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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
DIGITAL MODULATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Referring to Equation (2.1), if the information signal is digital
and the amplitude (lV of the carrier is varied proportional to the
information signal, a digitally modulated signal called
amplitude shift keying (A!) is produced.
"f the frequency (f) is varied proportional to the information
signal, frequency shift keying (#!) is produced, and if the
phase of the carrier ($) is varied proportional to the information
signal, phase shift keying (PSK) is produced.
"f %oth the amplitude and the phase are varied proportional to
the information signal, quadrature amplitude modulation
(&A') results. A!, #!, (!, and &A' are all forms of
digital modulation)
(2.1)
#igure 2*1 sho+s a simplified %loc, diagram for a digital
modulation system.
1
"n the transmitter, the precoder performs level conversion and
then encodes the incoming data into groups of %its that
modulate an analog carrier.
-he modulated carrier is shaped (filtered), amplified, and
then transmitted through the transmission medium to the
receiver.
-he transmission medium can %e a metallic ca%le, optical fi%er
ca%le, Earth.s atmosphere, or a com%ination of t+o or more
types of transmission systems.
"n the receiver, the incoming signals are filtered, amplified,
and then applied to the demodulator and decoder circuits,
+hich e/tracts the original source information from the
modulated carrier.
-he cloc, and carrier recovery circuits recover the analog
carrier and digital timing (cloc,) signals from the incoming
modulated +ave since they are necessary to perform the de*
modulation process.
#"01RE 2*1 implified %loc, diagram of a digital radio
system.
2
2-2 INFORMATION CAPACITY, BITS, BIT RATE,
BAUD, AND MARY ENCODING
2-2-1 Informa!on Ca"a#!$, B!%, an& B! Ra'
"
2 / t (2.2)
+here "3 information capacity (%its per second)
B 3 %and+idth (hert4)
t = transmission time (seconds)
#rom Equation 2*2, it can %e seen that information capacity
is a linear function of %and+idth and transmission time and is
directly proportional to %oth.
"f either the %and+idth or the transmission time changes, a
directly proportional change occurs in the information
capacity.
-he higher the signal*to*noise ratio, the %etter the
performance and the higher the information capacity.
'athematically stated, the Shannon limit_for information
capacity is
(2.5)
or
(2.6)
+here " 3 information capacity (%ps)
2 3 %and+idth (hert4)
N
S
3 signal*to*noise po+er ratio (unitless)
5
#or a standard telephone circuit +ith a signal*to*noise po+er
ratio of 1$$$ (5$ d2) and a %and+idth of 2.7 ,84, the
hannon limit for information capacity is
" 3 (5.52)(27$$) log
1$
(1 9 1$$$) 3 2:.; ,%ps
hannon.s formula is often misunderstood. -he results of the
preceding e/ample indicate that 2:.; ,%ps can %e propagated
through a 2.7*,84 communications channel. -his may %e true,
%ut it cannot %e done +ith a %inary system. -o achieve an
information transmission rate of 2:.; ,%ps through a 2.7*,84
channel, each sym%ol transmitted must contain more than one
%it.
2-2-2 M-ar$ En#o&!n(
M-ary is a term derived from the +ord inary!
M simply represents a digit that corresponds to the num%er of
conditions, levels, or com%inations possi%le for a given
num%er of %inary varia%les.
#or e/ample, a digital signal +ith four possi%le conditions
(voltage levels, frequencies, phases, and so on) is an '*ary
system +here ' " 6. "f there are eight possi%le conditions, '
= < and so forth.
-he num%er of %its necessary to produce a given num%er of
conditions is e/pressed mathematically as
M N
2
log =
(2.=)
+here N 3 num%er of %its necessary
M 3 num%er of conditions, levels, or com%inations
possi%le +ith N %its
6
Equation 2*= can %e simplified and rearranged to e/press the
num%er of conditions possi%le +ith N %its as
#
N
"M (2.:)
#or e/ample, +ith one %it, only 2
1
3 2 conditions are
possi%le. >ith t+o %its, 2
2
3 6 conditions are possi%le, +ith
three %its, 2
5
3 < conditions are possi%le, and so on.
