Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts,

and the potential for environmental improvement
Wei Chen, Jinglan Hong*, Changqing Xu
Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Water Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shandong University,
Jinan 250100, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A hybrid life-cycle assessment method was performed on national and provincial statistics to study
Received 13 January 2014 pollutants generated by the cement industry in China, the impacts of these pollutants, and the potential
Received in revised form for environmental improvement. Results showed that the key factors that contribute to overall envi-
21 March 2014
ronmental burden are the direct emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulates, and carbon dioxide
Accepted 20 April 2014
Available online xxx
(CO2) into the atmosphere, as well as the use of coal during cement production. The amounts of CO2,
sulfur dioxide (SO2), NOx, and particulates generated by the cement industry in China in 2009 were
approximately 1.11 billion, 0.53 million, 2.10 million, and 3.60 million tons respectively, which accounted
Keywords:
Hybrid life-cycle assessment
for approximately 14.8%, 2.4%, 12.3%, and 26.2% of the national CO2, SO2, NOx, and particulate emissions,
National and provincial statistics respectively. Effective approaches to reduce the environmental impacts of the cement industry include
Cement optimizing the industrial structure in cement production, improving consumption efficiency of energy
Transport and raw materials in cement production, using industrial waste and by-products instead of limestone,
Energy recovery decreasing cement export, and promoting electricity recovery technologies in the cement industry.
Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction emissions, respectively (Jiang et al., 2012; Scrivener and

