1

3. Transport of energy:
radiation
specific intensity, radiative

flux
optical depth
absorption & emission
equation of transfer, source function
formal solution, limb darkening
temperature distribution
grey atmosphere, mean opacities
2
No sinks and sources of energy in the atmosphere
all energy produced in stellar interior is transported through the atmosphere
at any given radius r

in the atmosphere:
F is the energy flux per unit surface and per unit time. Dimensions: [erg/cm
2
/sec]
The energy transport is sustained by the temperature gradient.
The steepness of this gradient is dependent on the effectiveness

of the energy
transport through the different atmospheric layers.
2
4 ( ) . r F r const L t = =
Energy flux conservation
3
Mechanisms of energy transport
a.

radiation: F
rad

(most important)
b.

convection: F
conv

(important especially in cool stars)
c.

heat production: e.g. in the transition between solar
cromosphere

and corona
d.

radial flow of matter: corona and stellar wind
e.

sound waves: cromosphere

and corona
Transport of energy
We will be mostly concerned with the first 2
mechanisms: F(r)=F
rad

(r) + F
conv

(r). In the outer
layers, we always have F
rad

>> F
conv
4
The specific intensity
Measures of energy flow: Specific

Intensity

and Flux
The amount of energy dE

transported

through a surface area dA

is proportional to
dt

(length of time), d

(frequency width), d

(solid angle) and the projected unit
surface area cos

dA.
The proportionality factor is the specific Intensity I

(cos)
Intensity depends on location in
space, direction and frequency
dE

= I

(cos ) cos dAd d dt

([I

]: erg cm
2
sr
1
Hz
1
s
1
)
I

=
c

2
I

(from I

d = I

d and = c/)
5
Invariance of the specific intensity
The area element dA

emits radiation towards dA. In the absence of any matter
between emitter and receiver (no absorption and emission on the light paths
between the surface elements) the amount of energy emitted and received through
each surface elements is:
dE

= I

(cos ) cos dAd d dt

dE
0

= I
0

(cos
0
) cos
0
dA
0
d
0
d dt
6
Invariance of the specific intensity
energy is conserved: dE

= dE
0

and
d =
projected area
distance
2
=
dA
0
cos
0
r
2
d
0
=
dAcos
r
2
I

= I
0

In TE: I
v

= B
v
Specific intensity is constant
along rays -

as long as there
is no absorption and emission
of matter between emitter and
receiver
dE

= I

(cos ) cos dAd d dt

dE
0

= I
0

(cos
0
) cos
0
dA
0
d
0
d dt
and
7
solid angle : d =
dA
r
2
Total solid angle =
4r
2
r
2
= 4
dA = (r d)(r sin d)
d = sin d d
dene = cos
d = sin d
d = sin d d = d d
Spherical coordinate system and solid angle d
8
Radiative

flux
How much energy flows through surface element dA?
dE
v

~ I
v

cos

d

integrate

over the whole solid angle (O = 4t):
F

=
Z
4
I

(cos ) cos d =
Z
2
0
Z

0
I

(cos ) cos sin dd

astrophysical flux
F

is the monochromatic radiative

flux.
The factor

in the definition is historical.
F

can also be interpreted as the net rate of energy flow through a surface element.
9
Radiative

flux
The monochromatic radiative

flux

at frequency v

gives the net rate of energy
flow through a surface element.
dE
v

~ I
v

cos

d

integrate

over the whole solid angle (O = 4t):
We distinguish between the outward direction (0 < u

< t/2)
and the inward direction (t/2 < u < t), so that the net flux is:
F

= F
+

=
=
Z
2
0
Z
/2
0
I

(cos ) cos sin dd +

Z
2
0
Z

/2
I

(cos ) cos sindd

F

=
Z
4
I

(cos ) cos d =
Z
2
0
Z

0
I

(cos ) cos sin dd

Note: for t/2 < u < t > cos

< 0 second term negative !!
astrophysical flux
10
Total radiative

flux
Integral over frequencies v
Z

0
F

d = F
rad
F
rad

is the total radiative

flux.
It is the total net amount of energy going through the
surface element per unit time and unit surface.
11
Stellar luminosity
At the outer boundary of atmosphere