2-2-) Ba*& an& M!n!m*m Ban&+!&,
2aud refers to the rate of change of a signal on the transmission
medium after encoding and modulation have occurred.
8ence, %aud is a unit of transmission rate, modulation rate, or
sym%ol rate and, therefore, the terms sym%ols per second and
%aud are often used interchangea%ly.
'athematically, %aud is the reciprocal of the time of one output
signaling element, and a signaling element may represent
several information %its. 2aud is e/pressed as
%aud 3
s
t
1
(2.7)
+here %aud 3 sym%ol rate (%aud per second)
t
s
3 time of one signaling element (seconds)
-he minimum theoretical %and+idth necessary to propagate a
signal is called the minimum ?yquist %and+idth or sometimes
=
the minimum ?yquist frequency.
-hus, f
%
3 22, +here f
%
is the %it rate in %ps and 2 is the ideal
?yquist %and+idth.
-he relationship %et+een %and+idth and %it rate also applies to
the opposite situation. #or a given %and+idth (2), the highest
theoretical %it rate is 22.
#or e/ample, a standard telephone circuit has a %and+idth of
appro/imately 27$$ 84, +hich has the capacity to propagate
=6$$ %ps through it. 8o+ever, if more than t+o levels are used
for signaling (higher*than*%inary encoding), more than one %it
may %e transmitted at a time, and it is possi%le to propagate a
%it rate that e/ceeds 22.
1sing multilevel signaling, the ?yquist formulation for channel
capacity is
f
%
3 2 log
2
' (2.<)
+here f
%
3 channel capacity (%ps)
2 3 minimum ?yquist %and+idth (hert4)
' 3 num%er of discrete signal or voltage levels
Equation 2.< can %e rearranged to solve for the minimum
%and+idth necessary to pass '*ary digitally modulated carriers
2 3
M
f
2
log
(2.;)
"f ? is su%stituted for log
2
', Equation 2.; reduces to
:
2 3
N
f
(2.1$)
+here ? is the num%er of %its encoded into each signaling
element.
"n addition, since %aud is the encoded rate of change, it also
equals the %it rate divided %y the num%er of %its encoded into
one signaling element. -hus,
2aud 3
N
f
(2.11)
2y comparing Equation #!$% +ith Equation #!$$ the %aud and
the ideal minimum ?yquist %and+idth have the same value
and are equal to the %it rate divided %y the num%er of %its
encoded.
2-) AMPLITUDE-SHIFT -EYING
-he simplest digital modulation technique is amplitude-shift
keying (A!), +here a %inary information signal directly
modulates the amplitude of an analog carrier.
A! is similar to standard amplitude modulation e/cept
there are only t+o output amplitudes possi%le. Amplitude*
shift ,eying is sometimes called digital amplitude
modulation (@A').
'athematically, amplitude*shift ,eying is
7
(2.12)
+here
&
ask
(t) " amplitude*shift ,eying +ave
v
m
(t) 3 digital information (modulating) signal (volts)
AA2 3 unmodulated carrier amplitude (volts)
B
c
3 analog carrier radian frequency (radians per second, 2Cf
c
t)
"n Equation #!$#' the modulating signal Dv
m
(t)E is a
normali4ed %inary +aveform, +here 9 1 V 3 logic 1 and *1 V
3 logic $. -herefore, for a logic 1 input, v
m
(t) 3 9 1 V, Equation
#!$# reduces to
and for a logic $ input, v
m
(t) 3 *1 V, Equation #!$# reduces to
-hus, the modulated +ave &
ask
(t)'
is either A cos(B
c
t) or $.
8ence, the carrier is either (on(or (off'( +hich is +hy
amplitude*shift ,eying is sometimes referred to as on-off
keying(FF!).
#igure 2-# sho+s the input and output +aveforms from an A!
modulator.