Cement as one the basic and most widely used building mate-
rials in civil engineering, which has increased dramatically because
of vast urbanization. Cement production in China has ranked first in
the world since 1985, accounting for 60% of the total cement pro-
duction worldwide in 2012 (Global Cement, 2013). Chinese statis-
tics showed that approximately 0.73 billion tons and 2.21 billion
tons of cement were produced in China in 2002 and 2012,
respectively (National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2003, 2013),
thus exhibiting a rapid annual increase of 11.7% in just a span of ten
years. Pang et al. (2013) reported that the total coal and electricity
consumption of the Chinese cement industry in 2009 was
186.62 million tons and 1.38 billion kWh, respectively, which result
in the atmospheric emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen ox-
ides (NOx), and particulates at 0.89 million, 1.69 million and 3.58
million tons, respectively (Mao et al., 2012; Ministry of
Environmental Protection, 2010). In addition, the cement industry
is the second largest contributor to carbon dioxides (CO2) emissions
in China, accounting for 15% and 5%e8% of national and global
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ86 0531 88362328.
E-mail address: hongjing@sdu.edu.cn (J. Hong).
Kirkpatrick, 2008). The cement industry is also a significant
source of emissions of other hazardous compounds such as carbon
monoxide (CO) and heavy metals (Lei et al., 2011; Wang, 2013).
More than 75% of urban residents in China are exposed to air that
does not pass the national ambient air quality standards (Shao et al.,
2006). Considering the significance of the cement industry with
regard to energy consumption and environmental impacts, iden-
tifying and quantifying pollutants generated by cement production
in China as well as determining their impacts and the potential for
environmental improvement via an effective approach is highly
necessary.
Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic methodology for
evaluating the environmental impacts associated with a product, a
process, or an activity by assessing the effects of utilized energy and
materials, as well as waste discharged to the environment, from
cradle to grave. LCAs are conducted according to ISO standards (ISO
14040, 2006; ISO 14044, 2006), and are widely applied in process
improvement, strategic planning, eco-labeling programs, product
designs, and consumer education. The environmental impacts of
cement production have been extensively studied via LCA in Europe
(Chen et al., 2010; Josa et al., 2007), the United States (Huntzinger
and Eatmon, 2009), South America (Navia et al., 2006), Japan
(Hashimoto et al., 2010), and China (Wu et al., 2006; Jiang and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
0959-6526/Ó 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
2 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9
Wang, 2010; Cui and Li, 2011; Piao et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2013).
However, only two studies (Hong and Li, 2012a,b) conducted via
LCA on cement production in China have been published in English-
language peer-reviewed journals. In addition, most works on
cement production in China have focused on on-site case studies
with relatively low representation. To evaluate the environmental
impacts generated by the cement industry at the national level,
hybrid LCA was performed on national statistics to study pollutants
generated by the cement industry in China, the impacts of these
pollutants, and the potential for environmental improvement.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Estimating the national environmental impacts of cement
production
Specific on-site data hardly represent regional inventories
because of numerous factors (e.g., cement strength, plant size,
applied processes and technologies, management attention, energy
structure, energy efficiency, mix ratio of clinker and additive ma-
terials). In the present study, hybrid LCA was conducted on national
and provincial statistics to study pollutants generated by the
cement industry in China, the impacts of these pollutants, and the
potential for environmental improvement (Fig. 1). To identify and
quantify the key factors (i.e., substances and processes) that
contribute to the national environmental impact of the Chinese
cement industry, LCA was performed on on-site data from various
technologies used in cement production. In addition, national sta-
tistics on the key factors were used for the assessment. LCA was also
repeated by using hybrid national statistics and on-site data to
determine whether new key factors have been generated. The
aforementioned three steps were repeated until no new factor was
found. Provincial statistics on cement production were then used to
determine the national and provincial environmental impacts of
the cement industry.
2.2. The LCA of cement
2.2.1. Functional unit
A functional unit provides a reference for the related inputs
and outputs of a product (ISO 14040, 2006). In this study, the
production of 1 ton common Portland cement, which accounts
for approximately 98% of the total cement production in China
(Xu, 2013), was selected as the functional unit. All materials,
emissions, and energy consumption were based on this func-
tional unit.
Fig. 1. Approach for evaluating environmental impact of cement industry at national
level.
Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
2.2.2. System boundaries
System boundaries were set by applying a cradle-to-gate
approach. Four cement production scenarios, namely, large (dry
rotary kiln with a production capacity higher than 4000 tons
clinker/day), moderate (dry rotary kiln with a production capacity
between 2000 tons and 4000 tons clinker/day), small (dry rotary
kiln with a production capacity between 1000 tons and 2000 tons
clinker/day), and shaft kiln were included in this study. For each
scenario, 100% cement dust was recycled. For the scenarios with dry
rotary kilns, 100% wastewater was reused on site, whereas the
wastewater generated from the shaft kiln was treated in a civilian
wastewater treatment plant. Fig. 2 presents the system boundaries
of the dry rotary kilns and the shaft kiln. Three stages, namely, raw
material crushing, clinker generation, and cement grinding, were
generally considered. The clinker generation stage of the scenarios
that employ dry rotary kilns included homogenization, preheating
and precalcining, and incineration in the kiln. Meanwhile, the
corresponding stage in the shaft kiln scenario included mixing with
water, ball-making, and incineration in the kiln. Raw materials,
energy consumption, road transport, direct emissions (i.e., carbon
dioxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates), and
infrastructure were considered in each process.
2.2.3. Life-cycle impact assessment methodology
The life-cycle impact assessment results (LCIA) were evaluated
at midpoint and damage levels by the IMPACT 2002þ method
(Jolliet et al., 2003), one of the most widely used LCA approach. To
check the reliability of the results obtained via IMPACT 2002þ,
Recipe E (Goedkoop et al., 2009; Schryver et al., 2009), TRACI (Bare
et al., 2003), and CML (Guinée et al., 2001) method were used.
IMPACT 2002 þ method was an update method based on the re-
sults of the IMPACT 2002 model for human health (Pennington
et al., 2005), Centrum voor Milieukunde Leiden (CML, Guinée
et al., 2001), and Eco-indicator 99 (Goedkoop and Spriensma,
2000). It defined 15 midpoint categories (i.e., carcinogens, non-
carcinogens, respiratory inorganics, ionizing radiation, ozone
layer depletion, respiratory organics, aquatic ecotoxicity, terrestrial
ecotoxicity, terrestrial acidification/nutrification, land occupation,
aquatic acidification, aquatic eutrophication, global warming, non-
renewable energy and mineral extraction) and 4 endpoint cate-
gories (i.e., human health, ecosystem quality, resources depletion,
and climate change), all of which were related to the inventory
results. In addition, normalization was applied in this study, in or-
der to analyze the respective share of each midpoint impact to the
Fig. 2. System boundary.
 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9 3