(r = R
o

)

there is no incident radiation
Integral interval over

reduces from [0,] to [0,/2].
F

(R
o
) = F
+

(R
o
) =
Z
2
0
Z
/2
0
I

(cos ) cos sindd

This is the monochromatic energy that each surface element of the star
radiates in all directions
If we multiply by the total stellar surface 4R
0
2
monochromatic stellar luminosity

at frequency v
and integrating over v
total stellar luminosity
4R
2
o
F

(R
o
)
4R
2
o

Z

0
F
+

(R
o
)d = L (Luminosity)
= L

12
Observed flux
What radiative

flux is measured by an observer at distance d?
integrate specific intensity I

towards observer over

all surface elements
note that only half sphere contributes
F
+

=
Z
1/2 sphere
dE = t
Z
1/2 sphere
I

(cos ) cos dA
in spherical symmetry: dA = R
2
o
sin d d
E

= t R
2
o
Z
2
o
Z
/2
0
I

(cos ) cos sin d d

because of spherical symmetry

the integral of intensity towards
the observer over the stellar surface is proportional to tF
v
+
, the
flux emitted into all directions by one surface element !!
13
Observed flux
Solid angle of telescope at distance d:
F
obs

=
radiative energy
area frequency time
=
R
2
o
d
2
F
+

(R
o
)
This, and not I
v

, is the quantity generally measured for stars.
For the Sun, whose disk is resolved, we can also measure I
v

(the variation of I
v

over the solar disk is called the limb
darkening)
unlike I
v

, F
v

decreases with
increasing distance
= A/d
2
+
E

= t R
2
o
F
+

(R
o
)
flux received = flux emitted x (R/r)
2
R

0
F
obs
,
d = 1.36 KW/m
2
14
Mean intensity, energy density & radiation pressure
Integrating over the solid angle and dividing by 4t:
J

=
1
4
Z
4
I

d mean intensity
energy density
radiation pressure
(important in hot stars)
u

=
radiation energy
volume
=
1
c
Z
4
I

d =
4
c
J

=
1
c
Z
4
I

cos
2
d
pressure =
force
area
=
d momentum(= E/c)
dt
1
area
15
Moments of the specific intensity
0
th

moment
1
st

moment
(Eddington

flux)
2
nd

moment
J

=
1
4
Z
I

d =
1
4
Z
2
0
d
Z
1
1
I

d =
1
2
Z
1
1
I

d
H

=
1
4
Z
I

cos d =
1
2
Z
1
1
I

d =
F

4
K

=
1
4
Z
I

cos
2
d =
1
2
Z
1
1
I

2
d =
c
4
p

for azimuthal

symmetry
16
Convention: t
v

= 0 at the outer edge
of the atmosphere, increasing
inwards
Interactions between photons and matter
Interactions between photons and matter

absorption of radiation
I
v
ds
I
v
o
I
v

(s)
s
Over a distance s:
I

(s) = I
o

s
R
0

ds

:=
s
Z
0

ds
optical depth
(dimensionless)
or:

dt
v

= k
v

ds
loss of intensity in the beam (true absorption/scattering)
microscopical

view: k
v

=n o
v
dI

ds

: absorption coecient
[

] = cm
1
17
optical depth
I

(s) = I
o

if

= 1 I

=
I
o

e
' 0.37 I
o

The quantity t
v

= 1 has a geometrical interpretation in terms of mean
free path of photons :
s
photons travel on average
for a length
before absorption
s
We can see through
atmosphere until t
v

~ 1
optically thick

(thin) medium: t
v

>

(<) 1
The optical thickness of a layer
determines the fraction of the
intensity passing through the layer

