plane Balancing)

The problems of multi - plane balancing are relatively complex and
usually require the assistance of someone experienced in this type
of work and the use of computer software for the calculations.

6.6 Instrumentation For Balancing

The instrumentation for balancing single plane rotors is no more
complex than that used for other vibration measurements. In
section 6. 3. 1 the only items needed are an accelerometer, a
conditioning amplifier and a meter to read vibration level, usually in
mm/sec. The instrumentation should be chosen with adequate
frequency response to measure at the running speed of the machine
to be balanced. At times an additional filter will be required to
reduce the signal at frequencies other than that of the running
speed.

In the method described in 6.3.2 the instrumentation as above is
used with the addition of some form of angular position sensor.
This sensor could be a non - contact proximity probe that is
triggered by a key way on the shaft, a strip of reflective material or
other method. From this detector the phase angle of the unbalance
vector can be determined. This can be done on an oscilloscope by

72

comparing the accelerometer data with the detector pulse position
and calculating the phase angle.

Alternatively, commercial instruments are available that calculate
the phase angle directly from the data. In either case the data is
used to apply the method described above.

For two plane balancing, balancing machines are available as
complete units. These use transducers at both bearings
simultaneously. The data is reduced electronically to a readout that
provides magnitude and position data for balancing at each end.

73

Vibration Specification

9.1 When Is A Specification Required ?

It is clear that a vibration specification may be included in a general
specification that will be used when calling for tenders. There may
also be reasons for vibration specifications within an organisation
for example, for quality control. We should thus consider all these
possibilities. The table below lists some possible areas that a
specification for vibration may be applied.

Manufacturing :
Type Of Vibration Specification For: Example:
Product vibration quality control electric motor
Product vibration human body exposure helicopter
Product vibrationh human hand exposure power tools

Maintenance :
Machine vibration repair quality after overhaul
Machine vibration condition monitoring any machine
Machine vibration human body exposure
Machine vibration human hand exposure

Equipment purchase :
Machine vibration performance criterion pump quality
Machine vibration human body exposure tractor
purchase
Machine vibration human hand exposure powertool
purchase

Table 9.1 Application Of Specifications

9.2 Standards For Specifications

Where possible, the existing standards from SAA, ISO or other
sources should be used for specifications.

74

9.3 Specification Content

In creating a specification it is important that the required vibration
levels be specified and that the type and position of instrumentation
be included in the specification test procedures. The standards
above provide ranges of values for specified conditions. The
standards generally do not provide a specific value for the required
conditions or positioning or type of instrumentation.

9.3.1 Level Specification

The level of vibration must be selected by the specification writer to
suit the conditions of use of the item specified. For example, the
level of allowable vibration for a military vehicle for whole body
vibration will be able to be set somewhat higher than that required
for an executive limousine. In choosing the allowable level some
consideration should be given to wear and age of components to
ensure that the item specified has adequate performance for life
between overhauls. This may require additional testing of "worn -
in" prototypes or some other means of predicting future
performance.

When specifying vibration levels it is important to consider the
averaging time over which the measurement is to be taken.
Clearly, for a machine operating at constant speed and load, the
vibration should be relatively constant. For a machine subject to
varying speed or load or both however, the vibration level will vary
considerably in time.

Averaging of the signal with time may be acceptable for some
circumstances and not others.

9.3 2 Specification Of Frequency

Consideration of the frequency content of the vibration must also
be made, although this may be controlled using the standard
weighting curves in the standards mentioned above. If the
standard weighting curves are used these should be specifically
mentioned and include the particular means of determining
weighted vibration level. This is because the differing ways of
determing weighted value may lead to slightly different answers.
The means of determining the weighted level are:

a. using an electronic weighting curve
b. using a frequency analyser and mathematical weighting
c. evaluating limits at each frequency individually

75

It is usually preferable to use a. above however this means that if
the data is weighted as it is recorded then the unweighted data is
not available for further analysis. For many applications then it may
be better to record the unweighted data and then process either
with a weighting filter or a frequency analyser.

