UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND
ENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING
PROJECT TITLE: RECYCLING OF POLYVINYL
WASTE AS BINDER IN CONCRETE.
By:
Ehikhuenen S!ue" On#$e%e&!
'(')'*'*+
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF T,E RE-UIREMENTS
FOR T,E AWARD OF BAC,ELOR OF SCIENCE
DEGREE IN .B$/.0
CIVIL 1 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING.
Su2e34i$e% By:
DR EFE EWAEN I5PONMWOSA.
MARC,6 *'+7.
C,APTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
+.+ B!/k83#un% #9 :he $:u%y
Concrete is the worlds second most consumed material after water, and its widespread use is
the basis for urban development. It is estimated that 25 billion tonnes of concrete are
manufactured each year. Twice as much concrete is used in construction around the world
when compared to the total of all other building materials combined. However the most
common definition of concrete which will be employed in this study! is the mi"ture of
cement hydraulic binder!, fine aggregates e.g. sand! coarse aggregates e.g. gravel! and
water hydrating agent!. The cement through hydration acts as the binder while the fine and
coarse aggregates serve to improve wor#ability and provide bul# and stability respectively.
In $igeria today, the cost in erecting a structure that would be of ma"imum strength and good
%uality is very high and the cost of purchasing construction materials is also high. However
the much desired progress has not been made due to challenges posed by continued rising
costs of conventional structural materials in both rural and urban settlements. This has led to
the %uest for readily available alternative materials waste materials! which are cheaper and
relatively easy to produce locally.
In &agos and the environ, there are many companies that generate waste products li#e steel
slag and polyvinyl waste. The issue of waste management is a problem encounter by those
companies' therefore if these wastes can be recycle by using it in construction which will
help in reducing the challenges of waste management and also reduce the ris# of pollution
underground water pollution which leads to increase in cost of treating the water!.
(and, one of the components in concrete is #nown to be %uite e"pensive due to the policy of
no dredging around &agos by the state government and also the price of cement has increase.
(o its replacement has been a ma)or target of recent research efforts. This we want to achieve
by partially replacing cement polyvinyl waste which are waste material in the roofing sheet
producing industries to reduce the cost of housing delivery.
+.* P3#;e/: !i 1 #&;e/:i4e
The aim of this research study is*
To determine the usability of polyvinyl waste as binder in concrete and the impact on
the strength characteristic of concrete.
The ob)ective is*
To determine the optimum replacement percentage of polyvinyl waste in concrete in
the view to cut down cost of structure without compromising policies or structural
integrity.
+.7 S/#2e #9 $:u%y
The scope of this research study can be itemi+ed as follows*
,. To determine e"perimentally the structural characteristic by replacing some
component in concrete with polyvinyl waste in the concrete mi" of ,*2*- for normal
concrete cubes and for each percentage replacement we are going to cast cubes for .,
,-, 2, and 2/ days. 0ere the compressive strength, the slump, density, setting time,
wor#ability, rate of curing, etc.
2. 1valuation of the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of the materials to be
used. 1.g. 2rain si+e analysis, determination of bul#3densities etc.
+.) Ju$:i</!:i#n #9 $:u%y
The essence of this study will center on two points namely
,. 1conomy.
2. 1nvironmental ha+ard reduction.
+.).+ E/#n#y
Concrete is the most widely used construction material for the construction of infrastructural
facilities, large and small scale residential facilities and other speciali+ed uses which have
proven to be the most widely preferred in $igeria due to factors li#e availability, cost and
technical #nowledge available. $evertheless, recent research wor#s have been underta#en to
obtain advance construction materials due to the cost of construction materials in the nation,
which can partially or completely be replaced. The main concern of this research wor# is
centered on reducing cost while maintaining structural integrity, other consideration li#e
availability, sustainability and environmental4 health imparts are also ta#en into account.
In $igeria, cement is the most e"pensive component in concrete. 5ue to the hi#e in price,
there is needed to replace cement partially or completely in the production of concrete. (till,
the prevailing economic situation and insufficient production capacity of the available cement
plants in the nation necessitate to the importation of cement from other countries which
increases the price inde" due to several factor affecting international trade.
+.).* En4i3#nen:!" h!=!3% 3e%u/:i#n
The disposal of polyvinyl waste tends to create environmental pollution through solid
waste. In the dump site when rain fall on the solid waste polyvinyl waste!, the water tend to
percolate into the earth which have a negative impact on agricultural land and also pose a
threat to the underground water. This study will also see# to reduce the environmental
implications of disposal of polyvinyl waste as solid waste by recycling it into a construction
material.
In the production of cement, intensive energy is use fossil fuels! which have a negative
impact on the environment due to the emission of green gases.
+.> Lii:!:i#n #9 :he $:u%y
The study was limited by*
,. 6rom the scope of the study itemi+ed above, this study will be limited to compressive
strength tests on the 2/th day, setting times, density
2. 6inancial constraint.
7. (hortage of waste materials.
+.? Si8ni</!n/e #9 :he $:u%y
The results of this study will prove to be of great importance and benefits to the economy in
%uit a number of ways which includes*
,. The replacements for cement which will thus reduce the high demand for the already
e"pensive ordinary 8ortland cement leading to the production of cheaper and as well
durable binders which reduces the cost of construction which is our goal.
2. (ince polyvinyl waste is waste materials, the usability of the materials in concrete
would reduce environmental pollution and the ha+ards caused as a result of
percolation in the underground water.
+.@ De<ni:i#n #9 :e3$
The following terms are to be regularly employed in the course of this study'
+.@.+ C#n/3e:e !n% i:$ 23#2e3:ie$
5ictionary of Civil 1ngineering defines concrete as an artificial material reconstituted from
three primary components that are* aggregates or inert matter* sand, gravels, pebbles, etc.!, a
binder lime, tar, cement, etc.!, a reactive that can play two roles* that of reactive and binder
or a single as the water which only intervenes as reactive. The fresh concrete forms a wet
mass, more or less plastic, that can be poured in molds or formwor#s.
Concrete is a composite material which is composed of coarse granular materials called
aggregates or filler embedded together in the form of a matri" with the help of the cement or
binding material that fills the space between the aggregates particles and glues them together.
9ggregates are usually obtained from natural roc#s, either crushed stones or natural gravels.
Cement binds the aggregates together.
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength,
and as such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension often steel!. The
elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher
stress levels as matri" crac#ing develop. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal
e"pansion, and as it matures concrete shrin#s. 9ll concrete structures will crac# to some
e"tent, due to shrin#age and tension. Concrete which is sub)ected to long3duration forces is
prone to creep. Tests can be made to ensure the properties of concrete correspond to
specifications for the application.
The density of concrete varies, but is around 2,-:: #g4m; ,5: pounds per cubic foot or -,:5:
lb4yd;!.

9s a result, without compensating, concrete would almost always fail from tensile
stresses < even when loaded in compression. The practical implication of this is that concrete
elements sub)ected to tensile stresses must be reinforced with materials that are strong in
tension.
+.@.* Ch!3!/:e3i$:i/$ #9 /#n/3e:e
9s a material for construction, the main function of concrete is to enable the structure to carry
its self3weight and other imposed loads. Thus the most important properties of hardened
concrete are its strength and rigidity modulus of elasticity!. Concrete is stronger in
compression than in tension. Hence, it is often used in the form of a composite section with
steel providing the tensile resistance. In the case of pre3stressed concrete, a compressive
stress distribution is induced into the section to counteract the tensile stress due to loading.
Hence, compressive strength of concrete is the most commonly specified property of
hardened concrete. However, concrete is a brittle composite and its failure mode is dependent
on its ultimate tensile strain. 1ven under a"ial compressive stress, tensile strain is generated
by 8oisson s effect in the lateral directions. This is evident from the failure mode when
standard specimens cubes or cylinders! are tested under an applied compressive load.
The hardened concrete has to conform to certain re%uirements for mechanical properties.
They include compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, fle"ural strength, static modulus
of elasticity, 8oisson s ratio, mechanical properties under tri3a"ial loads, creep under
compression, abrasion resistance, bond development with steel, penetration resistance, pull
out strength, etc.