<
#rom the figure, it can %e seen that for every change in the
input %inary data stream, there is one change in the A!
+aveform, and the time of one %it (t
) is the
same as the time the #! output is a mar, of space frequency
(t
s
)! -hus, the %it time equals the time of an #! signaling
element, and the %it rate equals the %aud.
-he %aud for %inary #! can also %e determined %y
su%stituting ? " 1 in Equation 2.11)
%aud 3 f
%
A 1 3 f
%
-he minimum %and+idth for #! is given as
2 3 J(f
s
K f
%
) K (f
m
K f
%
)J
3 J(f
s
K f
m
)J 9 2f
%
and since J(f
s
K f
m
)J equals 2If' the minimum %and+idth can %e
appro/imated as
2 3 2(If 9 f
%
) (2.1=)
15
+here
23 minimum ?yquist %and+idth (hert4)
If" frequency deviation J(f
m
K f
s
)J (hert4)
f
s m
f
f f
h
=
or
s m
f
f f
h
J J
=
(2.1<)
+here
h 3 h*factor (unitless)
f
m
3 mar, frequency (hert4)
f
s
" space frequency (hert4)
f
47)!
#"01RE 2*2; 1:*(!) (a) truth ta%leG (%) constellation
diagram
#igure 2*2; sho+s the truth ta%le and constellation diagram
for 1:*(!, respectively. Homparing #igures 2*1<, 2*2=, and
2*2; sho+s that as the level of encoding increases (i.e., the
values of n and M increase), more output phases are possi%le
and the closer each point on the constellation diagram is to an
adLacent point. >ith 1:*(!, the angular separation %et+een
adLacent output phases is only 22.=O (1<$
$
A < ). -herefore, 1:*
(! can undergo only a 11.2=O (1<$
$
A 1:) phase shift during
transmission and still retain its integrity.
#or an '*ary (! system +ith :6 output phases (n " :), the
angular separation %et+een adLacent phases is only =.:O (1<$ A
52). -his is an o%vious limitation in the level of encoding (and
=5
%it rates) possi%le +ith (!, as a point is eventually reached
+here receivers cannot discern the phase of the received
signaling element. "n addition, phase impairments inherent on
communications lines have a tendency to shift the phase of the
(! signal, destroying its integrity and producing errors.
2.6 1UADRATURE ; AMPLITUDE MODULATION
2-6-1 9-1AM
3-28M is an '*ary encoding technique +here ' 3 <. 1nli,e <*
(!, the output signal from an <*&A' modulator is not a
constant*amplitude signal.
2-6-1-1 9-1AM ran%m!'r.
#igure 2*5$a sho+s the %loc, diagram of an <*&A'
transmitter. As you can see, the only difference %et+een the <*
&A' transmitter and the <(! transmitter sho+n in #igure 2*
25 is the omission of the inverter %et+een the H channel and
the & product modulator. As +ith <*(!, the incoming data are
divided into groups of three %its (tri%its)) the ", &, and H %it
streams, each +ith a %it rate equal to one*third of the incoming
data rate. Again, the " and & %its determine the polarity of the
(A' signal at the output of the 2*to*6*level converters, and
the H channel determines the magnitude. 2ecause the H %it is
fed uninverted to %oth the " and the & channel 2*to*6*level
converters. the magnitudes of the " and & (A' signals are
al+ays equal. -heir polarities depend on the logic condition of
the " and & %its and, therefore, may %e different. #igure 2*5$%
sho+s the truth ta%le for the " and & channel 2*to*6*level
convertersG they are identical.
=6
#"01RE 2*5$ <*FA' transmitter) (a) %loc, diagramG (%) truth
ta%le 2*6 level converters
E.am"/' 2-<
#or a tri%it input of & 3 $, "3 $, and H " $ ($$$), determine the
output amplitude and phase for the <*&A' transmitter sho+n in
#igure 2*5$a.
olution
-he inputs to the " channel 2*to*6*level converter are "3 $ and H 3
$. #rom #igure 2*5$%,
the output is *$.=61 V. -he inputs to the & channel 2*to*6*level
converter are & 3 $ and H 3 $. Again from #igure ;*5$%, the
output is *$.=61 V.