= 1 =
s
Z
o

ds
18
photon mean free path
What is the average distance over which photons travel?
<

>=

Z
0

p(

) d

expectation value
probability of absorption in interval [t
v

,t
v

+dt
v

]
= probability of non-absorption between 0 and t
v

and absorption in dt
v
- probability that photon is not absorbed: 1 p(0,

) =
I(

)
I
o
= e

- probability that photon is absorbed: p(0,

) =
I()
I
o
=
I
o
I(

)
I
o
= 1
I(

)
I
o
total probability: e

- probability that photon is absorbed in [

+ d

] : p(

+ d

) =
dI

I(

)
= d

19
photon mean free path
<

>=

Z
0

p(

) d

Z
0

= 1
mean free path corresponds to <t
v

>=1
if

(s) = const :

s s = s =
1

(homogeneous
material)
Z
xe
x
dx = (1 + x) e
x
20
Principle of line formation
observer sees through the
atmospheric layers up to t
v

~

1
In the continuum k
v

is smaller
than in the line see deeper
into the atmosphere
T(cont) > T(line)
21
radiative

acceleration
In the absorption process photons release
momentum E/c to the atoms, and the
corresponding force is:
The infinitesimal energy absorbed is:
The total energy absorbed is (assuming that

does not depend on ):
t

F
v
force =df
phot
=
momentum(=E/c)
dt
dE
abs

= dI

cos dAd dt d =

cos dAd dt d ds
E
abs
=

Z
0

Z
4
I

cos d d dAdt ds =

Z
0

d dAdt ds
22
radiative

acceleration
df
phot
=

c

R
0

d
dt
dAdt ds = g
rad
dm (dm = dAds)
g
rad
=

c

Z
0

d
23
emission of radiation
ds
dA
de
dV=dA

ds
energy added by emission processes within dV
dE
em

dV d d dt

: emission coecient
[

] = erg cm
3
sr
1
Hz
1
s
1
24
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer
If we combine absorption and emission together:
dE
abs

= dI
abs

dA cos d d dt =

dA cos d dt d ds
dE
abs

+dE
em

= (dI
abs

+dI
em

) dA cos d d dt = (

) dA cos d d dt ds
dE
em

= dI
em

dA cos d d dt =

dA cos d d dt ds
dI

= dI
abs

+ dI
em

= (

) ds
dI

ds
=

differential equation
describing the flow of
radiation through
matter
25
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Plane-parallel symmetry
dx = cos ds = ds
d
ds
=
d
dx

dI

(,x)
dx
=

(, x) +

26
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Spherical symmetry
angle u

between ray and radial direction
is not constant
d
ds
=
dr
ds

r
+
d
ds

= sin

=
d
ds
=

r
+
sin
2

=

r
+
1
2
r

r
I

(, r) +
1
2
r

(, r) =

(, r) +

r d = sin ds (d < 0)
d
ds
=
sin
r
dr = ds cos
dr
ds
= cos (as inplaneparallel)
27
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Optical depth and source function
In plane-parallel symmetry:
optical depth increasing
towards interior:

dI

(,x)
dx
=

(x) I

(, x) +

(x)

dI

(,

)
d

= I

(,

) S

)
S

Observed emerging intensity I

v

(cos

u,t
v

= 0)
depends on = cos

u

, t
v

(R
i

) and

S
v
The physics of S
v

is crucial for radiative

transfer

=
d

ds

s

1
s
S

s
t = 1 corresponds to free mean path of
photons
source function S
v

corresponds to intensity
emitted over the free mean path of photons
source function
dim [S
v

] = [I
v

]

dx = d

=
x
Z
R
o

dx
28
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Source function: simple cases
a. LTE (thermal absorption/emission)
S

= B

(T)
Kirchhoffs law
photons are absorbed and
re-emitted at the local
temperature T
Knowledge of T stratification T=T(x) or T(t)
solution of transfer equation I
v