+.@.7 Me/h!ni/!" 23#2e3:ie$
.+0 S:3en8:h #9 /#n/3e:e
The strength of concrete is its ability to withstand an applied stress without failure or the
ma"imum load it can carry. The field of strength of concrete deals with loads, deformations
and the forces acting on it but is strong in compression and wea# in tension.
.*0 F"eAu3!" $:3en8:h .#%u"u$ #9 3u2:u3e0
Flexural strength is a mechanical parameter for brittle material, is defined as a material=s
ability to resist deformation under load. The transverse bending test is most fre%uently
employed, in which a rod specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross3section is
bent until fracture using a three point fle"ural test techni%ue. The test is performed on cured
concrete specimen at ., ,-, 2,, and 2/ days.
It is measured in >pa or ?$4m
2
.The fle"ural strength represents the highest stress
e"perienced within the material at its moment of rupture. It is measured in terms of stress,
here given the symbol !.
.70 C#23e$$i4e $:3en8:h ./3u$hin8 4!"ue0
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or structure to withstand a"ially directed
pushing forces. 0hen the limit of compressive strength is reached, brittle materials are
crushed.
The compressive strength of hardened concrete is usually determined from standard
specimens cubes or cylinders! after they have been moist cured for 2/ days. The strength of
concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement, coarse and fine aggregates, water, and
various admi"tures. The ratio of the water to cement is the chief factor for determining
concrete strength. The lower the water3cement ratio, the higher is the compressive strength.
It is measured by the compressive strength test or crushing value test. It is measured in >pa
or #$4m2. The test is performed on cured concrete specimen at ., ,-, 2,, and 2/ days.
+.@.) P3#2e3:ie$ #9 ! 93e$h /#n/3e:e iA
This is the ease with which freshly mi"ed concrete can be handled from the mi"er to its
finally compacted shape. It embraces concrete consistency, mobility and compatibility.
(1) Consistency: this is the measure of wetness and uniformity of the concrete mi".
(2) Workability: It is ability of a fresh plastic! concrete mi" to fill the form4mold properly
with the desired wor# vibration! and without reducing the concrete=s %uality. 0or#ability
depends on water content, aggregate shape and si+e distribution!, cementitious content and
age level of hydration!, and can be modified by adding chemical admi"tures. @aising the
water content or adding chemical admi"tures will increase concrete wor#ability. 1"cessive
water will lead to increased bleeding surface water! and4or segregation of aggregates when
the cement and aggregates start to separate!, with the resulting concrete having reduced
%uality.
(3) Compatibility: It is the measure to which a given mi" can be completely compacted. The
wor#ability of concrete depends on the method employed for conveyance and compaction,
the si+e shape and roughness of formwor# and the %uantity and spacing of reinforcement.
0or#ability is measured in on site or in the laboratory by (lump test, compaction 6actor test
and the A3B consistometer test.
+.@.> A883e8!:e$
Aggregate is the component of a composite material that resists compressive stress and
provides bul# to the composite material. 6or efficient filling, aggregate should be much
smaller than the finished item, but have a wide variety of si+es. 9ggregates come in various
shapes, si+es, and materials ranging from fine particles of sand to large, coarse roc#s.
Because cement is the most e"pensive ingredient in ma#ing concrete, it is desirable to
minimi+e the amount of cement used. .: to /:C of the volume of concrete is aggregate
#eeping the cost of the concrete low. The selection of an aggregate is determined, in part, by
the desired characteristics of the concrete. 6or e"ample, the density of concrete is determined
by the density of the aggregate. (oft, porous aggregates can result in wea# concrete with low
wear resistance, while using hard aggregates can ma#e strong concrete with a high resistance
to abrasion.
9ggregates should be clean, hard, and strong. The aggregate is usually washed to remove any
dust, silt, clay, organic matter, or other impurities that would interfere with the bonding
reaction with the cement paste. It is then separated into various si+es by passing the material
through a series of screens with different si+e openings.
+.@.? Ceen:
In the most general sense of the word, cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together. The word DcementD traces to the
@omans, who used the term opus caementicium to describe masonry resembling modern
concrete that was made from crushed roc# with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulveri+ed bric# additives that were added to the burnt lime to obtain a hydraulic binder were
later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cEment and cement.
Cement used in construction is characteri+ed as hyraulic or non!hyraulic. Hydraulic
cements e.g., 8ortland cement! harden because of hydration, chemical reactions that occur
independently of the mi"ture=s water content' they can harden even underwater or when
constantly e"posed to wet weather. The chemical reaction that results when the anhydrous
cement powder is mi"ed with water produces hydrates that are not water3soluble. $on3
hydraulic cements e.g., lime and gypsum plaster! must be #ept dry in order to retain their
strength.
The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and concreteFthe bonding of
natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong building material that is durable in the face of
normal environmental effects.
+.@.@ P#==#"!n$
9 po++olan could also be defined as a siliceous or aluminosiliceous material that, in finely
divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically reacts with the calcium hydro"ide
released by the hydration of portland cement to form calcium silicate hydrate and other
cementitious compounds. 8o++olans and slags are generally catergori+ed as supplementary
cementitious materials or mineral admi"tures. The practice of using supplementary
cementitious materials in concrete mi"tures has been growing in $orth 9merica since the
,G.:s. There are similarities between many of these materials in that most are byproducts of
other industrial processes' their )udicious use is desirable not only from the national
environmental and energy conservation standpoint but also for the technical benefits they
provide concrete.
$atural po++olans which are vulcanite ashes, tuffs, pumicites, shales, opalinic chest and
diatomaceous earth have lost their popularity in view of availability of artificial po++olanas.
9rtificial po++olanas can be obtained mainly from agricultural wastes or steel production
residue. @ise Hus#s, mai+e stal#s and even some plants in the grain family are po++olanic.
Hthers from steel and coal production are pulverised fly ash, electric arc furnace slag, blast
furnace slag, silica fume,etc.
+.@.B P#"y4iny" C!$:e
Polyvinyl waste is a waste material derived from a polyvinyl roofng sheet.
They are manufactured from high %uality polyvinyl fibre, cellulose and 8ortland cement
blended with water and coloring pigments. The roofing sheets derive their strengths from the
8olyvinyl 9lcohol 8Aa! reinforcement fibers, which significantly increase the mechanical
properties of the sheet.
+.B P3e$en:!:i#n #9 :he $:u%y
This study is concisely arranged in five chapters, chapter one gives a brief introduction on the
research topic, ob)ectives and scope of the study, definition of terms. Chapter two provides
more insight into the technical terms, a historical bac#ground and a literature review of past
wor#s done on similar topics. Chapter three provides the research methodology while
chapters four and five contain the results and conclusions respectively
C,APTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
*.' P3e!&"e
In recent times men cogni+ant has been aroused very strongly about the need of protecting
the earth resources and preserving the ecological balance which is indispensable for our
e"istence. In the present day environment of industry, recycling and economic utili+ation of
solid by3products has become an absolute necessity. 0hereby, the waste can be converted to
useful product to generate wealth. The need of the hour therefore is to concentrate on
accelerated recycling, mar#eting the waste product and the reduction in dumping of solid
wastes.
This chapter presents a summary of some of the documented research into the use of
complementary materials mineral admi"ture! and supplementary cementitious material in
the production of normal concrete"
*.+ Ceen: 3e2"!/een:$ in /#n/3e:e
9 replacement in this case can be defined as the act or process of ta#ing the place or
substituting a suitable material which can partially or fully replace the binder cement! and
still maintain acceptable strengths. The material should prove advantageous over the H8C in
some or all the following terms' cost, environmental effects, sustainability, availability, etc.
*.* P#==#"!n$ !n% /een:i:#u$ !:e3i!"$
9 po++olan is a siliceous or aluminosiliceous material that, in finely divided form and in the
presence of moisture, chemically reacts with the calcium hydro"ide released by the hydration
of 8ortland cement to form calcium silicate hydrate and other cementitious compounds.
