USE OF RECYCLED AND WASTE MATERIALS IN CONCRETE

A SERBIAN PERSPECTIVE
Nikola Tošić1, Jelena Dragaš2, Vedran Carević3
1Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, ntosic@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
2Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, jelenad@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs
3Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Belgrade, vedran@imk.grf.bg.ac.rs

Abstract: The construction industry is increasingly unsustainable, being responsible for a large proportion of
the world material and energy consumption. Within it, concrete is the most widely used material and it has a
significant environmental footprint with CO2 emissions from cement production being responsible for 4.4% of
annual global industry emissions. Another problem it poses is the increasing amount of waste being generated
and mainly deposited in land-fills. Current research trends are focusing on making concrete “greener” by
replacing its traditional components with environmentally advantageous alternatives. Among these, the most
promising is the use of recycled concrete aggregates as a replacement of natural aggregates and the use of fly
ash as a supplementary cementitious material to reduce the amount of cement used. In this paper general
research trends and results are presented and debated alongside with the presentation of current research
being undertaken in this field at the University of Belgrade’s Faculty of Civil Engineering.

Keywords: sustainability, concrete, recycled concrete aggregate, fly ash.

Apstrakt: Građevinska industrija je sve neodrživija u svom funkcionisanju jer je odgovorna za sve veći deo
svetske potrošnje prirodnih sirovina i energije. U okviru nje beton je najkorišćeniji material sa značajnim
uticajem na okolinu – emisija CO2 usled proizvodnje cementa čini 4.4% svetske emisije iz industrije, na
godišnjem nivou. Još jedna problem je sve rastuća količina građevinskog otpada koji se i dalje najčešće odlaže
na deponije. Trenutni pravci istraživanja su fokusirani na pronalaženje “zelenih” betona menjanjem
tradicionalnih komponenti ekološki prihvatljivijim alternativama. Među njima prednjači upotreba agregata od
recikliranog betona kao zamena prirodnog agregata i upotreba letećeg pepela kao zamene dela cementa. U
ovom radu su predstavljeni opšti pravci i rezultati istraživanja zajedno sa prezentacijom rezultata trenutno
aktuelnih istraživanja na Građevinskom fakultetu Univerziteta u Beogradu.

Ključne reči: održivost, beton, reciklirani agregat, leteći pepeo.

THE UNSUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development (the Brundtland Commission)
published the report Our Common Future [1] and since then “sustainability” and “sustainable
development” have become ever-present buzzwords in both academic and non-academic circles.
While the terms themselves have evolved significantly and a number of researchers have pointed out
inherent contradictions and problems in their mainstream interpretations [2] it is still useful to think
of sustainability as requiring compliance with three imperatives:
 the ecological imperative to stay within planetary biophysical carrying capacities,
 the economic imperative to provide an adequate material standard of living, and
 the social imperative to provide systems of governance that propagate the values people want to
live by.
Today it can hardly be said that the construction industry globally is satisfying any of these
imperatives, in fact the situation seems to be worsening. The great infrastructure and housing projects
that did so much to improve the material standard of living and which were conducted under
responsible governance systems in the developed countries after the Second World War are in sharp
decline since the 1980s. They have been replaced, if at all, with profit-seeking construction by private
enterprise. It would seem contradictory, but in the meantime, we are fast approaching planetary
boundaries to growth.
Among all human activities, the construction industry has one of the largest environmental impacts. It
is responsible for 40% of raw stone, gravel and sand consumption, 25% of virgin wood, 40% of total
energy and 16% of annual water consumption in the world [3]. Within the construction industry,
concrete is by far the most widely used material in the world with a global annual production of up to
21 billion tons [4].
From a production perspective, the use of all constituent components of concrete (natural river or
crushed aggregates, cement and water) poses an environmental issue. The enormous annual
production of concrete requires an equally large consumption of natural aggregates – around 15
billion tons [5]. The question must then be asked about the availability of natural aggregates (NA) and
the effect of their production on the environment. Cement is produced globally by only a few mega-
producers and annually up to 4.18 billion tons [6]. Additionally, during the production of Portland
cement CO2 is released as a result of the combustion of carbon-based fuels and the calcinations of
limestone. This release of CO2 amounts to 4.4% of global emissions from industry [7].
From a use-and-disposal perspective, concrete also poses significant challenges as a large part of
construction and demolition (C&D) waste. In the EU alone, 850 million tons of C&D waste is generated
annually, which accounts for about one third of the total waste generated [8]. Still the most common
method of dealing with this waste is land-filling.
As can be seen, the challenges are tremendous. However, possibilities for a different way forward exist
and some of them will be elaborated upon in the following sections.