The specification of frequency should also consider the range of
frequencies to be measured. This should be specified as a
frequency band and should be within the specified abilities of the
specified instruments.

9.3.3 Instrumentation Specification

The aim here is not to specify a particular brand of instrumentation
but to ensure that the ability of the instrumentation system to
measure the vibration accurately is ensured.
Rather than specify each part of the instrumentation system it is
often preferable to simply describe the overall performance of the
system. This may still require some extra details for some
applications for transducer performance particularly.
We should specify the following:

required minimum sensitivity in appropriate vibration units
expected maximum vibration level
frequency range to be measured in Hz
overall error in determining vibration level
overall error in frequency determination or weighting
methods or standards of calibration
data recording method
data analysis method
ownership of data or copies to be supplied
method of reporting results
special requirements

9.3.4 Position Of Instrumentation

The position of instrumentation is extremely important. Position
usually refers to transducer position only. Small changes in
position can make a large difference in the measured data and
cause disagreement over acceptable performance. Where possible,
utilise standard positions and fixing of transducers and fixtures that
are of adequate stiffness to ensure accurate measurement. It is
preferrable to measure the position of the transducers so that
repeat measurements can be made in the same location and any
calculation using the vibration data can be carried out correctly.

76

9.4 Operating Conditions

It is important that the operating conditions when measuring be
specified. Some machines may only require measurements at
constant speed and constant load. Others may require a range of
speeds and loads to be measured or that run up or run down in
speed be measured. Each required condition should be specified and
the test conditions for each clearly indicated. This may require
additional instrumentation such as tachometers, wattmeters (for
load measurement), dynamometers etc. The accuracy of this
equipment should also be specified.

Operating conditions also may require certain environmental
conditions such as temperature to be considered. The specification
writer should provide test conditions that are appropriate but also
those that can be realistically expected to be able to be produced
and controlled at the time of test.

This will apply particularly to product quality control where vibration
measurements are made at the end of a production line. The type
of loading and means of loading may dictate the type of testing
possible.

77

Appendix

Relationship of Vibration Amplitude Parameters

Velocity can be regarded as the time rate of change of
displacement. Using calculus, the first derivative of displacement is
velocity as shown. Similarly, we can consider acceleration to be the
time rate of change of velocity - and thus the first derivative of
velocity OR acceleration is the second derivative of displacement.
This can be seen below:

X A t = sin( ) displacement

.
V
dx
dt
A = = cos( ) t velocity

A
d x
dt
A = =
2
2
2
sin( ) t acceleration

Mathematical formulation of transmissibility T (or amplification
ratio)

( ) [ ]
( ) [ ] ( ) [ ]
2
2
2
2
/ 2 / 1
/ 2 1
n n
n
T

+
+
=

= damping ratio

n
= natural frequency, rad/s
= forcing frequency, rad/s

T = transmissibility = Force ratio = displacement ratio

Force ratio = Vibration force / force transmitted to structure

Displacement ratio = Displacement of vibrating part / displacement
of supporting part.

78

Vibration Exercises

1. A spring mass system has mass = 50kg, k=56kN/m.What is the
natural frequency of this system ? What is the natural angular
frequency of this system ?
(Answer: f = 5.33 Hz, = 33.5 rad/sec)

2. If a spring mass system has m = 210 kg and natural frequency =
2.2 Hz, what is the spring constant k for this system.
(Answer: k = 40 kN/m )

3. A 1000 kg machine is supported on four springs, which are
identical and carry equal proportions of the machine weight. If the
springs deflect 5 mm when the machine is place on them, find:

a.the spring constant for this system
b.the spring constant for each spring
(Answer: a. 1.96 MN/m, b. 490 kN/m)

4.A machine has a normal running speed of 1500 rpm. It has a
total mass of 390 kg and is supported on four springs with a spring
constant of 200 kN/m each. Find
a. the natural frequency
b. the forcing frequency
c. the ratio of forcing frequency to natural frequency.