8o++olans and slags are generally catergori+ed as supplementary cementitious materials or
mineral admi"tures. 6ly ash, ground granulated blast3furnace slag, silica fume, and natural
po++olans, such as calcined shale, calcined clay or meta#aolin, are materials that when used
in con)unction with portland or blended cement, contribute to the properties of the hardened
concrete through hydraulic or po++olanic activity or both.
@esearchers have investigated the possibility of replacing cement partially with some locally
available po++olaniic material in concrete.
9ccording to $.?. 8atil and 5r ?.B. 8ra#as 2::/! I,J, reported that the effect of
replacement of cement by fly ash on the strength properties of fibrous fibrocement. The
percentage of 2, fibres wereK varied as :C, :.5C, ,.:C, ,.5C and 2.:C by volume fraction
of total mi". The cement was replaced by fly ash in different percentages li#e 5C, ,:C, ,5C,
2:C, 25C and 7:C. They concluded that there will be increment in strength properties of
fibrous fibrocement with replacement of cement up to 2: percent by fly ash. Thus fibrous
fibrocement containing 2, fibers can effectively be sued as 2G- versatile arid economical
construction materials with 2: percent replacement of cement by fly ash.
Isaia et al I2J opined that the physical filler effect of the fine grains allows denser pac#ing
within the cement and reduces the wall effect in the transition +one between the paste and the
aggregates. In thermal plants, coal is burnt at temperatures ranging from about ,-::3,5::LC
with about 2:C e"cess air in the furnace. The by3product of this is fly ash was reported that
the utili+ation of fly ash is .:C in 9ustralia, -C in M?, -C in cement manufacturing in
6rance. 6ly ash is e"tensively used in concrete as an admi"ture in order to reduce the cost of
cement.
*.7 A83i/u":u3!" C!$:e$ 1 n!:u3!""y #//u33in8 !:e3i!"$
!$ 3e2"!/een: !:e3i!"$
@ice straw ash is po++olanic and satisfies the minimum re%uirements of 9(T> class $, 6 and
C po++olans and is suitable for use in 8ortland cement replacement.
>ohamed 9. 1&3(ayed and Taher >. 1&3(amni 2::N! I7J reported that rice staws are
produced in significant %uantities on global basis. 0hile they are utili+ed in some regions, in
others they are waste causing pollution and problems in disposing it. 0hen burnt, the rice
straw ash is highly po++olanic and suitable for use in lime3po++olana mi"es and 8ortland
cement replacement.
9ccording to $ai# O ?raus I-J, 0ood ash is the residue generated due to combustion of
bar#, wood, and scraps from manufacturing operations pulp mills, saw mills, and wood
products manufacturing plants!, and from C50 construction and demolition wastes!. 0ood
ash is composed of both inorganic and organic compounds. Pield of wood ash decreases with
increase in combustion temperature.
Coppola et al I5J opined that wood fly ash has substantial potential for use as a po++olanic
mineral admi"ture and as an activator in cement3based materials. 0ood ash has been used in
the ma#ing of structural3grade concrete, bric#s4bloc#s4paving stones, flowable slurry, and
blended cements. 9ir entrained concrete can be achieved by using wood fly ash up to 75C.
(tructural3grade concrete can be made using wood fly ash and its blends with Class C fly ash
to achieve a compressive strength of 5: >8a. or higher. (olids are removed at the primary
clarifier by sedimentation or dissolved air flotation. (uch solid residuals consist mainly of
cellulose fibres, moisture, and paperma#ing fillers #aolinitic clay, calcium carbonate, etc.!.
In a study by 1linwa 2::N! INJ on the effect of addition of sawdust ash to clay bric#s, he
found that measurement ta#en on the compressive strength, water absorption and linear
shrin#age show that the compressive strength of the bric#s decreased as (59 was increased
and ma"imum compressive strength was achieved at a firing temperature of N::
o
c curing for
, day and at ,:C (59 replacement. The low value recorded for the compressive strength
may be attributed to low content of 9&
2
o
2
and the mullite content. 0ater absorption also
increased, as the (59 was increased but values obtained were within the code specification
of indian standard I(* ,:... 9ddition of (59 reduced the effect of shrin#age.
Hye#an and ?amiyo 2::/! [8] studied the effects of rich hus# ash @H9! on some
engineering properties of concrete bloc#s and cement and concluded that the addition of @H9
in the mi" produced sandcrete of lower density and compressive strength. However, @H9 had
fairly significant effect on the compressive strength of the concrete cube specimens,
increasing the latter by nearly ,.C at 2/ days! and at 5C @H9 content.

I#ponmwosa et al I/J opined that the partial replacement of cement with (oldier ant mound
clay accelerated setting times of the concrete, increased wor#ability, decreased density and
decreasing values of compressive strengths as the percentage replacements increased.
However, he observed that the optimum fle"ural strength for the specimen beams was
obtained at 5C replacement.
*.) In%u$:3i!" C!$:e$ !$ 3e2"!/een: !:e3i!"$
S:ee" i"" $/!"e$
>orots#os#i 9. et al IGJ studied the 1volution of the use of mill scale as pigment for white
concrete. The mill scale used in the study underwent physical and chemical characteri+ation.
It was as dried at ,::L C and ground ball mill model TC 2-::! for - hours, after it was
sub)ected to a temperature of .:: L C for - hours with constant airflow. The ob)ective was to
stabili+e the mill scale o"ides contained in iron o"ide III 6e2H7!. The bodies of evidence
$B@ .2,5!, prepared with 7*, mapping, with additions of 2C, 7C and /C of scale. The
results showed that the samples maintained their resistance for every percentage of used mill
scale, when compared with samples without the addition of scale, and the samples with /C
addition showed slight change in tonality.
(aud 9l Htaibi I,:J studied the effect of the partial replacement of fine aggregates in concrete
with steel mill scales on the fle"ural and compressive strengths of concrete. He observed that
@eplacing -:C of sand with steel mill scale gave the highest increase in compressive strength
and replacing -:C of sand with steel mill scale also increased fle"ural strength. He also
observed that the drying shrin#age of the concrete was lower when using steel mill scale.
*.> S:ee" $"!8
(teel slag is an industrial byproduct and instead of disposing it in the landfill, the use of such
product in the construction mar#et would increase efficiency and economy. The physical and
chemical characteristics of steel slag have been e"amined carefully. 5ue to its potentially
e"pansive properties, it re%uire special care if used in construction or other specific
applications. The possibility of utili+ing such product as a concrete aggregates with
ecological benefits has been globally studied by several researchers li#e 9nastasiou and
8apayianni, 2::N! [11].
They conducted several tests with slag aggregates in concrete and found out that the 2/ day
strength was increased by 2,C with replacement of natural aggregates, while there was no
increase in the setting time of concrete mi"tures. The cement3aggregate interface seemed to
be very dense without crac#s or other discontinuities. The concrete that is produced with steel
slag aggregates is of high specific gravity compared to conventional concrete. However the
specific gravity can be increased or reduced proportionally by the combination of different
types of aggregates 9nastasiou and. 8apayianni, 2::N! [11].
(lag is a waste material from a blast furnace during the production of pig iron. To process
slag so it can be used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete, it is %uenched
with water and ground >arceau et al I,2J. 8roducing one metric ton of slag uses /NC less
energy than producing one metric ton of cement. 9dditionally, producing one metric ton of
slag produces G/C less CH2 emission than producing one metric ton of cement.
(alau I,7J studied the effect of partial replacement of Hrdinary 8ortland Cement H8C! with
pulverised electric 9rc furnace 196! slag. 9 po++olana electric arc furnace slag is the by3
product of steel production using the 5irectly @educed Iron 5@I!. He concluded that up to
7:C of H8C can be replaced with 196 slag without impairing the eventual strength of the
H8C concrete and recommended its use where reduced heat of hydration in the early life of
concrete is essential. He further reported that the 8ulveri+ed 1lectric 9rc 6urnace slag has the
ability to react with lime in the presence of moisture at ordinary temperature to form a
po++olan.
9 study on durability of the concrete made with 1lectric 9rc 6urnace slag as an aggregate
was done by >anso and 2on+ale+ 2::-! I,-J, and the results showed that it was acceptable.