“GREEN” ALTERNATIVES TO TRADITIONAL CONCRETE

In the previous section some of the biggest problems with the sustainability of traditional concrete
were highlighted, those related to the components of concrete and to its end-of-life disposal. The
logical step forward is to identify areas in which improvements, large or small, can be made and
develop technologies for implementing them.
One approach which deals with two problems simultaneously is recycling of C&D waste. Waste
concrete cannot be recycled back into its original constituent materials nor original form. Concrete can
be crushed into aggregates called recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) which can be used in new
applications. On the one hand, using RCA lowers demand for natural aggregates and on the other,
reduces the amount of C&D waste.
Another approach is concentrated on reducing concrete’s carbon footprint through the reduction of
cement use. This is mainly achieved by using so-called supplementary cementitious materials, of
which the most widespread are blast furnace slag (a by-product of steel production) and fly ash (a by-
product of coal combustion in thermal power plants). They can be used to either replace a certain
percentage of cement in which case they are truly “supplementary” materials, or they can be used in
concrete composites produced completely without cement in which these materials are “activated”
with alkali solutions to produce inorganic alumino-silicate polymers sometimes called geopolymers or
alkali-activated concretes.

RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE AND RECYCLED AGGREGATE CONCRETE

After a concrete structure is deemed to have completed its lifespan (due to whatever reason) it is
demolished. Even before it is actually demolished, the recycling must begin by stripping it of any
unnecessary material such as wood, glass, gypsum, masonry, etc. so that only concrete remains if
possible. In the next phase, the structure is crushed into large and small pieces by hydraulic crushers
and hammers, Fig. 1.
The recycling of this waste usually involves a two-stage crushing and sieving process and a removal of
any remaining impurities. The process is carried out in mobile or stationary facilities using so-called
jaw crushers and impact crushers depending on the fineness of the waste material and the desired
quality of the product. A schematic view of a mobile recycling facility is shown on Fig. 2.

Figure 1. Demolition of a concrete structure by a hydraulic crusher.

Since concrete consists of natural aggregates bound by hardened cement paste, after recycling a
certain amount of this “residual cement paste” is left bound to the aggregates. This means that the final
product of recycling, recycled concrete aggregates, are a two-phase material containing natural
aggregates and cement paste. The presence of the residual cement paste causes a certain
deterioration of RCA properties such as higher porosity and water absorption between 3.5 and 10%
(compared to only around 1% in the case of NA) [9].

1. Loading tray for waste

materials
2. Primary sieves
3. Crusher
4. Vibrating conveyor belt
5. Machine chassis
6. Engine
7. Electronic command board
8. Magnetic separator
9. Secondary sieves

Figure 2. Schematic view of a mobile recycling plant.

Because of this, RCA is still mainly considered to be inferior compared to NA and is relegated to use in
applications such as road sub-base and nonstructural elements. However, the positive effects of
concrete waste recycling can be fully utilized only if recycled concrete aggregates find their use in all
types of concrete, especially structural concrete. Currently only 1% of aggregates used worldwide in
structural concrete production are RCA.
Structural concrete made with RCA is called recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). The replacement of NA
can be total (100%) or partial (<100%). The applicability of RCA and the properties of RAC have been
studied for several decades [10]. The number and scope of studies is fortunately increasing in the past
10 years. More and more, RAC is being investigated on both macroscopic and microscopic levels.
Mechanical and durability-related properties are being tested as well as the structural behavior of full-
scale elements such as beams, columns or slabs. [11].