-hus, the t+o inputs to the " channel product modulator are *$.=61
and sin B
c
t. -he output is
" 3 (*$.=61)(sin B
c
t) 3 *$.=61 sin B
c
t.
-he t+o inputs to the & channel product modulator are *$.=61 and
cos B
c
t.. -he output is
& 3 (*$.=61)(cos B
c
t.) " *$.=61 cos B
c
t.
==
-he outputs from the " and & channel product modulators are
com%ined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output of
summer output 3*$.=61 sin B
c
t. *$.=61 cos
B
c
t.
3 $.7:= sin(cos * 15=O)
#or the remaining tri%it codes ($$1, $1$, $ll, 1$$, 1$1, 11$, and
111), the procedure is the same. -he results are sho+n in #igure 2*
51.
#igure 2*52 sho+s the output phase*versus*time relationship for an
<*&A' modulator. ?ote that there are t+o output amplitudes, and
only four phases are possi%le.
#"01RE 2*51 <*&A' modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram
=:
#"01RE 2*52 Futput phase and amplitude*versus*time
relationship for <*&A'
2-6-1-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 9-1AM.
-he minimum %and+idth required for <*&A' is f
4 5' the
same as in <*(!.
2-6-1-) 9-1AM r'#'!3'r.
An <*&A' receiver is almost identical to the <*(! receiver
sho+n in #igure 2*2<.
2-6-2 16-1AM
As +ith the 1:*(!, $6-28M is an '*ary system +here M "
1:. -he input data are acted on in groups of four (2
7
3 1:). As
+ith <*&A', %oth the phase and the amplitude of the
transmit carrier are varied.
2-6-2-1 1AM ran%m!'r.
-he %loc, diagram for a 1:*&A' transmitter is sho+n in #igure
2*55.
=7
#"01RE 2*55 1:*&A' transmitter %loc, diagram
-he input %inary data are divided into four channels) ", "., &,
and &.. -he %it rate in each channel is equal to one*fourth of the
input %it rate (f
%
A6).
-he " and & %its determine the polarity at the output of the 2*
to*6*level converters (a logic 1 3 positive and a logic $ 3
negative).
-he ". and &. %uy determine the magnitude (a logic 1 3 $.<21
V and a logic $ 3 $.22 V).
#or the " product modulator they are 9$.<21 sin B
c
t, *$.<21 sin
B
c
t, 9$.22 sin B
c
t' and *$.22 sin B
c
t.
#or the & product modulator, they are 9$.<21 cos B
c
t, 9$.22 cos
B
c
t, *$.<21 cos B
c
t, and *$.22 cos B
c
t.
-he linear summer com%ines the outputs from the " and &
channel product modulators and produces the 1: output
conditions necessary for 1:*&A'. #igure 2*56 sho+s the truth
ta%le for the " and & channel 2*to*6*level converters.
=<
#"01RE 2*56 -ruth ta%les for the "* and &*channel 2*to*6*
evel converters) (a) " channelG (%) & channel
E.am"/' 2-1=
#or a quad%it input of "3 $, ". 3 $, & 3 $, and &. 3 $ ($$$$),
determine the output amplitude and phase for the 1:*&A'
modulator sho+n in #igure 2*55.
olution
-he inputs to the " channel 2*to*6*level converter are " 3 $
and ". 3 $. #rom #igure 2*56, the output is *$.22 V. -he inputs
to the & channel 2*to*6*level converter are &3 $ and &. 3 $.
Again from #igure 2*56, the output is *$.22 V.