The concrete mi"es using conditioned 196 slag showed good fresh and hardened properties
and acceptable behavior against aggressive environmental conditions. It was observed that
the compressive strength was similar to that of traditional concrete. The durability was
slightly lower than conventional concrete. The concrete had good physical and mechanical
properties, but results showed that special attention should be paid to the gradation and
crushing process. The results showed that the high porosity of 196 slag aggregates affects
concrete resistance to free+ing and thawing but improvements in the field could be possibly
obtained by adding air entraining admi"tures.
Comparison of steel slag and crushed limestone aggregate was done by >aslehuddin, et al,
2::7! I,5J. They studied the mechanical properties and durability characteristics of steel slag
aggregate concrete in comparison with limestone aggregates.
Their results showed that the durability and physical properties of concrete with steel slag
aggregates was better than limestone aggregates. They suggested that the use of steel slag
aggregates in concrete was beneficial, particularly in areas where good %uality aggregates are
not available or have to be hauled from far off distances. 9brasion resistance, specific gravity,
water absorption, chemical soundness, al#alinity, concentration of chloride and sulfates were
tested and compared with lime stone aggregates. (hrin#age and e"pansion characteristics of
steel slag and sand cement mortar specimens were evaluated and length was measured at
periodic intervals. Their results showed that the compressive strength of steel slag aggregates
increased with the proportion of coarse aggregates from -55: psi 7,.- >8a! with -5C
coarse aggregates to N,G: psi -2.. >8a! with N5C coarse aggregates. The fle"ural strength
and split tensile strength also increased while the water absorption capacity was reduced.
They stated that the shrin#age of steel slag e"posed to a dry environment was similar to
limestone aggregate with no ma)or e"pansion i.e. less than :.:5C as specified by 9(T> C
77. The time of initiation of reinforcement corrosionand time of crac#ing of concrete
specimens was observed to be longer than with lime stone aggregates.
6urther study by >anso, 8olanco et al 2::N! I,NJ reaffirmed that by proper mi" proportions
both the mechanical strength and durability of steel slag aggregate concrete can be improved.
He conducted two tests for durability* ,! 9utoclave test and 2! 9ccelerated aging test.
9utoclave test is used to detect the presence of e"pansive compounds, free lime or magnesia
in 8ortland cement, while accelerated ageing test is done based on 9(T> 53-.G2. @esults
showed that the compressive strength was improved after testing. He conducted chemical
reactivity test to observe the possible reactions between slag aggregates and other
components of concrete. 6or the free+e3thaw test, three samples were stored in moist room
for 2/ days and sub)ected to 25 free+ing and thawing cycles. They are then immersed in water
at -QC for N hours and maintained in frost storage at 3,. QC for ,/ hours. Aariations in weights
and compressive strength were recorded and results showed that 1lectric arc furnace slag
concrete showed greater strength and lower water penetration. He also stated the use of air
entraining admi"tures increased the free+e3thaw resistance and durability of slag concrete
was satisfactory.
Industrial by3products li#e steel slag re%uire a detailed study of its potential to"icity. There
are several dangerous heavy metals and salts present in the steel slag. 9 leaching test is
re%uired prior before using the 196 slag as a filling material. >anso et al, 2::N! I,.J
conducted the leaching test for determining the possible attac# of concrete i.n the
environment. 9nalysis of leached water from crushed slag aggregates were used to detect the
sulphates, fluorides and total chromium present in it. The results showed that smaller si+e of
crushed slag produces higher concentration of dangerous substances in leached water. The
cloistering effect was found to be greater in larger si+es of crushed slag. He concluded that
the use of 196 slag aggregate in concrete will help to reduce its potential to"icity and the
results confirmed an important cloistering effect of cementitous matri" on the contaminants
elements.
*.? EDe/: #9 e"e4!:e% :e2e3!:u3e$ #n /#n/3e:e
Concrete is a material used in all climatic regions for all #inds of structures. ?nowledge of
thermal e"pansion is re%uired in long span bridge girders, high rise buildings sub)ected to
variation of temperatures, in calculating thermal strains in chimneys, blast furnace and
pressure vessels, in dealing with pavements and construction )oints, in dealing with design of
concrete dams and in host of other structures where concrete will be sub)ected to higher
temperatures such as fire, subse%uent cooling, resulting in crac#s, loss of serviceability and
durability.
@oc# and aggregate possesses three thermal properties which are significant in establishing
the %uality of aggregate for concrete constructions.
They are*
i! Coefficient of e"pansion
ii! (pecific heat
iii! Thermal conductivity.
Bahar 5emirel n,and HRgu+han ?eles3temur I,/J studied the effect of elevated temperature
on the mechanical properties of concrete produced with finely ground pumice and silica
fume. This study investigated the effect of elevated temperature on the mechanical and
physical properties of concrete specimens obtained by substituting cement with finely ground
pumice 628! at proportions of 5C, ,:C, ,5C and 2:C by weight. To determine the effect
of silica fume (6! additive on the mechanical and physical properties of concrete containing
628(6 has been added to all series e"cept for the control specimen, which contained ,:C
cement by weight instead. The specimens were heated in an electric furnace up to -::, N::
and /:: ,C and #ept at these temperatures for one hour .9fter the specimens were cooled in
the furnace, ultrasonic pulse velocity M8A!, compressive strength and weight loss values
were determined. The results demonstrated that adding the mineral admi"tures to concrete
decreased both unit weight and compressive strength. 9dditionally, elevating the temperature
above N:: ,C affected the compressive strength such that the weight loss of concrete was
more pronounced for concrete mi"tures containing both 628 and (6. These results were also
supported by scanning electron microscope (1>! studies.
Hansen and 1ricsson I,GJ studied the effects of temperature change between room
temperature and ,::oC on the behaviour of cement paste, mortar and normal concrete under
load. @esults of their investigation show that cement paste and mortar beams deflect
e"cessively when heated after application of load. Their findings also indicate that deflection
occasionally leads to failure at low stresses and after moderate heating. It was also observed
that deflection increases with higher rate of heating and the temperature at failure is lower for
cement paste than for cement mortar. &i#ewise, deflection was observed to be large and the
temperature at failure was lower for saturated beams than for dry beams. &astly, the
researchers opined that rapid rates of heating permanently reduce the modulus of elasticity of
cement mortar* an indication of internal destruction of the material structure. The study
further concluded that thermal cycling leads to e"cessive deflection and occasionally to
failure. It is, however, important to #now the behaviour of normal concrete at higher
temperature up to ,:::oC.
>. (. >orsy, (. H. 9lsayed and >. 9%el 2:::! I2:J.9n e"perimental investigation was
conducted to evaluate the influence of elevated temperatures on the mechanical properties,
phase composition and microstructure of silica flour concrete. The blended cement used in
this investigation consists of ordinary 8ortland cement H8C! and silica flour. The H8C were
partially replaced by :, 5, ,:, ,5 and 2:C of silica flour. The blended concrete paste was
prepared using the water3binder ratio of :.5 wtC of blended cement. The fresh concrete
pastes were first cured at ,::C relative humidity for 2- hours and then cured in water for 2/
days. The hardened concrete was thermally treated at ,::, 2::, -::, N:: and /:: oC for 2
hours. The compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, phase composition and
microstructure of silica flour concrete were compared with those of the pure ordinary
8ortland concrete. The results showed that the addition of silica flour to
H8C improves the performance of the produced blended concrete when e"posed to elevated
temperatures up to -::oC.
I#ponmwosa and (alau I2,J investigated the effects of temperature variation on the
compressive strength of laterised concrete. Cube specimens were cast, cured in water at
ambient laboratory temperature and sub)ected to different temperature regimes before testing.
9 concrete mi" ratio of 2*7*N cement* laterite4sand* granite! with water4cement ratio of :.N5
was adopted for this investigation. The laterite content in the fine aggregate was varied from
: to ,::C at 25C interval. (pecimens cured for . and 2/ days were sub)ected to unia"ial
compressive loading tests at room and elevated temperatures of 25:, 5:: and .5:oC. The
results showed that normal concrete cannot withstand appreciable load above 25:oC while
laterised concrete with 25C laterite in the fine aggregate was able to resist higher load with
increase in age and at temperature up to 5::oC. They also observed that there was no
appreciable increase in strength at higher temperatures. The pea# compressive strength value
of 7:.-- $4mm2 was recorded for the mi" with 25C laterite3.5C sand at 5::oC. This is an
indication that the strength of laterised concrete is generally sufficient for use at elevated
temperature not e"ceeding 5::oC.