Research into RCA and RAC at the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade

At the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade, the properties of RCA and RAC have been studied for
several years. A mixture design technology has been mastered that enables the production of RAC with
strength and workability comparable to natural aggregate concrete. Moreover, the short-term and
long-term behavior of reinforced recycled aggregate structural elements has been tested. Research has
been conducted on beams in flexure, shear and under long-term loading, Fig. 3.
So far results are encouraging, showing that structural elements made from RAC can successfully be
implemented in modern structures designed by current codes [12].

Figure 3. Testing of RAC beam under shear (left) and long-term loading (right).

Also being investigated is the potential of using RCA as a low-cost carbon sink. During the hardening of
cement, one of the main chemical compounds generated is calcium hydroxide – Ca(OH)2. It is
responsible for the alkalinity of concrete which helps to protect reinforcement from corrosion. In
contact with air calcium hydroxide in concrete reacts with CO2 creating calcium carbonate, CaCO3.
While this is detrimental to existing structures because it lowers the pH value of concrete, it is actually
very useful in the case of RCA. Because crushed concrete has a large surface area it can absorb
significantly more CO2 from the atmosphere, partly annulling the emissions from concrete production.
So far, accelerated carbonation tests have shown this can in fact improve RCA properties by reducing
porosity and lowering water absorption.
The implementation of RCA in structural concrete intuitively makes sense but a way has to be found to
quantify its benefits. For this purpose Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used. LCA is a methodology for
evaluating the environmental load of processes and products during their life cycle [13].
Numerous studies have been performed with the aim of assessing the environmental impact of natural
and recycled aggregate concrete production in Serbia. Data are collected from Serbian suppliers and
manufacturers. Life cycle inventory and life cycle impacts calculations are performed commonly for
‘cradle-to-gate’ part of the life cycle, Fig. 4. Combining LCA with multi-criteria optimization methods a
choice of optimal concrete type can be made and research shows RAC is in most cases environmentally
advantageous compared to natural aggregate concrete [14].

Figure 4. A typical flowchart of a Life Cycle Assessment analysis.

Of course all of these analyses will not matter much if RCA is not economically viable. In Serbia an
additional problem exists with the extremely low price of natural river aggregate, making any
recycling project too costly to carry out. A more rigorous “polluter pays” principle must be
implemented. Under this principle, the producer of C&D waste and the user of primary aggregates
must incur the environmental costs of their actions i.e. the market externalities must be internalized.
The aim of the principle is to encourage them to find environmentally acceptable solutions with the
goal of minimizing the incurred costs. The solution is the creation of markets for recycled C&D waste
and its benefits extend to: the C&D waste producer if they incur lower disposal costs; the aggregate
user if they incur lower costs when buying the recycled product; society as it incurs lower
environmental costs.
Certain economic policies and government measures must be identified that can increase the
attractiveness of C&D waste recycling. Among these are the increase of land-filling taxes (to discourage
land-filling), taxes on excavations of natural aggregates (to discourage overuse of NA) and subsidies
for producing recycled materials (financed by increased taxes). Market research in Serbia shows that
companies willing to invest in recycling exist but that the legal framework has to be improved [15].

FLY ASH AND HIGH-VOLUME FLY ASH CONCRETE

The World Bank data show that in 2013 41.3% of total electricity produced came from coal sources i.e.
coal burning thermal power plants [16]. As a result large amounts of fly ash (FA), a by-product of coal
combustion, are being generated worldwide. The U.S. produces roughly 131 million tons of fly ash
each year, China and India 300 million tons [17]. In Serbia, there are six coal-burning power plants
which cover about 70% of the country’s electric energy needs [18]. During 2010, about 40 million tons
of coal were exploited and transported from “Kolubara” and “Kostolac” mines. These processes have a
major environmental consequence – 6 million tons of fly ash produced per year, mostly in “Nikola
Tesla A” and “Nikola Tesla B” power plants located only 30 km from Belgrade, Fig. 5.
In fact, in Serbia, about 200 million tons of fly ash is currently deposited at a surface area of 1.500
hectares. Fly ash land-fills are located next to power plants and they cover a significant part of the
arable land. In power plant “Nikola Tesla B”, during the 2009/10 repair, a new system of collection,
transport and disposal of fly ash was established. This new technology enabled the collection of dry fly
ash in silos and its delivery for industrial needs. However, currently, only 2.7% of the total fly ash
production in Serbia is used by the construction industry.