(,t
v

)
independent of radiation field
29
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Source function: simple cases
b. coherent isotropic scattering (e.g. Thomson scattering)
the absorption process is characterized by the
scattering coefficient o
v

, analogous to k
v

:
dI

ds
v

= v
and at each frequency v:
dE
em

= dE
abs

incident = scattered
Z
4

sc

d =
Z
4

sc

Z
4
d =

Z
4
I

d
dE
em

=
Z
4

sc

d
dE
abs

=
Z
4

sc

=
1
4
Z
4
I

d
S

= J

completely dependent on radiation field

not dependent on temperature T
30
The equation of
The equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer

Source function: simple cases
c. mixed case
S

+
sc

sc

+
sc

31
Formal solution of the equation of
Formal solution of the equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer
we want to solve the equation of RT
with a known source function and in
plane-parallel geometry
multiply by e
-t
v
/

and integrate between t
1

(outside)
and t
2

(> t
1

, inside)
d
d

(I

/
) =
S

linear 1
st

order differential equation

dI

= I

h
I

1
=

2
Z

1
S

dt

check, whether this really yields transfer

equation above
32
Formal solution of the equation of
Formal solution of the equation of
radiative
radiative

tranfer
tranfer
intensity originating at t
2

decreased
by exponential factor to t
1
contribution to the intensity by
emission along the path from t
2

to t
1

(at each point decreased by the
exponential factor)
integral form of equation
of radiation transfer
Formal solution! actual solution
can be complex, since S
v

can
depend on I
v
h
I

1
=

2
Z

1
S

dt

(
1
, ) = I

(
2
, ) e

2
Z

1
S

(t) e

t
1

dt

33
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions
a. incoming radiation:

< 0 at t
2

=

0
usually we can neglect irradiation from outside: I
v

(t
2

=

0,

< 0) = 0
solution of RT equation requires
boundary conditions, which are
different for incoming and outgoing
radiation
I
in

, ) =
0
Z

(t) e

dt

(
1
, ) = I

(
2
, ) e

2
Z

1
S

(t) e

t
1

dt

34
Boundary conditions
Boundary conditions
b. outgoing radiation:

> 0 at t
2

= t
max

We have either
or
I

(
max
, ) = I
+

()
finite slab or
shell
lim

(, ) e
/
= 0
semi-infinite
case (planar
or spherical)
I
v

increases less rapidly than the exponential
I
out

, ) =

(t) e

dt

) = I
out

) + I
in

)
and at a given position t
v

in
the atmosphere:
I

(
1
, ) = I

(
2
, ) e

2
Z

1
S

(t) e

t
1

dt

35
Emergent intensity
Emergent intensity
from the latter emergent intensity
t
v

= 0,

> 0
I

(0, ) =

Z
0
S

(t) e

dt

intensity observed is a weighted average of the source function

along the line of sight. The contribution to the emerging intensity
comes mostly from each depths with t/

< 1.
36
Emergent intensity
Emergent intensity
suppose that S
v

is linear in t
v

(Taylor expansion around t
v

= 0):
Eddington-Barbier

relation
emergent intensity
I

(0, ) =

Z
0
(S
0
+ S
1
t)e

dt

= S
0
+ S
1

(0, ) = S

= )
we see the source function
at location t
v

=
the emergent intensity corresponds to
the source function at t
v

= 1 along the
line of sight
S

) = S
0
+ S
1

Z
xe
x
dx = (1 + x) e
x
37
Emergent intensity
Emergent intensity

= 1 (normal direction):
I

(0, 1) = S

= 1)

= 0.5 (slanted direction):
I

(0, 0.5) = S

= 0.5)
in both cases: At/

~

1
spectral lines:

compared to
continuum t
v

/

= 1 is reached at
higher layer in the atmosphere
S
v
line

< S
v
cont
a dip is created in the spectrum
38
Line formation
Line formation
simplify:

= 1, t
1

=0 (emergent intensity), t
2

= t
S
v

independent of location
I

(0) = I

) e

+ S

Z
0
e
t
dt = I

) e

+ S

(1 e

)
39
Line formation
Line formation
Optically thick object: I

(0) = I

) e

+ S

(1 e

) = S

Optically thin object: I

(0) = I

) + [S

)]

exp(-t
v

) ~

1 -

t
v
40
independent of k
v

, no line
(e.g. black body B
v

)
I
v

= t
v

S
v

= k
v

ds
v

S
v
e.g. HII region, solar corona
enhanced k
v
I

(0) = I

) + [S

)]

e.g. stellar absorption spectrum

(temperature decreasing outwards)
e.g. stellar spectrum with temperature increasing outwards (e.g.

Sun in the UV)
From Ruttens

web notes
41
Line formation example: solar corona
Line formation example: solar corona
I
v

= t
v

S
v
42
The diffusion approximation
The diffusion approximation
At large optical depth in stellar atmosphere photons are local: S
v

B
v
Expand S
v

(= B
v

)

as a power-series:
S

(t) =

X
n=0
d
n
B

d
n

(t

)
n
/n!
In the diffusion approximation (t
v

>>1) we retain only
first order terms:
B

(t) = B

) +
dB

(t

)
I
out

, ) =

[B

) +
dB

(t

)]e
(t

)/
dt

43
The diffusion approximation
The diffusion approximation
Substituting:
At t
v

= 0 we obtain the Eddington-Barbier

relation for the observed emergent intensity.
It is given by the Planck-function and its gradient at t
v

= 0.
It depends linearly on

= cos

.

Z
0
u
k
e
u
du = k!
I
in

, ) =

/
Z
0
[B

) +
dB

u]e
u
du
I
out

, ) =

Z
0
[B

) +
dB

u]e
u
du = B

) +
dB

I
out

, ) =

[B

) +
dB

(t

)]e
(t

)/
dt

t u =
t

dt = du
44
Solar limb darkening
Solar limb darkening
I

(0,)
I

(0,1)
=
B

(0)+
dB

(0)+
dB

from the intensity measurements

B
v

(0), dB
v

/dt
v
B

(t) = B

(0) +
dB

t = a +b t =
2h
3
c
2
1
e
h/kT(t)
1
T(t): empirical temperature stratification of solar
photosphere
center-to-limb variation of
intensity
diffusion approximation:
45
Solar limb darkening
Solar limb darkening
...and also giant planets
46
Solar limb darkening: temperature stratification
Solar limb darkening: temperature stratification
I

(0, ) =

Z
0
S

(t) e

dt

exponential extinction varies as -t

v

/cosu
From S
v

= a + bt
v

:
I

(0, ) = S

= )
S
v
I

(0, cos ) = a

+ b

cos
R. Rutten,
web notes
Unsoeld, 68
47
Eddington
Eddington

approximation
approximation
In the diffusion approximation we had:
B

(t) = B

) +
dB

(t

)
0 <

< 1
-1 <

< 0
t

>> 1
I
in

, ) =

/
Z
0
[B

) +
dB

u]e
u
du
I
out

, ) = B

) +
dB

, ) = B

) +
dB

we want to obtain an approximation for the

radiation field

both inward and outward
radiation -

at large optical depth
stellar interior, inner boundary

of
atmosphere
48
Eddington
Eddington

approximation
approximation
J

=
1
2
Z
1
1
I

d = B

)
H

=
F

4
=
1
2
Z
1
1
I

d =
1
3
dB

=
1
2
Z
1
1

2
I

d =
1
3
B

)
=
1
3
1

dB

dx
=
1
3

dB

dT
dT
dx
flux F
v

~ dT/dx
diffusion: flux ~ gradient (e.g.
heat conduction)
K

=
1
3
J
Eddington

approximation
With this approximation for I

we can calculate
the angle averaged momenta

of the intensity
simple approximation for photon flux and a
relationship between mean intensity J