(Answer: a. 7.21 Hz, b. 25 Hz, c. 3.47 )

5. For a harmonic vibration, the equation for displacement with time
of the vibrating mass is:
x = A sin ( t )

If the frequency for this vibration is 1000 Hz and A = 0.01 mm, find
the value of x ( the displacement) when :

a. t = 0.0 sec
b. t = 0.00025 sec
c. t = 0.00050 sec
d. t = 0.00075 sec
e. t = 0.0010 sec

Sketch the curve between these points.

79

f. where do the maximum and minimum values occur ?
g. what is the magnitude of these values ?

(Answer: a. 0, b. 0.01mm, c. 0, d.- 0.01mm, e.0, f. at b and d, g.
the max/min values are 0.01 and -0.01 = A )

6.Vibration displacement, velocity and acceleration areall related
by:

x = A sin ( t )
x = A cos ( t )
x = -A 2 sin ( t )

If a vibration has an acceleration of 0.1 g peak at 10 Hz, find the
corresponding peak values of velocity and displacement.
(Answer: a. 15.6 mm/sec, b. 0.24
mm)

7. Two vibrating systems are shown in the sketches. Determine
transmissibility for both systems:

1mm peak
100 mm peak
320 N peak
3.2 N peak
(no friction)

(Answer: a. 0.01, b. 0.01)

80

8. What frequency ratio ( ie f/fn) is needed to provide:

a. T = 0.4
b. T = 0.06 T is transmissibility
c. T = 0.03

with damping ratio = 0

(Answer: a. 1.95, b. 4.1, c. 5.7)

9. Repeat question 8 for damping ratio = 0.1. What is the
effect of the increased damping on isolation.

(Answer: a. 2.2, b. 6, c. 8)

10. A vibrating machine is to be isolated from its base with T =
0.2. The machine has a mass of 295 kg and a forcing frequency of
200 Hz.

Find:

a. natural frequency
b. k

to provide the required isolation.

(Answer: a. 83.3 Hz, b. 80 MN/m)

11. A large turbine vibrates when operating at normal speed of 48
000 rpm. If the machine mass is 621 kg find:

a. natural frequency
b. system spring constant
c. spring constant for each spring if a total of four equally loaded
springs support the machine.

The machine is to be provided with 90 % isolation.

(Answer: a. 250 Hz, b. 1.5 GN/m, c. 383 MN/m)

81

12.SELECTION OF TRANSDUCERS
We are told that a peizo - electric accelerometer has a "mounted
resonance frequency" of 18 kHz. Is this accelerometer suitable for
measurement of vibration of a machine that is known to have
significant vibration at 3kHz?

13.ERROR DETERMINATION
When measuring vibration on a machine,instruments were
used with the following errors:

transducer +/- 1%
amplifier +/- 1.2%
tape recorder +/- 3.5%
FFT analyser +/- 0.5%

The recorded data was analysed with the FFT analyser set on 100
Hz full scale. A recording of 5 minutes duration is available for
analysis. What is the expected amplitude error?

14.DIGITAL SAMPLING
Data analysis of our vibration measurements will be made with a
computer fitted with an analog to digital converter. The intended
analysis is of amplitude distribution and frequency.The frequency
analysis will be carried out by a FFT program available for the
computer.
The data is recorded on an FM tape recorder at a tape speed of 38.1
mm/sec. This speed has a linear frequency response to 1kHz. We
are only concerned with data up to 500 Hz so the tape recorder is
adequate for the purpose. Can we digitise this data? What
precautions should we take to ensure correct analysis? What
sample frequency should be chosen for digitising ?