Figure 5. Power plant “Nikola Tesla B” (left) and fly ash particles under SE microscope (right).

Fly ash, as well as a number of other industrial by-products, consists mainly of silicon and aluminum
oxides and has so-called pozzolanic properties which means it reacts with cement hydration products
and enforces the paste matrix, contributing significantly to the properties of the final material.
Having this in mind it is reasonable to assume that a replacement of a certain amount of cement by fly-
ash will not have adverse effects on concrete. Such concretes in which more than 30% of cement is
replaced by fly ash are called high-volume fly ash concretes (HVFAC).
Because the pozzolanic reaction is slower than cement hydration HVFAC exhibits slower strength
development than ordinary cement concrete which has to be taken into account [19]. The benefits of
using fly ash include better workability due to a finer packing density of particles and improvement of
certain durability-related and long-term properties such as shrinkage.
Research into FA and HVFAC at the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade

At the Faculty of Civil Engineering in Belgrade, research is carried out on fly ash from several power
plants in Serbia but mainly on fly ash from “Nikola Tesla B”.
Research so far shows that this fly ash can be used to produce HVFAC of comparable properties to
ordinary cement concrete. Varying replacement ratios from 50 to 70% and even replacing a part of
sand by fly ash produced concretes suitable for structural applications [20].
A concern usually associated with fly ash is its radioactivity. As a result of coal combustion the initial
radionuclide content of coal remains and accumulates in fly ash. Because of this fly ash is classified in
the group of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM). Since the natural radionuclide
content of inbuilt materials can have an effect on human health it is limited by European regulations to
certain safe levels e.g. gamma radiation of up to 1 mSv per year. The tests carried out in research so far
strongly support the conclusion that HVFAC is safe for use in indoor structural applications from a
radiological point of view.
Further research has been conducted on reinforced concrete beams produced from HVFAC, testing
their short-term and long term properties, Fig. 6. So far, results are promising for the full applicability
of such concretes in concrete structures.

Figure 6. Cracks measured by digital image correlation in the mid-span of a HVFAC beam in flexure.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

If the challenges faced by the construction industry concerning the environmental impact of concrete
production are to be adequately addressed, there will be a need for full cooperation, transparency and
knowledge transfer between science, industry and the general public.
Alternatives to traditional concrete exist and are being investigated globally. They include using
recycled concrete aggregate to replace natural aggregates and using industrial by-products such as fly
ash as supplementary cementitious materials to reduce the amount of cement used.
Locally, at the University of Belgrade’s Faculty of Civil Engineering both of these approaches are being
studied with promising results and the possibilities of full utilization of recycled aggregate concrete
and high volume fly ash concrete in structural applications.
Further research and cooperation with industry, especially small and medium enterprises will be
crucial in taking advantage of the benefits offered by the use of recycled and waste materials in
concrete composites.
LITERATURE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work reported in this study is a part of the investigation within the Research Project TR36017:
’Utilization of by-products and recycled waste materials in concrete composites in the scope of
sustainable construction development in Serbia: investigation and environmental assessment of
possible applications’, supported by the Ministry for Education, Science and Technology, Republic of
Serbia This support is gratefully acknowledged.
BIOGRAPHY

Nikola Tošić is a researcher and teaching assistant at Faculty of Civil Engineering Belgrade and is
attending PhD studies since 2013. His research is on concrete structures and the application of
recycled and waste materials in structural concrete carried out under several research projects. He is
the author of 15 journal and conference papers. He completed his studies in 2011 at the same faculty
after which he attended a student practice in London, on the Shard London Bridge project with Mace.
During 2012 he worked as an engineer in Čelikinvest on the design and construction of numerous steel
structures.