Bishr I22J investigated the 1ffect of 1levated Temperatures on the Compressive (trength of
Concrete with cement partially replaced by silica fume. He opined that the compressive
strength of concrete with or without silica fume decreases with increasing temperature, the
pea# value in the ratio of the compressive strength at high temperature to that at ambient
temperature is observed around 7::o C. This pea# value could be attributed to the
evaporation of free water inside the concrete. He also observed that (ilica fume concrete is
more sensitive to high temperatures than blended cement concrete where the poor
performance of silica fume concrete, e"posed to elevated temperature, compared to plain
concrete can be attributed to the effect of vapour pressure built3up inside the concrete causing
e"pansion and crac#ing because of the highly dense structure. 6inally, it was observed that
for all mi"es, the compressive strength was found to increase after four hours of e"posure to
an elevated temperature up to 7::o C. 9n obvious reduction in the compressive strength was
observed after e"posure to .::o C, increasing the temperature up to G::o C causes serious
deterioration where the decreasing ratio in the compressive strength reached to /,C of the
unheated strength.
&. T. 8hanl et al 2::,! I27J investigated on the effects of elevated temperature e"posure on
heating characteristics, spalling, and residual properties of high performance concrete. The
report describes results of $I(T=s e"perimental program that focuses on effects of elevated
temperature e"posure on residual mechanical properties of H8C.
@esidual mechanical properties were measured by heating the ,:2 " 2:- mm cylinders to
steady state thermal conditions at a target temperature, and loading them to failure after the
specimens had cooled to room temperature. The test specimens were made of four H8C
mi"tures with water3to3cementitious material ratio (w/cm) rangmg fiom :.22 to :.5., and
room3temperature compressive strength at testing ranges from 5, >8a to G7 >8a. Two of the
four H8C mi"tures contained silica fume. The specimens were heated to a ma"imum core
temperature of -5HoC, at a heating rate of 5DC4min. 1"perimental results indicate that H8Cs
with higher origmal strength lower w/cm) and with silica fume retain more residual strength
after elevated temperature e"posure than those with lower original strength higher w/cm) and
without silica hme. The differences in modulus of elasticity are less significant. However, the
potential for e"plosive spalling increased in H8C specimens with lower w/cm and silica fume.
9n e"amination of the specimens= heating characteristics indicate that the H8C mi"tures
which e"perienced e"plosive spahng had a more restrictive process of capillary pore and
chemically bound water loss than those which did not e"perience spalling.
6alade et al I2-J investigated the response of lightweight concrete to elevated temperature.
The variables were* mi" proportion, water4cement ratio, curing age and temperature. The
parameters that were measured were* compressive strength, density and bond characteristics
of the concrete matri". The results showed that the compressive strength of concrete
decreased with increase in water4cement ratio and temperature but increased with increase in
curing age and cement content while the density decreased with increase in temperature. The
bond between the concrete matri"es also decreased as the temperature increased. They
concluded that &ightweight concrete containing periwin#le shells is only suitable for
structures that will be sub)ected to temperature less than 7::oC.
Hluwaseyi and >use I25J investigated the weathering characteristics of laterised concrete
with laterite3granite fines ratio as a factor in ascertaining its suitability as a substitute for the
conventional fine aggregate. They found that the compressive strength of laterised concrete
with laterite3granite fines decreased when sub)ected to alternate wetting and drying. It was
also observed that laterised concrete with -:3N:C laterite3granite fines sub)ected to a
temperature variation range of .53,25oC attained compressive strength of 22.52 $4mm2.
However, the critical failure temperature of the laterised concrete was not ascertained.K
*.@ Re/y/"in8 #9 C!$:e
Civili+ation also produces waste products. 5isposal issue of the waste products is a
challenge. (ome of these materials are non3biodegradable and often leads to waste disposal
crisis and environmental pollution. This research see#s the possibilities of whether some
of these waste products can be utili+ed as construction materials. Traditionally soil, sand,
granite, cement etc. are used for road construction. $atural materials being e"haustible in
nature, its %uantity is declining gradually. 9lso, cost of e"tracting good %uality of natural
material is increasing. Concerned about this, the scientists are loo#ing for alternative
materials for construction, and industrial waste product is one such category. If these
materials can be suitably utili+ed in highway construction, the pollution and disposal
problems may be partly reduced.
#ecycling is a process using materials waste! into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy
usage, reduce air pollution from incineration! and water pollution from landfilling! by
reducing the need for DconventionalD waste disposal, and lower greenhouse gas emissions as
compared to plastic production.

@ecycling is a #ey component of modern waste reduction and
is the third component of the D@educe, @euse, and @ecycleD waste hierarchy.
The following are waste materials that may be used in construction*
,. 6ly ash3 Thermal power station
2. Blast furnace slag3 (teel industry
7. >arble dust3 >arble industry
-. 2lass waste3 2lass industry
5. 8olyvinyl waste3 @oofing industry and so on.
5r. 2. Ai)aya#umar et al, I2NJ study on glass powder as partial replacement of cement in
concrete production. The results describe that global warming is caused by the emission of
green house gases, such as CH2, to the atmosphere. 9mong the greenhouse gases,CH2
contributes about N5C of global warming. The global cement industry contributes about .C
of greenhouse gas emission to the earths atmosphere. In order to address environmental
effects associated with cement manufacturing, there is a need to develop alternative binders
to ma#e concrete. Conse%uently e"tensive research is ongoing into the use of cement
replacements, using many waste materials and industrial by products. 1fforts have been made
in the concrete industry to use waste glass as partial replacement of coarse or fine aggregates
and cement. In this study, finely powdered waste glasses are used as a partial replacement of
cement in concrete and compared it with conventional concrete. The wor# e"amines the
possibility of using 2lass powder as a partial replacement of cement for new concrete. 2lass
powder was partially replaced as ,:C, 2:C, 7:C and -:C and tested for its compressive,
Tensile and fle"ural strength up to N: days of age and were compared with those of
conventional concrete' from the results obtained, it is found that glass powder can be used as
cement replacement material up to particle si+e less than .5Sm to prevent al#ali silica
reaction.
Concrete made with recycled glass aggregate have shown better long term strength and better
thermal insulation due to its better thermal properties of the glass aggregates. 0hen tested for
the compressive strength values at the ,: C, -:C, and N: C aggregate replacement by waste
glass with : < ,:mm particle si+e were 7C, /C and 5C above the value of conventional
concrete. It has been concluded that 7:C glass powder could be incorporated as cement
replacement in concrete without any long3term detrimental effects. Mpto 5:C of both fine
and coarse aggregate could also be replaced in concrete of 72 >8a strength grade with
acceptable strength development properties. Better results are achieved when the waste glass
powder replaced either 7: C or .:C of the sand with particles si+es ranging between 5: Sm
and ,:: Sm 6ederio.&.> and Chidiac (.1,2::,! I2.J.
Msed glass waste, which is cylindrical in shape prevents crac# propagation in concrete
structures. 6rom the research carried out on glass powder by the authors, it was found that
glass of particle si+e ,.,/ to 2.7N mm produced the highest e"pansion where as low
e"pansion was observed at smaller particle si+esIdir.@,Cyr.> and Tagnit < Hamou.9,2::G!
I2/J.
It was observed that with a 7:C replacement of cement by amber waste glass content of
particle si+e .5Sm along with flyash, the compressive strength of concrete increase 25C at .
days and 75C when tested for 2/ days strength 8ereira de Hliveira. &.9, T.8. castro < 2omes,
8. (antos, 2::/! I2GJ.
Hye#an and ?amiyo 2::/! I7:J. They studied the effects of rich hus# ash @H9! on some
engineering properties of concrete bloc#s and cement and concluded that the addition of @H9
in the mi" produced sandcrete of lower density and compressive strength. However, @H9 had
fairly significant effect on the compressive strength of the concrete cube specimens,
increasing the latter by nearly ,.C at 2/ days! and at 5C @H9 content.