total impact as well as to compare the midpoint impact with each
other. All categories were normalized to better identify the key
factors except aquatic eutrophication and aquatic acidification, due
to no detail information was available to support the damage level
on aquatic eutrophication and aquatic acidification (Jolliet et al.,
2003). The complete characterization factors and detailed meth-
odology for IMPACT 2002þ (http://www.sph.umich.edu/
riskcenter/jolliet/impact2002þ.htm) and TRACI (http://www.epa.
gov/nrmrl/std/traci/traci.html) are available on the website of the
University of Michigan Risk Science Center website and the United
States Environmental Protection Agency website, respectively.
Similarly, those for ReCiPe (http://www.cml.leiden.edu/research/
industrialecology/researchprojects/finished/recipe.html) and CML
(http://cml.leiden.edu/software/data-cmlia.html) are available at
the Institute of Environmental Science of Leiden University website.
2.2.4. Data sources
Four frequently used cement production technologies were
studied in the present study. For the large-production scenario,
annual statistics and monitoring data from the Shenfeng Cement
Co., Ltd. (Shandong, China) were used. For the moderate-
production and shaft kiln scenarios, data were taken from Wang
(2007) and Li (2009), respectively. For the small-production sce-
nario, annual statistics and monitoring data from the Jinchang
Cement Group Co., Ltd. (Gansu, China) were used. However, direct
air emission data were obtained from the Hongda Cement Plant
(Yunnan, China) because of lack of information from the former. In
addition, the Chinese standard for cleaner production in the
cement industry (HJ 467-2009) was used to determine water
consumption in the moderate-production scenario, as well as direct
air SO2 and NOx emissions in the shaft kiln scenario because of lack
of information in the previously mentioned references.
CO2 emission was calculated according to Eq. (1) (Wu et al.,
2006):
E ¼ 3:67a  k  Mcoal  Q þ 0:38  Mlimestone
where E, a, k, Mcoal, Q, and Mlimestone represent the amount of CO2
emission per ton of cement production, carbon oxygenation effi-
ciency of coal (0.93, National Development and Reform
Commission, 2011), carbon emission factor of coal (26.1  103,
National Development and Reform Commission, 2011), mass of coal
background data, including those on infrastructure and wastewater
treatment from Europe (Frischknecht et al., 2007), were used
because Chinese data were unavailable.
Statistics on the energy consumption (i.e., coal and electricity)
and direct emissions (i.e., SO2, NOx, and particulates) of each sce-
nario, which were used instead of the on-site data on key factors,
were taken from references (Zeng et al., 2009; Jiang et al., 2010;
Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2008). Statistics on provin-
cial cement production in 2009 were taken from (China Report
Network, 2010), and the percentages of cement output for various
cement technologies were obtained from Ze (2010).
2.3. Life-cycle inventory (LCI) of cement
The life-cycle inventory results of each cement production sce-
nario are presented in Table 1. Raw materials and energy con-
sumption, direct emissions are based on the functional unit.
3. Results
3.1. LCIA results
Comparisons of the LCIA midpoint results for each scenario are
shown in Table 2. The large-production scenario presented the
lowest environmental burden in all categories except in global
warming, in which the small-production scenario presented the
lowest value. Compared with large- and small-production sce-
narios, a relatively high environmental burden was observed in the
moderate-production and shaft kiln scenarios in most categories
except for respiratory organics, aquatic ecotoxicity, and aquatic
eutrophication categories. Such finding was attributed to the rela-
tively high resource consumption and direct air emission. To
identify and describe the most significant process for each
midpoint, the contribution of the dominant process to each
midpoint is also presented in Table 2. For each scenario, the energy
(1)
Table 1
Life cycle inventories of each cement production scenario. Values are presented per
functional unit.
Dry rotary kiln Shaft kiln
Large Moderate Small

consumption per ton of cement production, caloric value of coal, Resource Limestone (ton) 1.05 0.93 0.84 1.18
and mass of limestone consumption per ton of cement production, consumption Gypsum (kg) 50.51 33.24 71.00 42.90
Water (ton) 0.36 0.75 3.73 0.85
respectively. The caloric value of coal considered in the present
Sandstone (kg) 54.81 151.20 76.00 e
study was 24.48 MJ/kg. Mudstone (kg) e 68.72 e e
Road transport (16 t, lorry) was estimated by using Eq. (2), as Shale (kg) e e 28.00 e
follows: Dolomite (kg) e e e 53.68
Red clay (kg) e e e 33.66
E ¼ ðEFv þ M  EFD Þ=W (2) Pyrite cinder (kg) 14.64 e e e
Iron powder (kg) e 41.15 e 18.32
Nickle slag (kg) e e 18.00
where E, EFv, W, M, and EFD represents the amount of air pollutants Magnesium e e e 71.01
during transport, the emission factors of motor vehicles, the load of slag (kg)
vehicles, the mass of diesel consumption per kilometer, and the Slag (kg) e 74.09 32.17
emission factor of per kilogram diesel generation, respectively. The Blast furnace e e 41.00 e
slag (kg)
emission factors of motor vehicles and the mass of diesel con- Fly ash (kg) 241.39 e 208.00 e
sumption per kilometer in China were obtained from references Coal (kg) 101.94 134.60 113.00 183.63
(Cai and Xie, 2010; Jia et al., 2010). Data on transport emissions of Electricity (kWh) 81.93 130.30 102.09 121.00
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were obtained from Emissions CO2 (ton) 0.62 0.65 0.56 0.85
2
to air SO2 (kg) 2.30  10 5.30  102 0.04 1.20
reference (Zhang, 2010) for complement. The energy consumption
NOx (kg) 0.19 2.20 0.18 2.40
of diesel generation and the emission factor of 1 kg diesel genera- Particulates (kg) 6.50  102 3.05 0.16 5.40
tion were obtained from the final life cycle inventories of fossil fuels Emission Wastewater (m3) 100% 100% 100% 0.71
in China (Yuan et al., 2006). In addition, coal-based electricity to water Reused Reused Reused
generation (Cui et al., 2012) was selected because coal has an Emission Solid waste 100% reused
to soil
important role in electricity generation in China. Relevant and