15. CALIBRATION
A servo accelerometer is to be calibrated by the static method. (ie
using the earths' gravitational field for a reference value) If the
accelerometer can measure a maximum of 0.5g,it cannot be
calibrated by tilting through 90 degrees. Find the angle,measured
from the horizontal,that provides a 0.5 g calibration for this
accelerometer.

16. A spring/mass system has a mass m = 10 kg and a spring
constant k = 500 N/m. Determine the natural frequency of this
system.

82

17. A spring has a 30 kg mass suspended on it. An additional 5kg
mass is added and the spring deflects a further 5mm from its
previous position. Find the natural frequency of the system:

a. with the 30 kg only
b. with the 5 kg added

18. The system in the first exercise has a vibration of +/- 50mm at
2 Hz applied to the spring. Find the magnitude of vibration of the
mass. Assume zero damping.

19. Explain the term RESONANCE. If a spring/mass system has a
natural frequency of 10 Hz,what conditions will cause resonance ?

20. For the system in question 19, a vibrating force is applied to
the mass. The spring mass system is to be isolated from the base
that it is mounted on. Rubber springs are used with a damping
ratio of 0. 2. If the force on the base is to be kept to a maximum
of +/- 200 Newtons,what is the maximum force that can be applied
to the mass at a frequency of 35 Hz ?

21. On a tractor,whole body vibration measured an RMS
magnitude of 0. 4 m/sec at 2.5 Hz. Determine the fatigue limit
for this vibration if it is applied in the Az direction.

22. What would be the level of vibration for the same exposure
time and frequency as question 21, but considering instead the
comfort limit.

23. For vibration at 5 Hz, what level of vibration is at the exposure
limit for 1 minute. Consider the Az direction only.

24. A vibration has a level of 0.4 g at 10Hz. What is the
fatigue limit in the Az direction?

25. What is the combined effect of the following vibrations in the
Ax directions. Consider fatigue limits only and calculate the
allowable time of exposure.
Hz m/sec
1.0 0.5
2.0 0.4
10.0 0.8

83

Glossary Of Vibration Terms

CALIBRATION
The process of comparing the measuring system with a known
standard value to check accuracy

DAMPING
Loss of energy in a system that prevents continuous motion

DAMPING RATIO
Ratio of the actual amount of damping to a standard value

Fast Fourier Transform
This is a mathematical method for reducing time varying data to a
frequency spectrum

FFT
Abbreviation for Fast Fourier Transform

FILTER
An electronic device that allows some frequencies to pass through
while restricting or eliminating others. Types of filter are :band
pass,high pass and low pass

FREQUENCY
The rate at which a periodic wave repeats itself. Measured in Hertz
(Hz)

g
A common way of measuring acceleration for human effects
evaluations. "g" = 9.8 m/s
2
(acceleration due to gravity)

REYNAUDS' DISEASE
Damage to human tissues and circulatory system resulting in VWF
and sometimes amputation

SEGMENTAL
Refers to vibration that is applied to the bone structure of the hand
and arm

84

SIGNAL
A signal is an information carrying wave. This term may describe
the actual acoustic wave or its electrical analog as measured by a
transducer

SPECTRUM
The frequency content of vibration can be expressed graphically as
a spectrum

TRANSDUCER
A device for converting energy from the parameter being measured
into convenient form for measurement. Often the energy measured
is converted to electricity

TRANSMISSIBILITY
A ratio that expresses the amount of force or displacement
transmitted in a spring mass system

VWF
Vibration White Finger or Reynauds disease (see above)

WAVELENGTH
The length between successive similar features of a wave, such as
from a peak to peak. Measured in meters.

WEIGHTING
A band pass filter that reduces the level of signal at some
frequencies while maintaining or increasing others. Used to
measure with a single value, the effect of the signal on humans or
machines.

WHOLE BODY
Vibration that is applied to the whole human body rather than just a
portion is called Whole Body vibration. Typically it is found in
transportation vehicles.

85

Vibration Measurement & Control: by Brian Mclauchlan

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