*.B P#"y4iny" C!$:e
There is little or no literature encountered where the polyvinyl waste $igerite roofing sheet
waste! were they have been incorporated into concrete for use as structural member in
construction. Therefore, the trust of this pro)ect is to determine the e"tent or the reusability of
these materials in concrete element.
C,APTER 7
EEPERIMENTAL ME,ODOLOGY
7.' P3e!&"e
The aim of this research study was to determine U@eusability of polyvinyl waste as binder in
concreteV and the response4 effect of the compressive strengths of the concrete.

To obtain these results, it was re%uired to perform a series of tests on specimen in the
laboratory. $otable amongst these were the determination of the physical properties of the
aggregates and binders to be used, wor#ability and setting time tests on the plastic mi"es
varying percentage replacements values! and compressive tests on the hardened mi"es
before and after e"posure to elevated temperatures. Hthers include specific gravity and
density.
W
7.+ M!:e3i!" /#n$:i:uen:
The various materials used in this pro)ect include the following*
a! 6ine 9ggregate sand!
b! Coarse aggregate granite!
c! Hrdinary 8ortland cement
d! 8olyvinyl waste
e! 8otable water.
The materials were obtained from various sources.
7.+.+ Fine !883e8!:e
The fine aggregate used in this research study was @iver sand obtained from Hgun @iver bed
located at Hgun state. It was confirmed to be salt free not li#e sand gotten from the lagoon
salt content is high!. The sand particles were sieve which was free from clay, loam, dirt and
organic or chemical matter of any description. The particles that pass through B( sieve $o -
aperture -..5mm! but retained on sieve $o 22: aperture :.:Nmm! ensuring that the dust
particles were removed from the sand.
7.+.* C#!3$e !883e8!:e
The coarse aggregate used in this research study were crushed granite of igneous origin. They
come in different si+es but the recommended si+e is 2.7Nmm to 2:mm. It helps to improve
the strength of the concrete.
7.+.7 Ceen:
Cement is a hydraulic binder and is defined as a finely ground inorganic material which,
when mi"ed with water, forms a paste which sets and hardens by means of hydration
reactions and processes which, after hardening retains its strength and stability even under
water. The cement used was Hrdinary 8ortland cement 5angote 8ortland Cement!. This
cement satisfies international standards on cement B( ,2 8ortland Cement!. This ensures
that the cement passes test for which its properties maybe determined.
7.+.) P#"y4iny" C!$:e
The 8olyvinyl 0aste used was obtained from a @oofing (heet Company $igerite &imited!
located at -,, Hba 9#ran 9venue, I#e)a in &agos >etropolis. They were milled4 pulverised to
meet grain si+e classification of Hrdinary 8ortland cement and ta#en to the laboratory for its
chemical composition.
7.+.> W!:e3
The water used was obtained from the laboratory taps. The water was portable and did not
contain any sulphates, ferric, al#aline, oils, vegetation or salt that could affect the properties
of the materials or concrete in the fresh or hardened state 9nne" 9 of B( 7,-/*,G/:!.9lso
the water should be colourless, tasteless, odourless and free from decaying organic matters,
etc.
7.* A22!3!:u$F :##"$ !n% eGui2en:
The apparatus, tools and e%uipment to be used for these tests and observations in the
laboratory are briefly outlined below*
3"2"1" Avery $eighing machine
These have a capacity range :35:#g, which was used to measure the concrete constituent and
other materials used for the pro)ect. It consists of around measuring gauge vertically standing
and attached to the bac# a loading platform.
3"2"2" Cube mouls
These were made of cast iron with inner dimensions of ,5:",5:",5:mm7 they have a sheet
metal base and they were well greased to prevent e"cessive moisture escape and facilitate for
easy de3moulding.
3"2"3" %lump moul
The slump mould is a metal hollow frustum of a cone having the following dimensions'
5iameter of top X ,::mm
5iameter of base X 2::mm
Height of mould X 7::mm
It is used to determine the wor#ability of a mi" by measuring the slump height. It also
comprises of a tamping rod and a base plate to facilitate compaction and prevent moisture
escape respectively.
3"2"&" Concrete mixer
This is a diesel engine powered tilting drum mi"er. It has a single cylinder engine as well as a
mobile rotating drum which rotates in order to ensure proper mi"ing of constituent materials
thereby creating a homogeneous concrete mi".
3"2"'" (icats apparatus
This is used to determine initial and final setting times of the fresh plastic mi".
3"2")" Compression testing machine
This is hydraulically < operated e%uipment. It consists of a measuring guage with two
indicators or pointers blac# and red!. The indicators must be set to +ero mar# before testing.
&oad is applied to a test specimen through two steel loading platforms' a fi"ed upper platform
and an up warding moving lower platform. The lower platform has mar#ings which help in
centrali+ing a test specimen to receive the concentric load. T failure, the blac# pointer drops
bac#.

3"2"*" Wheel barro$s
This was used to transfer large masses of aggregates and tested specimens.
3"2"+" ,apping ro
It is a straight steel bar or circular cross3section of ,Nmm diameter and N::mm long. It was
used to compact the concrete in the cube moulds.
3"2"-" %ieves
These are of different aperture si+es used to obtain the grain si+e classification of aggregates.
3"2"1." /ther e0uipment
The other e%uipment used in this pro)ect includes trowel, shovel, headpan, greasing oil and
curing tan#s.
7.7 EA2e3ien:!" :e$: 23#/e%u3e$
The e"perimental procedure began with the preliminary investigation on the polyvinyl waste,
granite, sand and cement and ended with the compressive strength determination of ,5:mm
cubes with varying proportions ,*2*- by weight of cement, sand and polyvinyl waste and
coarse aggregates for water4cement ratios ranging from :.553:..5. The ratio of the polyvinyl
waste was varied :C, 5C, ,:C, ,5C,Y, 5:C in that order.
7.7.+ P3e"iin!3y in4e$:i8!:i#n
The preliminary investigation carried out is to determine the properties of each material. The
tests include*
(ieve analysis
(pecific gravity
>oisture content
Chemical analysis of 8olyvinyl waste
7.7.+.+ Sie4e !n!"y$e$F83!%!:i#n #9 !883e8!:e$
(ieve analysis is the name given to the simple operation of dividing a sample of aggregates
into fraction, each consisting of particles of appro"imately the si+e. Before this e"periment,
the aggregates sand, granite, polyvinyl waste and steel slag! were dried sufficiently to avoid
lumps of fine particles being classified as large particle in the case of sand and to prevent
clogging of finer sieves!.
Apparatus:
,. >echanical (ieve (ha#er
2. (ieve brush
7. 0eighing Balance
-. Aarious (i+es of (ieve @anging 6rom 2.7Nmm 3 N5Zm
5. 5rying oven
N. 1vaporating pans.
1roceure:
9rrange the sieves with the larger si+e 2.7Nmm! at the top and decreasing order of
sieve si+e. The receiver is placed beneath the bottom sieve.
Transfer the weighed material into the topmost sieve and place the lid on.
9gitate the nest of sieves by lateral and vertical motions accompanied by a )arring
action so as to #eep the soil moving continuously over the sieve surface for ,:mins if
the electric sha#er is used, the nest should be agitated for ,5min!.
9fter which, each sieve is then sha#en separately over a clean tray until no more
material passes.
The material retained on each sieve is weighed and the amount recorded.
7.7.+.* S2e/i</ 83!4i:y
%peci2ic gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density mass of the same unit
volume! of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a
volume of the substance to the weight of an e%ual volume of the reference substance.
The specific gravity of a soil is often used to describe the relationship between the weight of
soil and its volume. 9s soil contains different particles with different specific gravities' the
term 2s represents an average value for all the particles.
Apparatus
,. 5ensity bottle
2. 2lass rod
7. 0ash bottle containing distilled water
-. 5rying Hven
1roceure
0eigh the dried density bottle, 0,!.
Hbtain about 25.:g of the oven dried material and transfer into density bottle. @eplace
the stopper and weigh the bottle and contents. 02!.