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
4 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9

(i.e., coal and electricity) production process made the most

Direct emission (83%)

Direct emission (71%)

Direct emission (75%)

Direct emission (85%)

contribution to the non-carcinogens, respiratory organics, and non-

Infrastructure (44%)

Infrastructure (54%)
renewable energy categories, whereas the transport process made

Limestone (43%)
Limestone (57%)

Limestone (62%)
Transport (47%)

Transport (63%)
Transport (60%)
the largest contribution to the carcinogens, ionizing radiation, and

Energy (55%)

Energy (70%)

Energy (88%)
Process ozone layer depletion categories. Direct emissions from cement
production made a dominant contribution to global warming,
whereas limestone production presented a dominant contribution
to terrestrial ecotoxicity and aquatic eutrophication. In the respi-
ratory inorganics, terrestrial acidification/nutrification, and aquatic
1.54  106
4.70  102

1.36  102
1.88  104
3.71  103

1.00  103
5.26  103
acidification categories, the dominant process for the large- and
Shaft kiln

598.64

small-production scenarios was energy (i.e., coal and electricity),

Value

20.35
0.97
2.87
1.50

1.12
3.82

1.12
whereas that for the moderate-production and shaft kiln scenarios
was direct emissions. Limestone production made the dominant
contribution to aquatic ecotoxicity in all scenarios except in the

Direct emission (81%)

Infrastructure (49%)

Infrastructure (62%)
small-production scenario, in which tap water made the dominant
Limestone (55%)

Limestone (61%)
Tap water (61%)

contribution. For all scenarios, infrastructure had an important role

Transport (43%)

Transport (62%)
Transport (54%)
Energy (56%)
Energy (40%)

Energy (69%)

Energy (53%)

Energy (45%)

Energy (85%) in land occupation and mineral extraction, whereas the potential
environmental impacts of wastewater treatment, iron powder, tap
Process

water, sand production, and gypsum production were relatively

small.
Fig. 3 presents the normalized LCIA results. For each scenario,
Life cycle impact assessment midpoint results and contributions of dominant process to the midpoint results. Values are presented per functional unit.

the impacts seen from global warming, respiratory inorganics, and

1.29  106
3.69  102

9.86  103
2.84  104
2.76  103

3.60  103

non-renewable energy categories played dominant contributions

545.03

693.09

to the overall environmental burden, whereas the impacts seen

Value
Small

0.84
2.38
0.26

6.13
1.01
0.98

0.98

from the rest categories were negligible. In each of the aforemen-

tioned key categories, the shaft kiln scenario made the most impact,
whereas the small- and large-production scenarios made minimal
Direct emission (76%)

Direct emission (67%)

Direct emission (63%)

Direct emission (81%)

Infrastructure (42%)

Infrastructure (54%)

impact because of the relatively low limestone and energy inputs as

Limestone (42%)
Limestone (57%)

Limestone (65%)
Transport (43%)

Transport (60%)
Transport (61%)

well as low direct air emissions. Notably, although infrastructure

Energy (60%)

Energy (69%)

Energy (86%)

and wastewater treatment data from Europe (Frischknecht et al.,

2007) were used in this study, the effects of infrastructure and
Process

wastewater treatment on LCA were insignificant. This finding is

mainly attributed to the wastewater treatment process presenting
minimal contribution to the total environmental burden. Mean-
while, infrastructure made low contributions to most categories
1.59  106
4.65  102

1.03  102
1.53  104
2.91  103

4.39  103
Moderate

except for land occupation and mineral extraction, which had mi-
603.91

801.95
Value

18.22

nor roles in the overall environmental burden.