-hus, the t+o inputs to the " channel product modulator are
*$,22 V and sin B
c
t. -he output is
" 3 (*$.22)(sin B
c
t) 3 *$.22 sin B
c
t
-he t+o inputs to the & channel product modulator are *$.22 V
and cos B
c
t. -he output is
& 3 (*$.22)(cos B
c
t) 3 *$.22 cos B
c
t
-he outputs from the " and & channel product modulators are
com%ined in the linear summer and produce a modulated output
of
summer output 3 *$.22 sin B
c
t * $.22 cos B
c
t
3 $.511 sin(B
c
t * 15=O)
#or the remaining quad%it codes, the procedure is the same. -he
=;
results are sho+n in #igure 2*5=.
#"01RE 2*5= 1:*&A' modulator) (a) truth ta%leG (%) phasor
diagramG (c) constellation diagram.
:$
#"01RE 2*5: 2and+idth considerations of a 1:*&A'
modulator
2-6-2-2 Ban&+!&, #on%!&'ra!on% of 16-1AM.
>ith a 1:*&A', the %it rate in the ", "., &, or &. channel is
equal to one*fourth of the %inary input data rate (f
%
A6).
#igure 2*5: sho+s the %it timing relationship %et+een the
%inary input dataG the ", ".. &, and &. channel dataG and the "
(A' signal. "t can %e seen that the highest fundamental
frequency in the ", "., &, or &. channel is equal to one*eighth of
the %it rate of the %inary input data (one cycle in the ", "., &, or
:1
&. channel ta,es the same amount of time as eight input %its).
Also, the highest fundamental frequency of either (A' signal
is equal to one*eighth of the %inary input %it rate. >ith a 1:*
&A' modulator, there is one change in the output signal
(either its phase, amplitude, or %oth) for every four input data
%its. Honsequently, the %aud equals f
%
A6, the same as the
minimum %and+idth.
Again, the %alanced modulators are product modulators and
their outputs can %e represented mathematically as
(2.2:)
+here
and
-hus,
-he output frequency spectrum e/tends from f
c
9 f
%
A < and
f
c
* f
%
A < the minimum %and+idth (f
N
) is
:2
E.am"/' 2-11
#or a 1:*&A' modulator +ith an input data rate (f
%
) equal to
1$ '%ps and a carrier frequency of 7$ '84, determine the
minimum dou%le*sided ?yquist frequency (f
?
) and the %aud.
Also, compare the results +ith those achieved +ith the 2(!,
&(!, and <*(! modulators in E/amples 2*6, 2*:, and 2*<.
1se the 1:*&A' %loc, diagram sho+n in #igure 2*55 as the
modulator model.
olution
-he %it rate in the ", "U, &, and &U channels is equal to one*
fourth of the input %it rate,
f
%"
3 f
%"U
3 f
%&
3 f
%&U
3 f
%
A 6 3 1$ '%ps A 6 3 2.=
'%ps
-herefore, the fastest rate of change and highest fundamental
frequency presented to either %alanced modulator is
f
a 3
f
%"
A 2 3 2.= '%ps A 2 3 1.2= '84
-he output +ave from the %alanced modulator is
(sin 2Cf
a
t)(sin 2Cf
c
t)
$.= cos 2C(f
c
K f
a
)t K $.= cos 2C(f
c
9 f
a
)t
$.= cos 2CD(7$ K 1.2=)'84Et K $.= cos 2CD(7$ 9
1.2=)'84Et
$.= cos 2C(:<.7='84)t * $.= cos
2C(71.2='84)t
-he minimum ?yquist %and+idth is
:5
23(71.2= * :<.7=) '84 3 2.= '84
-he minimum %and+idth for the 1:*&A' can also %e
determined %y simply su%stituting into Equation 2*1$)
2 3 1$ '%ps A 6 3 2.= '84.
-he sym%ol rate equals the %and+idthG thus,
sym%ol rate 3 2.= mega%aud
-he output spectrum is as follo+s)
#or the same input %it rate, the minimum %and+idth required to
pass the output of a 1:*&A' modulator is equal to one*fourth that
of the 2(! modulator, one*half that of &(!, and 2=T less than
+ith <*(!. #or each modulation technique, the %aud is also
reduced %y the same proportions.