9dd distilled or tap water so that the soil in the bottle is )ust covered. Thoroughly stir
the mi"ture with a glass rod orr sha#e to remove air trapped in the soil.
6ill the bottle with distilled or tap water and replace the stopper. (ha#e the density and
its contents carefully to remove any remaining air.07!
1mpty the contents of the bottle, wash and fill the bottle with distilled water only.
0-!.
Gs = W
2
- W
1

W
! -
W
1
" # W
$
# W
2
"

0here'
0
,
X 0eight of bottle
0
2
X 0eight of bottle and dry
0
7
X 0eight of bottle, soil and water
0
-
X 0eight of bottle filled with water only.
The specific gravity is used in the laboratory to help with the calculation of the void ratios of
soil specimens, in the determination of the moisture content of a soil, and in the particle3si+e
analysis, also #nown as the sedimentation test.
7.7.+.7 M#i$:u3e /#n:en:
Water content or moisture content is the %uantity of water contained in a material. It is the
ratio of water present in the soil mass to the weight of the soil solids.
The aggregate specimen of sand was weighed and placed in the oven for 2- hours, then
weighed when removed from the oven. The decrease in weight of the specimen shows the
corresponding loss of moisture content and it is e"pressed in percentage.
7.7.+.) Chei/!" An!"y$i$ #9 P#"y4iny" C!$:e
The chemical analysis of polyvinyl waste was carried out at the chemistry department,
university of &agos laboratory and compared with that of ordinary 8ortland cement. This is to
determine the composition of polyvinyl waste in construction wor#s.
7.7.* SECONDARY INVESTIGATION
The secondary investigations carried out in the course of this research study include the
following*
Test on cement paste
(lump test wor#ability!
Casting of cubes
Compressive strength test
(plit Cylinder test
7.7.*.+! Te$: #n /een: 2!$:e
The first one aims to get the consistence of standard cement paste to calculate the initial and
final setting time of neat cement past of standard consistence! and the compressive strength.
9s the amount of water used in hydrating cement affect setting time more water, more time
needed for setting!, we needed a specific amount of water that gives us a standard paste we
could use for testing, from here the need of $ormal Consistence Cement 8aste e"isted.
Initial setting time is the time from mi"ing dry cement with water till the beginning of
interloc#ing of the gel. 6inal setting time is the time from mi"ing dry cement with water till
the end of interloc#ing of the gel.
It is very important to #now the setting times. ?nowing the initial setting time is important in
estimating free time for transporting, placing, compaction and shaping of cement paste.
A22!3!:u$:
,. AIC9T 9pparatus.
2. 5igital weighing scale, used to measure the weight of dry cement.
7. 2lass graduates, used to measure the volume of water.
-. Trowel.
5. >i"ing bowl.
N. (top3watch.
.. 8ortland 8o++olan Cement.
/. 0ater.
P3#/e%u3e:
Hnce we determine the normal consistency, we can use the ta#en specification of that
paste to measure the initial and final setting times. (o we ma#e a fresh cement paste
using the amount of water and cement of the standard consistency. The stop3watch
shall start at this step.
0e use the , mm diameter needle, and penetrate the sample with this needle by
leaving it to free fall, and then we read the AIC9T ruler scale. 0e do a trial each ,5
minutes until the depth of penetration is 5 mm. The elapsed time from mi"ing the
water with dry cement till this moment is called initial setting time.
0e replace the needle with another angular one 6inal setting needle!, and penetrate
the sample by it every ,5 minutes till only the needle ma#es an impression on the
paste surface but the cutting edge fails to.
M(I$23 :.. 04C ratio
Cement 1ercentage 1olyvinyl Waste 1ercentage
1.. .
-. 1.
+. 2.
*. 3.
). &.
'. '.
7.7.*.+& C#23e$$i4e $:3en8:h :e$: #n /een: 2!$:e /u&e
The compressive strength test was conducted as per B( 1$ ,27G:37*2::2 on two
.5".5".5mm cubes using a compression testing machine with a rate of loading of 5:#$4min.
Hne day prior to the test e"cept in the case of the 7 day compressive strength test!, the cubes
were removed from the polythene sheet, and immersed in a water tan# for 2- hours.
Immediately before testing, the cubes were removed from the water bath and surface dried by
using a wet cloth in the lab. This was to ensure that the cubes were tested at a saturated3
surface dry ((5! condition.
T9B&1 7., T9B&1 (HH0I$2 $M>B1@( H6 CMB1( 6H@ 19CH 81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T H6 8H&PAI$P&
09(T1 I$ C1>$1T 89(T1 T1(T.
The total material %uantity re%uired are itemised below'
,. 5ensity of concrete* 2-::?g4m7
2. Aolume of single cubeX .5".5".5X :.:::-2,Gm
7
7. $o of cubes re%uiredX -/
-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X ,*7 , for binder and 7 for sharp sand!
Total volume re%uired for -/ cubes X -/ " :.:::-2,GX :.:2:25m
7
.
0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.
total ratio
0eight of Binder X ,4-":.:2:25"2-::X ,2.,5#g
0eight of 6ine aggregates X 74-":.:2:25"2-::X 7N.-5#g
(ince the primary binder used ordinary 8ortland cement! is to be partially replaced with
polyvinyl waste' a sample calculation of the partial replacement weights of wastes materials
and cement is shown below'
%or 1&' repla(ement)
Total weight of binder re%uired X 7N.-5#g
$o of cubes re%uired for ,:C replacement X / cubes refer to table 7.,!
Total weight of binder re%d. for :C replacementX 7N.-54-/! " / X N.:.5#g.
Total weight of binder re%d for [C replacement X [ " total wt of binder re%d for [ C replacement
,::
0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for ,:C replacementX ,:4,::! " N.:.5X :.N:.5#g.
The material %uantities are summari+ed in the table below*
T9B&1 7.2* (HH0I$2 01I2HT( H6 BI$51@ >9T1@I9& C1>1$T O 8H&PAI$P& 09(T1! 6H@ 19CH
81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T.
7.7.*.* C#n/3e:in8F/u3in8
The measurement of materials for ma#ing concrete is #nown as batching. 6or thus study,
materials were batched by weight.
S"u2 Te$:
The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the wor#ability of fresh concrete.
It measures the consistency of the concrete in that specific batch. This test is performed to
chec# the consistency of freshly made concrete. Consistency is a term very closely related to
wor#ability. It is a term which describes the state of fresh concrete. It refers to the ease with
which the concrete flows. It is used to indicate the degree of wetness.
A22!3!:u$
,. >ould * in form of the frustum of a cone! the mould is provided with suitable foot
pieces as well as handles to facilitate placing the concrete and lifting the moulded
concrete test specimen in a vertical position.
2. Tamping rod* ,Nmm diameter, N::mm long and rounded at one end!
7. (teel rule
-. (topwatch
5. Hand trowel.
N. Headpan
P3#/e%u3e:
Clean the surface of the mould and place on a smooth, hori+ontal, rigid and non3
absorbent surface. The place of test must be free of vibration.
8repare concrete mi" ratio ,*2*- cement* sand* granite!, ,Gmm ma"imum using
:..w4c ratio.
Hold the mould firmly and fill in three layers with concrete. 1ach layer, about ,47 of
the height of the mould, is tamped with 25 stro#es of the rounded end tamping rod.
The stro#es are distributed uniformly over the cross3section of the mould and the
second and subse%uent layers should penetrate into the underlying layer. The bottom
layer is tamped throughout its depth.
9fter tamping the top layer, the mould is filled and the concrete struc# off and
finished level with a trowel.
9ny mortar, which may have lea#ed out between the mould and the base plate is
cleaned.
@ecord the slump and type.
7.7.*.7 Cu3in8
Curing is the process of #eeping concrete moist and warms enough so that the hydration of
cement can continue. In this study concrete cubes were cured by immersion in curing tan#s
for periods of ., ,-, 2,, and 2/ days! after which they were crushed to determine their
compressive strengths.