1.00
2.84
1.00

1.18
2.54

1.13

Fig. 4 shows the most significant contributions of dominant

substances to the key categories. For all scenarios, the dominant
substances in the non-renewable energy category were coal and oil,
Direct emission (85%)
Infrastructure (50%)

Infrastructure (62%)

which are used to generate energy. In the respiratory inorganics

Limestone (56%)
Limestone (66%)

Limestone (74%)
Transport (46%)

Transport (65%)
Transport (67%)

category, nitrogen oxides mainly generated from burning coal and

Energy (51%)
Energy (36%)

Energy (64%)

Energy (47%)

Energy (40%)

Energy (83%)

particulates in the atmosphere were dominant. Meanwhile, CO2

generated from limestone decomposition and coal burning made
Process

the most significant contributions to global warming. These results

Dry rotary kiln

1.28  106
3.30  102

1.02  102
1.29  104
2.84  103

3.27  103
493.60

734.12
Value
Large

0.82
2.12
0.23

5.58
0.98
0.89

0.98
m2 org.arable
kg TEG water
kg CFC-11 eq
kg C2H3Cl eq
kg C2H3Cl eq

kg PO4 P-lim
kg PM2.5 eq

MJ primary
kg TEG soil
Bq C-14 eq

kg C2H4 eq

MJ surplus
kg CO2 eq
kg SO2 eq

kg SO2 eq
Unit

Non-renewable energy
Aquatic eutrophication
Respiratory inorganics

Ozone layer depletion

Terrestrial ecotoxicity
Terrestrial acid/nutri
Respiratory organics

Aquatic acidification
Aquatic ecotoxicity

Mineral extraction
Ionizing radiation
Non-carcinogens

Land occupation

Global warming
Carcinogens
Categories
Table 2

Fig. 3. Life cycle assessment normalized midpoint scores.

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9
Fig. 4. Contribution of substances to the main midpoint score.
identified the key factors that contribute to the overall environ-
mental burden in all scenarios: (1) direct emissions generated by
coal and limestone consumption and (2) energy (i.e., electricity and
coal) consumption.
3.2. Endpoint results
The LCIA endpoint results are presented in Fig. 5. For all sce-
narios, energy generation (i.e., electricity and coal) had a dominant
role in the resource category. Limestone production made a
dominant contribution to ecosystem quality damage, whereas
direct emission presented a dominant contribution to climate
change damage. For the large- and small-production scenarios,
limestone production, energy generation, and direct emissions had
important roles in the human health damage category. For the
moderate-production and shaft kiln scenarios, direct emissions had
a dominant role. These results are similar with the LCIA midpoint
results.
Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
5
Fig. 5. LCIA endpoint results of four cement production scenarios.
3.3. Electricity recovery
Energy recovery is highly recommended, with increasing
attention being focused on energy conservation. Previous pub-
lished research showed that as energy recovery capacity improves,
the environmental impacts of respiratory inorganics, global
warming, and non-renewable energy decrease (Hong and Li,
2012b). As reported by Tang (2010), electricity recovery capacity
was approximately 34 kWh per ton of clinker production for dry
rotary kilns in China in 2009. However, energy recovery was not
practiced in the sites investigated in this previous study. If 34 kWh
energy recovery per ton of cement production was considered for
each dry rotary kiln scenario, then the potential environmental
impacts on global warming, respiratory inorganics, and non-
renewable energy categories will be decreased by
2.88  102 kg PM2.5 eq, 26.48 kg CO2 eq, and 310.77 MJ primary,
respectively.
3.4. Sensitivity analysis
3.4.1. LCIA
To check the reliability of the results obtained via IMPACT
2002þ methodology, ReCiPe E, TRACI, and CML methods were used
for comparison. Table 3 shows the midpoint results obtained from
various LCA methods for the large-production scenario. The LCIA
results from the ReCiPe E method were similar to those from
IMPACT 2002þ in the categories of global warming and ozone layer
depletion. For ozone layer depletion, the results obtained from
TRACI and CML were also similar to those from IMPACT 2002þ. For
respiratory organics, the evaluation result from IMPACT 2002þ was
similar to that from CML. For the global warming category, the LCIA
results obtained from TRACI and CML methods were slightly higher
than those obtained using the IMPACT 2002þ and ReCiPe E
methods because a 500-year time horizon was considered in the
IMPACT 2002þ and ReCiPe E. If a 100-year time horizon was
considered in IMPACT 2002þ and ReCiPe E, the potential impact on
global warming will be similar to those of TRACI and CML method.
For the respiratory inorganics category, the result from TRACI was
lower than those from IMPACT 2002þ and ReCiPe E because the
equivalent values of nitrogen oxides in TRACI were significantly
lower than in the other two methods. The result obtained from
IMPACT 2002þ was slightly lower than that from ReCiPe E because
particulate matter with a diameter larger than 2.5 mm had no effect
under IMPACT 2002þ. For the non-renewable energy category, the
evaluation result from IMPACT 2002þ was 74.86 kg-oil eq (change
6 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9

Table 3
Sensitivity analysis on LCIA methods for the large-production scenario.