and K

very important for analytical estimates

49
J

=
1
2
1
Z
1
I

d =
1
2
1
Z
0
I
out

d +
1
2
0
Z
1
I
in

d
J

=
1
2

1
Z
0

(t)e
(t

)/
dt

d
0
Z
1

Z
0
S

(t)e
(t

)/
dt

substitute w =
1

dw
w
=
1

d
w =
1

dw
w
=
1

< 0

> 0
After the previous approximations, we now
want to calculate exact solutions for tha

radiative

momenta

J

, H

, K

.

Those are

important to calculate spectra and
atmospheric structure
Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
-
-
Milne equations
Milne equations
I
out

, ) =

(t) e

dt

I
in

, ) =
0
Z

(t) e

dt

=
1
2

Z
1

(t)e
(t

)w
dt
dw
w
+

Z
1

Z
0
S

(t)e
(

t)w
dt
dw
w

50
Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
-
-
Milne equations
Milne equations
J

=
1
2

(t)

Z
1
e
(t

)w
dw
w
dt +

Z
0
S

(t)

Z
1
e
(

t)w
dw
w
dt

> 0
> 0
J

=
1
2

Z
0
S

(t)

Z
1
e
w|t

|
dw
w
dt =
1
2

Z
0
S

(t)E
1
(|t

|)dt
Schwarzschilds

equation
51
Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
-
-
Milne equations
Milne equations
where
E
1
(t) =

Z
1
e
tx
dx
x
=

Z
t
e
x
x
dx
is the rst exponential integral (singularity at t=0)
Exponential integrals
E
n
(t) = t
n1

Z
t
x
n
e
x
dx
E
n
(0) = 1/(n 1), E
n
(t ) = e
t
/t 0
dE
n
dt
= E
n1
,
Z
E
n
(t) = E
n+1
(t)
E
1
(0) = E
2
(0) = 1 E
3
(0) = 1/2 E
n
() = 0
Gray, 92
52
Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
-
-
Milne equations
Milne equations
Introducing the A

operator:
J

) =

[S

(t)]
Similarly for the other 2 moments of Intensity:

[f(t)] =
1
2

Z
0
f(t)E
1
(|t

|) dt
Milnes equations
J
v

, H
v

and K
v

are all depth-weighted means of S
v
53
Schwarzschild
Schwarzschild
-
-
Milne equations
Milne equations
the 3 moments of Intensity:
J
v

, H
v

and K
v

are all depth-weighted means of S
v
the strongest contribution comes from the depth, where
the argument of the exponential integrals is zero, i.e. t=t
v
Gray, 92
54
The temperature
The temperature
-
-
optical depth relation
optical depth relation

Radiative
Radiative

equilibrium
equilibrium
The condition of radiative

equilibrium (expressing conservation of
energy) requires that the flux at any given depth remains constant:
4r
2
F(r) = 4r
2
4

Z
0
H

d = const = L
In plane-parallel geometry r ~

R = const 4

Z
0
H

d = const
and in analogy to the black body
radiation, from the Stefan-Boltzmann law
we define the effective temperature:
4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
F(r) = F =

Z
0
Z
4
I

cos d d =

Z
0
F

d = 4

Z
0
H

d
55
The
The
effective temperature
effective temperature
The effective temperature is defined by:
It characterizes the total radiative

flux
transported through the atmosphere.
It can be regarded as an average of the
temperature over depth in the
atmosphere.
A blackbody radiating the same amount
of total energy would have a
temperature T = T
eff