E.am"/' 2-12
#or the follo+ing modulation schemes, construct a ta%le sho+ing
the num%er of %its encoded, num%er of output conditions,
minimum %and+idth, and %aud for an information data rate of 12
,%ps) &(!, <*(!, <*&A', 1:*(!, and 1:*&A'.
:6
#rom E/ample 2*12, it can %e seen that a 12*,%ps data stream can
%e propagated through a narro+er %and+idth using either 1:*(!
or 1:*&A' than +ith the lo+er levels of encoding.
-a%le 2*1 summari4es the relationship %et+een the num%er of
%its encoded, the num%er of output conditions possi%le, the
minimum %and+idth, and the %aud for A!, #!. (!, and
&A'.
>hen data compression is performed, higher data transmission
rates are possi%le for a given %and+idth.
-a%le 2*1 A!, #!, (! A?@ &A' summary.
:=
2-: BAND>IDTH EFFICIENCY
Band.idth efficiency (sometimes called information density or
spectral efficiency, often used to compare the performance of
one digital modulation technique to another.
'athematical %and+idth efficiency is
9ert:
s its
9: and.idth imum
ps rate it on transmissi
B
A
) ( min
) (
= =
(2.27)
>here 2
3 %and+idth efficiency
E.am"/' 2-1)
#or an <*(! system, operating +ith an information %it rate of 26
,%ps, determine (a) %aud, (%) minimum %and+idth, and (c)
%and+idth efficiency.
olution
a. 2aud is determined %y su%stituting into Equation 2*1$,
%aud 3 26 ,%ps A 5 3 <$$$
%. 2and+idth is determined %y su%stituting into Equation 2*11)
2 3 26 ,%ps A 5 3 <$$$
c. 2and+idth efficiency is calculated from Equation 2*27)
2
" $4f
' +here f
is the %it rate in %its per second,
>
can %e re+ritten as
E
%
3 H A f
%
(VA%it) (2.5=)
tated in d2V, E
%(d2V)
3 1$ log H A f
%
(2.5:)
3 1$ log H K 1$ log f
%
(2.57)
?oise po+er density is the thermal noise po+er normali4ed to a 1*
84 %and+idth (i.e., the noise po+er present in a 1*84 %and+idth).
'athematically, noise po+er density is
?
o
3 ? A 2 (>A84) (2.5<)
+here
72
N
o
3 noise po+er density (+atts per hert4)
N 3 thermal noise po+er (+atts)
B 3 %and+idth (hert4)
tated in d2m, ?
o(d2m)
3 1$ log (?A$.$$1) K 1$ log 2
(2.5;)
Hom%ining Equations 2.2; and 2.5< yields
?
o
3 !-2 A 2 3 !- ( >A 84 ) (2.61)
tated in d2m, ?
o(d2m)
3 1$ log (!A$.$$1) 9 1$ log - (2.62)
Energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio is used to compare
t+o or more digital modulation systems that use different
transmission rates (%it rates), modulation schemes (#!, (!,
&A'), or encoding techniques ('*ary).
'athematically, >
%
4N
o
is
>
%
4N
o
" (/4f
) 4 (N4B) (2.65)
+here >
%
4N
o
is the energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio.
Rearranging Equation 2.65 yields the follo+ing e/pression)
>
%
4N
o
" (/4N) ? (B4f
) (2.66)
+here
>
%
4N
o
" energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratio
/4N " carrier*to*noise po+er ratio
B4f
)
(2.6=)
75
3 $% log >
- $% log N
o
(2.6:)
E.am"/' 2-15
#or a &(! system and the given parameters, determine
a. Harrier po+er in d2m.
%. ?oise po+er in d2m.
c. ?oise po+er density in d2m.
d. Energy per %it in d2V.
e. Harrier*to*noise po+er ratio in d2.
f.. >
lN
o
ratio.