Categories Unit IMPACT 2002þ ReCiPe E TRACI CML

Carcinogens kg C2H3Cl eq 0.82

Non-carcinogens kg C2H3Cl eq 2.12
Respiratory inorganics kg PM2.5 eq 0.23 0.28 kg PM10 0.10
Ionizing radiation kg Bq C-14 eq 493.60
Ozone layer depletion kg CFC-11 eq 1.28  106 1.29  10 6
1.28  106 1.29  106
Respiratory organics kg C2H4 eq 3.30  102 2.50  102
Aquatic ecotoxicity kg TEG water 1.29  104
Terrestrial ecotoxicity kg TEG soil 2.84  103
Terrestrial acid/nutri kg SO2 eq 5.58
Land occupation m2 org.arable 0.98
Aquatic acidification kg SO2 eq 0.89
Aquatic eutrophication kg PO4 P-lim 1.02  102
Global warming kg CO2 eq 734.12 734.58 756.69 756.09
Non-renewable energy MJ primary 3.27  103 76.63
Oil eq
Mineral extraction MJ surplus 0.98

rate at 42.62 MJ/kg oil eq), which was similar to the result obtained
from the ReCiPe E method (76.63 kg-oil eq). Comparing the rest of
the LCIA results was difficult because of the significant differences
in labeling substances and categories that resulted from the vari-
ations in LCA methods. Similar results were also obtained from the
rest of the scenarios (data not shown). The aforementioned infor-
mation indicated that the midpoint results obtained by the present
study from IMPACT 2002þ are reliable.
3.4.2. Main contributors
Table 4 presents the results of the sensitivity analysis of the
dominant contributors. Decreasing direct emissions and coal con-
sumption in all scenarios provided the highest environmental
benefit in the global warming and non-renewable energy cate-
gories, respectively. For respiratory inorganics, decreasing direct
emissions resulted in the highest environmental benefit for the
moderate-production and shaft kiln scenarios, whereas decreasing
limestone and electricity consumptions presented the highest
environmental benefit for the large- and small-production sce-
narios, respectively. By contrast, reducing coal processes presented
the lowest potential environmental benefit in the global warming
and respiratory inorganics categories, whereas that for the non-
renewable energy category was direct air emissions.
3.5. National estimated environmental impacts of cement
production
statistics on energy (i.e., electricity and coal) consumption and
direct air emissions during cement production were used as inputs
to replace related on-site data. The results showed that the po-
tential environmental burden from dry rotary kilns in China was
lower than that from shaft kilns in the global warming and non-
renewable energy categories, whereas contrary results were
observed in the respiratory inorganics category. These finding are
consistent with the results of a previously reported study (Jiang
et al., 2010), which performed LCA on cement production in
China based on statistics. The total environmental burden gener-
ated by the Chinese cement industry in 2009 in the respiratory
inorganics, global warming, and non-renewable energy categories
was approximately 6.80  108 kg PM2.5 eq, 1.28  1012 kg CO2 eq,
and 6.26  1012 MJ primary, respectively. Fig. 6 presents the po-
tential environmental impact on global warming of the cement
industry of each province at the national level based on a simple
geographic information system (GIS). Each impact region was
identified through impact strength (kg CO2 eq/km2). The environ-
mental burden generated by Jiangsu Province was significantly
higher than those generated by other provinces, with Xizang
Province producing the lowest environmental burden. This finding
could be attributed to the relatively high cement output of Jiangsu
Province. Similar results were obtained for the other categories
(data not shown).
4. Discussion

To evaluate the environmental impacts generated by the cement Conclusions that dry rotary kilns exhibit better characteristics
industry at the national level, hybrid LCA was conducted on na- than shaft kilns in terms of high energy efficiency and low CO2
tional statistics based on the approach shown in Fig. 1. National emissions have been widely reported (Lu et al., 2009; Lei et al.,

Table 4
Sensitivity of dominant contributors.

Impact categories Dominant contributors Variation Dry rotary kiln Shaft kiln

Large Moderate Small

Respiratory inorganics (kg PM2.5) Electricity 5% 3.47  103 5.52  103 4.32  103 5.12  103
Coal 5% 7.58  104 1.00  103 8.40  104 1.36  103
Limestone 5% 4.03  103 3.57  103 3.23  103 4.53  103
Direct emission 5% 1.82  103 3.81  102 2.56  103 6.24  102
Global warming (kg CO2 eq) Electricity 5% 3.19 5.07 3.98 4.71
Coal 5% 0.36 0.48 0.40 0.66
Limestone 5% 0.96 0.85 0.77 1.08
Direct emission 5% 31.09 32.42 28.20 42.48
Non-renewable energy (MJ primary) Electricity 5% 37.44 59.55 46.66 55.30
Coal 5% 97.56 128.82 108.14 175.74
Limestone 5% 11.43 10.12 9.14 12.85
Direct emission 5% e e e e

Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9
Fig. 6. Environmental impact on global warming (kg CO2 eq/km2) generated from
China’s cement industry.
2011; Madlool et al., 2013). In the present study, however, the
moderate-production scenario presented relatively high potential
environmental burden in the global warming and non-renewable
energy categories (Table 2) mainly because of the high energy
consumption in this scenario. As mentioned earlier, specific on-site
LCA hardly represents the environmental burden of the Chinese
cement industry. Accordingly, hybrid LCA analysis was performed
on national statistics to evaluate potential environmental impacts.
The results showed that dry rotary kilns provide higher environ-
mental benefit than shaft kilns for the global warming and non-
renewable energy categories, which is consistent with the results
of previous studies (Lu et al., 2009; Lei et al., 2011; Madlool et al.,
2013). With the policy in the 11th Five-Year Plan (2006e2010) of
the Chinese government to make backward productivity in the
cement industry obsolete, approximately 0.37 billion tons of
outdated facilities have been closed by 2010 (Hasanbeigi et al.,
2013). Compared with dry rotary kiln technology, approximately
8.16  1010 kg CO2 eq and 4.58  1011 MJ primary of the national
environmental benefit in global warming and non-renewable en-
ergy, respectively, will be generated through the policy. Therefore,
continuously adjusting the aforementioned industrial structure in
the 12th Five-Year Plan (2011e2016) is important to enable the
Chinese cement industry to promote environmental improvement.
Fig. 3 shows that the key categories that contribute to the overall
environmental burden are respiratory inorganics, global warming,
and non-renewable energy categories in all scenarios, which is
consistent with the results of a previous study (Hong and Li, 2012b).
In the present study, the LCIA midpoint results in the respiratory
inorganics, aquatic acidification, global warming, and non-
renewable energy categories for the large-production scenario
were 0.23 kg PM2.5 eq, 0.89 kg SO2 eq, 734.12 kg CO2 eq, and
3.27  103 MJ primary, respectively (Table 2). The results for the
global warming and aquatic acidification categories are consistent
with those from the study of Josa et al. (2007), which reported that
the results for global warming and aquatic acidification vary from
354.7 kg CO2 eq to 817.0 kg CO2 eq and 1.10 kg SO2 eq to 3.22 kg SO2,
respectively. The potential environmental impact from respiratory
inorganics was similar to that presented by Hong and Li (2012b),
whereas the result for non-renewable energy was higher than that
in the study of Hong and Li (2012b) because energy recovery was
not considered in present study. Karellas et al. (2013) studied en-
ergy recovery in a representative cement plant in Greece, and the
results of their study showed that approximately 6 MW electricity
Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
7
can be generated via waste heat recovery. As mentioned earlier
(Section 3.3), the environmental burden on the global warming,
respiratory inorganics, and non-renewable energy categories de-
creases significantly as energy recovery capacity improves because
energy process has an important role in the overall environmental
burden generated by cement production (Table 2). In addition, the
energy consumption of an average national cement technology was
higher than those of advanced national and international cement
technologies (Hasanbeigi et al., 2010). Price et al. (2009) reported
that approximately 12% and 23% energy will be saved by using
advanced Chinese technologies and international technologies,
respectively. Moreover, approximately 40% of total electricity con-
sumption will be saved. If 40% electricity saving potential was
considered in present study, approximately 8.7%, 4.3%, and 10.2% of
total environmental burden in respiratory inorganics, global
warming, and non-renewable categories will be reduced, respec-
tively. These results indicate that significant environmental bene-
fits can be obtained by improving energy efficiency and energy
recovery in the cement industry in China.
Potential CO2 reduction and energy conservation by using
alternative materials (e.g., ash, calcium carbide residue) to reduce
limestone consumption have been widely investigated (Fairbairn
et al., 2010; Hasanbeigi et al., 2012). As mentioned earlier, lime-
stone decomposition had a significant contribution to direct CO2
emissions in cement production. As shown in Table 2, limestone
production made a significant contribution to the aquatic ecotox-
icity, terrestrial ecotoxicity, and aquatic eutrophication categories.
Thus, optimum application of alternative materials (e.g., industrial
waste and industrial byproduct) is an efficient means to reduce the
potential environmental burden generated by the cement industry
in China.
Notably, LCA was conducted by using the cradle-to-gate
approach. Transport from cement production sites to consumers
was excluded. However, the national average transport distance
recently increased from 150 km to 250 km (Ze, 2010). Hong et al.
(2012) reported that potential environmental burden worsens as
transport distance increases, particularly in road transport. Jiang
et al. (2010) reported that the environmental benefits of using
large dry rotary kilns can be counteracted by increasing transport
distance during cement consumption. If the average transport
distance was considered in the present study, then additional