.
4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
56
Radiative
Radiative

equilibrium
equilibrium
Let us now combine the condition of radiative

equilibrium with the
equation of radiative

transfer in plane-parallel geometry:

dI

dx
= (

) (I

)
1
2
1
Z
1

dI

dx
d =
1
2
1
Z
1
(

) (I

) d
H
v
d
dx

1
2
1
Z
1
I

= (

) (J

)
57
Radiative
Radiative

equilibrium
equilibrium
Integrate over frequency:
d
dx

Z
0
H

d =

Z
0
(

) (J

) d
const

Z
0
(

) (J

) d = 0
s u b s t i t u t e S

=

B

+

Z
0

[J

(T)] d = 0
4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
in addition:

Z
0

d
=
absorbed energy

Z
0

d
=
emitted energy

T(x) or T(t)
at each depth:
58
Radiative
Radiative

equilibrium
equilibrium

Z
0

[J

(T)] d = 0 4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
T(x) or T(t)
The temperature T(r) at every depth has to assume the value for which the left
integral over all frequencies becomes zero.
This determines the local temperature.
59
Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:
Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are
the major parameters are

T
eff
and g
T(x), k
v

(x), B
v

[T(x)],P(x), (x)
J
v

(x), H
v

(x)
R

(J

) d = 0 ?
4
R

0
H

d = T
4
e
?
AT(x), Ak
v

(x), AB
v

[T(x)], A(x)
equation of
transfer
a. hydrostatic equilibrium
b. equation of radiation
transfer
dP
dx
= g(x)

dI

dx
= (

) (I

)
c. radiative

equilibrium

Z
0

[J

(T)] d = 0
d. flux conservation
4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
e. equation of state
P =
k T
m
H
60
Grey atmosphere
Grey atmosphere
-
-

an approximation for the
an approximation for the
temperature structure
temperature structure
We derive a simple analytical approximation for the temperature structure.
We assume that we can approximate the radiative

equilibrium integral by
using a frequency-averaged absorption coefficient, which we can put in
front of the integral.

Z
0

[J

(T)] d = 0

Z
0
[J

(T)] d = 0
With: J =

Z
0
J

d H =

Z
0
H

d K =

Z
0
K

d B =

Z
0
B

d =
T
4

J = B
4H = T
4
e
61
Grey atmosphere
Grey atmosphere
We then assume LTE: S = B.
From
and a similar expression for frequency-integrated
quantities
and with the approximations S = B, B = J:
J

) =

[S

(t)] =
1
2

Z
0
S

(t)E
1
(|t

|)dt
Milnes equation
!!! this is an integral
equation for J(t) !!!
J( ) =

[S(t)], d = dx
J() =

[J(t)] =
1
2

Z
0
J(t)E
1
(|t |)dt
62
The exact solution of the
The exact solution of the
Hopf
Hopf

integral equation
integral equation
Milnes equation J(t) = A
t

[J(t)] exact solution

(see Mihalas, Stellar Atmospheres)
J(t) = const. [ t

+ q(t)], with q(t)

monotonic
Radiative

equilibrium -

grey approximation
1

3
= 0.577 = q(0) q( ) q() = 0.710
J(t) = B(t) = o/t

T
4
(t) =

const. [ t

+ q(t)]
with boundary conditions
T
4
(t) =

T
4
eff

[t

+ q(t)]
63
A simple approximation for
A simple approximation for
T
T
(t
(t
)
)
0
th

moment of equation of transfer (integrate both
sides in d

from -1 to 1)

dI
dx
= (I B)
dH
d
= J B = 0 (J = B)
H = const =
T
4
e
4
1
st

moment of equation of transfer (integrate both
sides in d

from -1 to 1)
dK
d
= H =
T
4
e
4
K( ) = H + constant
From Eddingtons

approximation at large depth: K = 1/3 J

dI
dx
= (I B)
64
Grey atmosphere
Grey atmosphere

temperature distribution
temperature distribution
T
4
( ) =
3H

( + c) H =

4
T
4
e
T
4
( ) =
3
4
T
4
e
( + c) T
4

is linear in t
Estimation of c

Z
0
t
s
E
n
(t) dt
=
s!
s + n
1/3
1/2
H

( = 0) =
1
2
3H

Z
0
tE
2
(t) dt + c

Z
0
E
2
(t) dt

65
Grey atmosphere
Grey atmosphere

Hopf
Hopf

function
function
T
4
( ) =
3
4
T
4
e
( +
2
3
)
based on approximation K/J = 1/3
T = T
eff

at t

= 2/3, T(0) = 0.84 T
eff
Remember: More in general J is obtained from
T
4
( ) =
3
4
T
4
e
[ + q( )] q( ) : Hopf function
Once Hopf

function is specified solution of the grey atmosphere
(temperature distribution)
1