H 3 1$
*12
>
#
%
3 :$ ,%ps
? 3 1.2 / 1$
*16
>
2 3 12$ ,84
olution
a. -he carrier po+er in d2m is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2.2<)
H 3 1$ log (1$
*12
A $.$$1) 3 * ;$ d2m
%. -he noise po+er in d2m is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2-5%@
? 3 1$ log D(1.2/1$
*16
) A $.$$1E 3 *1$;.2 d2m
c. -he noise po+er density is determined %y su%stituting into
Equation 2-7%@
?
o
3 *1$;.2 d2m K 1$ log 12$ ,84 3 *1:$ d2m
d. -he energy per %it is determined %y su%stituting into equation
76
2.5:)
E
%
3 1$ log (1$
*12
A :$ ,%ps) 3 *1:7.< d2V
e! -he carrier*to*noise po+er ratio is determined %y su%stituting
into Equation #!57@
H A ? 3 1$ log ( 1$
* 12
A 1.2 / 1$
* 16
) 3 1;.2 d2
f. -he energy per %it*to*noise density ratio is determined %y
su%stituting into Equation #!7A@
E
%
A ?
o
3 1;.2 9 1$ log 12$ ,84 A :$ ,%ps 3 22.2 d2
2-1= ERROR PERFORMANCE
2-1=-1 PS- Error P'rforman#'
-he %it error performance is related to the distance %et+een
points on a signal state*space diagram.
#or e/ample, on the signal state*space diagram for 2(! sho+n
in #igure 2.5;a, it can %e seen that the t+o signal points (logic 1
and logic $) have ma/imum separation (d) for a given po+er
level (@).
-he figure sho+s, a noise vector (V
N
), +hen com%ined +ith
the signal vector (V
s
), effectively shifts the phase of the signaling
element (B
S>
) alpha degrees.
"f the phase shift e/ceeds 9;$O, the signal element is shifted
%eyond the threshold points into the error region.
#or 2(!, it +ould require a noise vector of sufficient
amplitude and phase to produce more than a R;$O phase shift in
the signaling element to produce an error.
7=
#or (! systems, the general formula for the threshold points is
-( 3 R C A ' (2.67)
+here ' is the num%er of signal states.
#"01RE 2*5; (! error region) (a) 2(!G (%) &(!
-he phase relationship %et+een signaling elements for 2(!
(i.e., 1<$
$
out of phase) is the optimum signaling format,
referred to as antipodal signaling' and occurs only +hen t+o
%inary signal levels are allo+ed and +hen one signal is the
e/act negative of the other. 2ecause no other %it*%y*%it
signaling scheme is any %etter, antipodal performance is often
used as a reference for comparison.
7:
-he error performance of the other multiphase (! systems
can %e compared +ith that of 2(! simply %y determining
the relative decrease in error distance %et+een points on a
signal state*space diagram.
#or (!, the general formula for the ma/imum distance
%et+een signaling points is given %y
in W 3 sin 5:$
$
A 2' 3 (dA2) A@ (2.6<)
d 3 error distance
' 3 num%er of phases
D ? pea, signal amplitude
Rearranging equation 2.6< and solving for d yields
d 3
?;
M
$
1<$
sin 2
(2.6;)
#igure 2*5;% sho+s the signal state*space diagram for &(!.
#rom #igure 2*5; and Equation 2.6<, it can %e seen that &(!
can tolerate only a R 6=O phase shift.
#rom Equation 2.67 the ma/imum phase shift for <*(! and 1:*
(! is R22.=O and R11.2=O, respectively.
-he higher the level of modulation, the smaller the angular
separation %et+een signal points and the smaller the error
distance.
-he general e/pression for the %it error pro%a%ility of an '*
phase (! system is
((e) 3 (1 A log
2
' ) erf (4) (2.=$)
+here erf 3 error function
4 3 sin(CA') (
M
2
log
)( $
A N >
)
77
2y su%stituting into Equation 2.=$, it can %e sho+n that &(!
provides the same error performance as 2(!. -his is %ecause
the 5*d2 reduction in error distance for &(! is offset %y the
5*d2 decrease in its %and+idth (in addition to the error
distance, the relative +idths of the noise %and+idths must also
%e considered).