Apparatus:
,. Concrete mi"er
2. ,5:mm ",5:mm " ,5:mm 7 cube moulds
7. Tamping rod ,Nmm!
-. (lump cone
5. (hovel
N. (coop
.. Curing tan#
/. Compression testing machine
G. Head pans
,:. 0eighing machine
The following are some parameters that were employed*
a! >i" proportion4 batching ratio* ,*2*- Binder* 6ines* Coarse aggregates!
b! 0ater4 cement ratio* :.N5.
c! @eplacement percentages* :C, 5C, ,:C, ,5C, 2:C,Y, 5:C .
d! Cube dimensions* ,5:",5:",5:mm7

P3#/e%u3e:
The materials were batched by weight, weighing each component according to
prescribed %uantities contained in the mi" design.
The constituents were thoroughly mi"ed together until a uniform mi" was obtained
after which water was added according to the prescribed w4c ratio.
The plastic mi" was poured into the moulds in three layers blowing at least 25 times
with ,Nmm tamping rod to ensure proper compaction and elimination of air voids.
They were de3moulded after 2- hrs and subse%uently placed in a curing tan#
containing potable water.
7.7.*.7 S2i: Cy"in%e3 :e$:: To determine the splitting tensile of concrete.
APPARATUS
Compression testing machine, tamping bar, moulds, two pac#ing strips of plywood 7: cm
long and ,2mm wide.
PROCEDURE
,. Ta#e the wet specimen from water after . days of curing
2. 0ipe out water from the surface of specimen
7. 5raw diametrical lines on the two ends of the specimen to ensure that they are on the
same a"ial place.
-. $ote the weight and dimension of the specimen.
5. (et the compression testing machine for the re%uired range.
N. ?eep are plywood strip on the lower plate and place the specimen.
.. 9lign the specimen so that the lines mar#ed on the ends are vertical and centered over
the bottom plate.
/. 8lace the other plywood strip above the specimen.
G. Bring down the upper plate to touch the plywood strip.
,:. 9pply the load continuously without shoc# at a rate of appro"imately ,-3
2,#g4cm24minute 0hich corresponds to a total load of GG::#g4minute to
,-/5:#g4minute!
,,. $ote down the brea#ing load8!
7.7.*.) De:e3in!:i#n #9 /#23e$$i4e $:3en8:h
The compressive strength of the hardened concrete is dependent mainly on the type of cement
in mortar, the type of aggregate, the cement aggregate bond, the water4cement ratio in the
mi", mi" ratio i.e. ,*2*-! and the degree of compaction of plastic concrete.
The compressive strength of each sample was determined by divding the average load for
each set by nominal cross sectional area.
Msing the 9very crushing machine the cubes were placed on the machine and the load was
upon it after which the cubes withstands the load to a point until failure, with this the
compressive strength is determined and recorded.
7.) M!:e3i!" Gu!n:i:ie$
C!$:in8 S/he%u"e
9 total of .2 cubes were cast with 7 cubes for each replacement percentage of polyvinyl
waste.
The schedule is itemised in the table below*
T9B&1 7.- T9B&1 (HH0I$2 $M>B1@( H6 CMB1( 6H@ 19CH 81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T H6 8H&PAI$P&
09(T1 I$ CH$C@1T1 CMB1 T1(T.
9ll specimens were tested at the 2/
th
day.
The total material %uantity re%uired are itemised below'
,. 5ensity of concrete* 2-::?g4m7
2. Aolume of single cube for concrete! X ,5:",5:",5:X :.::77.5m
7
.
7. $o of cubes re%uiredX .2
-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X ,*2*-.
Total volume re%uired for .2 cubes X .2 " :.::77.5X :.2-7m
7
.
0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.
total ratio
0eight of Binder X ,4.":.2-7"2-::X /7.7,#g
0eight of 6ine aggregates X 24.":.2-7"2-::X ,NN.N7#g
0eight of coarse aggregates X -4." :.2-7"2-::X777.2N#g
(ince the primary binder used ordinary 8ortland cement! is to be partially replaced with
polyvinyl waste' a sample calculation of the partial replacement weights of wastes materials
and cement is shown below'
%or 1&' repla(ement)
Total weight of binder re%uired X /7.7,#g
$o of cubes re%uired for ,:C replacement X ,2 cubes refer to table 7.,!
Total weight of binder re%d. for :C replacementX /7.7,4.2! " ,2 X ,7./G#g.
Total weight of binder re%d for [C replacement X [ " total wt of binder re%d for [ C replacement
,::
0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for ,:C replacementX ,:4,::! " ,7./GX ,.7G#g.
The material %uantities are summari+ed in the table below*
T9B&1 7.-* (HH0I$2 01I2HT( H6 BI$51@ >9T1@I9& C1>1$T O 8H&PAI$P& 09(T1! 6H@ 19CH
81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T.

7.> EA2e/:e% 3e$u":$
The results from the preliminary and secondary investigations are stated below*
(1) G3!in $i=e !n!"y$e$ 1 /"!$$i</!:i#n: 9 thorough assessment of the grain
si+e and classification of the H8C, 8olyvinyl waste, coarse and fine aggregates. 9lso the
values of coefficient of uniformity Cu! and coefficient of curvature C+! are used for further
classification of the materials. This will be with graphical aids.
(2) C#2!3!:i4e /hei/!" !n!"y$e$: a concise comparative chemical analysis of
the 8olyvinyl waste and H8C showing similarities and disparities in their chemical contents.
(3) W#3k!&i"i:y: The trend of wor#ability for increasing values of 8olyvinyl waste
replacement percentages obtained presented in tabular form.
(&) C#23e$$i4e $:3en8:h* The strength characteristic of the paste in the concrete
cube .5".5".5mm
7
. The average compressive strength of each specimen
,5:",5:",5:mm
7
! with varying percentage of polyvinyl waste was compared to the
compressive strength of the concrete cube.
(') D3y %en$i:y: This is the relationship between the weight and volume of each cube.
The density of each dried specimen was obtained. The dry density was obtained from the
weight per unit volume after heating.
()) 1hysical assessments: 8hysical assessments which could not be e"pressed analytically
such as physical appearance, formation of crac#s, spalling. etc. 0ere observed and recorded.
9 total of .2 cylinder were cast with 7 cubes for each replacement percentage of polyvinyl
waste.
The schedule is itemised in the table below*
T9B&1 7.- T9B&1 (HH0I$2 $M>B1@( H6 CP&I$51@ (>98&1( 6H@ 19CH 81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T
H6 8H&PAI$P& 09(T1 I$ CH$C@1T1 CMB1 T1(T.
9ll specimens were tested at the 2/
th
day.
The total material %uantity re%uired are itemised below'
,. 5ensity of concrete* 2-::?g4m7
2. Aolume of single cube for concrete! ,5:mm dia and 7::mm height X 7.,-2 " ,5:
2
" :.25
" 7:: X :.::57m
7
.
7. $o of cubes re%uiredX .2
-. Concrete cube mi" ratio X ,*2*-.
Total volume re%uired for .2 cubes X .2 " :.::57X :.7/2m
7
.
0eight of components X ratio of component " total volume " density of concrete.
total ratio
0eight of Binder X ,4.":.7/2"2-::X ,7:.G.#g
0eight of 6ine aggregates X 24.":.7/2"2-::X 2N,.G-#g
0eight of coarse aggregates X -4." :.7/2"2-::X527./G#g
(ince the primary binder used ordinary 8ortland cement! is to be partially replaced with
polyvinyl waste' a sample calculation of the partial replacement weights of wastes materials
and cement is shown below'
%or 1&' repla(ement)
Total weight of binder re%uired X ,7:.G.#g
$o of cylinders re%uired for ,:C replacement X ,2 cubes refer to table 7.,!
Total weight of binder re%d. for :C replacementX ,7:.G.4.2! " ,2 X 2,./7#g.
Total weight of binder re%d for [C replacement X [ " total wt of binder re%d for [ C replacement
,::
0eight of 8olyvinyl waste re%uired for ,:C replacementX ,:4,::! " 2,./7X 2.,/7#g.
The material %uantities are summari+ed in the table below*
T9B&1 7.-* (HH0I$2 01I2HT( H6 BI$51@ >9T1@I9& C1>1$T O 8H&PAI$P& 09(T1! 6H@ 19CH
81@C1$T921 @18&9C1>1$T.
0
,
30
2
0
2