3
= 0.577 = q(0) q( ) q() = 0.710
J( ) =

[S(t)]
H(0) = H =
1
2
H(1 +
3
2
c) c =
2
3
66
Selection of the appropriate
Selection of the appropriate
non-grey grey
Equation of transfer
1
st

moment
2
nd

moment
In the grey case we define a suitable

mean opacity (absorption coefficient).
I =

Z
0
I

d J =

Z
0
J

d ...

dI

dx
=

(I

dI
dx
= (I S)
dH

dx
=

(J

)
dK

dx
=

dH
dx
= (J S)
dK
dx
=H

67
Selection of the appropriate
Selection of the appropriate
non-grey grey
Equation of transfer
1
st

moment
2
nd

moment
For each equation there is one opacity average that fits grey equations, however,
all averages are different. Which one to select?
For flux constant models with H(t) = const. 2
nd

moment equation is relevant

dI

dx
=

(I

)
dH

dx
=

(J

dI
dx
= (I S)
dK

dx
=

dH
dx
= (J S)
dK
dx
= H

68
Mean opacities: flux
Mean opacities: flux
-
-
weighted
weighted
1
st

possibility: Flux-weighted mean
allows the preservation of the K-integral
(radiation pressure)
Problem: H
v

not known a priory (requires
iteration of model atmospheres)
=

R
0

d
H
69
Mean opacities:
Mean opacities:
Rosseland
Rosseland
2
nd

possibility:

Rosseland

mean
to obtain correct integrated energy flux and use local T
dK

dx

1
3
dB

dx
=
1
3
dB

dT
dT
dx
K

1
3
J

, J

as
1

Ross
=

R
0
1

dB

(T)
dT
d

R
0
dB

(T)
dT
d
large weight for low-opacity (more
transparent to radiation) regions
1

=

R
0
1

dK

dx
d
dK
dx
dK

dx
=

R
0
1

dK

dx
d =

R
0
H

Z
0
1

dK

dx
d = H (grey)
1

dK
dx
= H
70
Mean opacities:
Mean opacities:
Rosseland
Rosseland
at large t

the T structure is accurately given
by
T
4
=
3
4
T
4
e
[
Ross
+q(
Ross
)] Rosseland

opacities used
in stellar interiors
For stellar atmospheres Rosseland

opacities allow us to obtain initial
approximate values for the Temperature stratification (used for further
iterations).
71
grey: q(t) = exact
grey: q(t) = 2/3
non-grey
numerical
T
4

vs. t
72
T vs. log(t)
non-grey
numerical
grey: q(t) = exact
grey: q(t) = 2/3
73
Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:
Iterative method for calculation of a stellar atmosphere:

the major parameters are
the major parameters are

T
eff
and g
T(x), k
v

(x), B
v

[T(x)],P(x), (x)
J
v

(x), H
v

(x)
R

(J

) d = 0 ?
4
R

0
H

d = T
4
e
?
AT(x), Ak
v

(x), AB
v

[T(x)], A(x)
equation of
transfer
a. hydrostatic equilibrium
b. equation of radiation
transfer
dP
dx
= g(x)

dI

dx
= (

) (I

)
c. radiative

equilibrium

Z
0

[J

(T)] d = 0
d. flux conservation
4

Z
0
H

d = T
4
e
e. equation of state
P =
k T
m
H