-hus, %oth systems provide optimum performance. #igure 2*
6$sho+s the error performance for 2*6*, <*, 1:*, and 52*( !
systems as a function of E
%
A ?
o
.
#"01RE 2*6$ Error rates of (! modulation systems
E.am"/' 2-16
7<
@etermine the minimum %and+idth required to achieve a P(e) of
1$
*7
for an <*(! system operating at 1$ '%ps +ith a carrier*to*
noise po+er ratio of 11.7 d2.
olution
#rom #igure 2*6$, the minimum E
%
A ?
o
ratio to achieve a P(e) of
1$
-C
for an <*(! system is 16.7 d2. -he minimum %and+idth is
found %y rearranging Equation 2.66)
2 A f
%
3 E
%
A ?
o
3 H A ?
3 16.7 d2 K 11.7 d2 3 5 d2
2 A f
%
3 antilog 5 3 2 G 2 3 2 / 1$ '%ps 3 2$ '84
2-1=-2 1AM Error P'rforman#'
#or a large num%er of signal points (i.e., '*ary systems
greater than 6), &A' outperforms (!. -his is %ecause the
distance %et+een signaling points in a (! system is smaller
than the distance %et+een points in a compara%le &A'
system. -he general e/pression for the distance %et+een
adLacent signaling points for a &A' system +ith N levels on
each a/is is
d 3
;
D 1
2
(2.=1)
+here d 3 error distance
D 3 num%er of levels on
each a/is
D = pea, signal amplitude
"n comparing Equation 2*6; to Equation 2*= 1, it can %e seen
that &A' systems have an advantage over (! systems +ith
7;
the same pea, signal po+er level. -he general e/pression for
the %it error pro%a%ility of an N*level &A' system is
) (
1
log
1
) (
2
: erfc
D
D
D
e P
=
(2.=2)
>here erfc(4) is the complementary error function
#igure 2*61 sho+s the error performance for 6*, 1:*, 52*, and
:6*&A' systems as a function of E
%
A?
o
.
-a%le 2*6 lists the minimum carrier*to*noise po+er ratios and
energy per %it*to*noise po+er density ratios required for a
pro%a%ility of error 1$
-6
for several (! and &A'
modulation schemes.
E.am"/' 2-1:
>hich system requires the highest >
4N
o
ratio for a pro%a%ility of
error of 1$
-6
, a four*level &A' system or an <*(! systemX
olution
#rom #igure 2*61, the minimum >
4N
1
ratio required for a four*
level &A' system is, 1$.: d2. #rom #igure 2*6$, the minimum
>
4N
o
ratio required for an <*(! system is 16 d2 -herefore, to
achieve a P(e) of 1$
-6
, a four*level &A' system +ould require 5.6
d2 less >
4N
1
ratio.
<$
#"01RE 2*61 Error rates of &A' modulation systems.
-a%le 2*6 (erformance Homparison of various digital
modulation schemes (2ER 3 1$
*:
)
2-1=-) FS- Error P'rforman#'
>ith noncoherent #!, the transmitter and receiver are not
frequency or phase synchroni4ed. >ith coherent #!, local
<1
receiver reference signals are in frequency and phase loc, +ith
the transmitted signals. -he pro%a%ility of error for noncoherent
#! is
#"01RE 2*62 Error rates for #! modulation systems
=
o
N
>
e P
2
e/p 2 A 1 ) (
(2.=5)
-he pro%a%ility of error for coherent #! is
$
) (
N
>
erfc e P
=
(2.=6)
#igure 2*62 sho+s pro%a%ility of error curves for %oth coherent
and noncoherent #! for several values of >
4N
o
!
#rom
Equations 2*=5 and 2*=6, it can %e determined that the pro%*
a%ility of error for noncoherent #! is greater than that of
coherent #! for equal energy per %it*to*noise po+er density
ratios.
<2