environmental burdens (i.e., 6.36  102 kg PM2.5 eq, 46.68 kg CO2
eq, and 1002.99 MJ primary) will be generated, which will account
for 13%, 6%, and 21% of respiratory inorganics, global warming, and
non-renewable energy impacts, respectively, generated by national
cement industries. Therefore, optimizing transport distance and
type between cement producers and consumers is highly
recommended.
As shown in Fig. 4, SO2, NOx, particulates, and CO2 made the
most significant contributions to the respiratory inorganics and
global warming categories. SO2, NOx, particulates, and CO2 gener-
ated by the Chinese cement industry in 2009 reached 0.53 million,
2.10 million, 3.60 million, and 1.11 billion tons, respectively (as
calculated by the approach shown in Fig. 1), which accounted for
approximately 2.4%, 12.3%, 26.2%, and 14.8% of the total national
SO2, NOx, particulates, and CO2 emissions, respectively. At present,
most cement plants in China use electrostatic precipitators to
control dust pollutants because of the high temperature resistance
and low maintenance cost of such precipitators (Fu et al., 2009).
However, the particle capturing efficiency of electrostatic pre-
cipitators (95%) is relatively lower than that of baghouse filters
(99%) (Sun, 2011). Moreover, an extremely small number of
cement plants are equipped with denitrification (Mao et al., 2012)
and desulfurization systems. Thus, improving the implementation
and operation efficiency of baghouse filters, as well as
8 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9
denitrification and desulfurization systems, is highly recom-
mended to reduce the environmental burden generated by the
cement industry in China.
The annual amount of exported cement was 15.61 million tons
in 2009 (China Economic Information Network, 2010), which
resulted in the environmental burden for the respiratory in-
organics, global warming, and non-renewable energy categories
generated by exported cement to be approximately 6.52  106 kg
PM2.5 eq, 1.23  1010 kg CO2 eq, and 6.00  1010 MJ primary,
respectively. In 2012, however, the amount of cement export
decreased to 9.24 million tons (China Economic Information
Network, 2013), thus indicating that approximately 2.66  106 kg
PM2.5 eq, 5.02  109 kg CO2 eq, and 2.45  1010 MJ primary were
reduced in the respiratory inorganics, global warming, and non-
renewable energy categories, respectively. Consequently,
decreasing the amount of cement export is useful to alleviate the
potential environmental burden generated by the cement industry
in China.
Worth noticing, most researchers using the emission factors
recommended by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) to evaluate the carbon emissions generated by cement in-
dustry in China (Jiang et al., 2010; Hasanbeigi et al., 2012). However,
the CO2 emission calculated via the IPCC model was inapplicable to
China’s cement actual production (Zhao and Wei, 2013). The carbon
emissions generated from cement industry are affected by
numerous factors such as cement plant size, energy efficiency,
applied processes and technologies, and management attention.
Thus, the suggested value by IPCC is hardly to be used for evaluating
the carbon emissions generated from China’s cement industry.
Also, lots of researchers in China mainly focus on the impacts
generated by carbon emissions and energy consumption from
cement industry, which is hardly avoid shifting problems from one
to the other. Accordingly, a truly systematic and scientific approach
is urgently needed for carbon reduction, whereas the novel
approach presented in this study provide a way to solve the
aforementioned need.
5. Conclusions
This study addressed pollutants generated by the cement in-
dustry in China, the impacts of these pollutants, and the poten-
tial for environmental improvement by conducting hybrid LCA.
Compared with specific on-site LCA studies, the method used in
the present study exhibited high data representation of the
Chinese cement industry. The results showed that the impacts
generated for the respiratory inorganics, global warming, and
non-renewable energy categories made dominant contributions
to the overall environmental burden. More than 8.7%, 4.3%, and
10.2% of the total environmental benefit for the respiratory in-
organics, global warming, and non-renewable energy categories
can be achieved by improving energy recovery and efficiency. In
addition, eliminating outdated production processes and pro-
moting dry rotary kiln cement production technology as an
alternative to shaft kiln cement production technology is an
efficient way to reduce the national overall environmental
burden generated by the cement industry in China. Moreover,
optimizing transport distance and type, limestone consumption,
air pollution control systems, and cement export are highly
recommended. These results will be helpful to the improvement
of life cycle inventory database for cement industry in China and
present scientific and necessary information for policymakers on
estimating environmental impacts of national cement industry,
and promote the decision making on considering the establish-
ment, reconstruction, expansion, or technological transformation
in cement industries.
Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
Acknowledgments
We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the National
High-Tech R&D Program of China (863 program, grant no.
2012AA061705), National Natural Science Foundation of China
(grant no.41101554), and SRF for ROCS, SEM (grant no. 2011-1568).
References
Bare, J.C., Norris, G.A., Pennington, D.W., McKone, T., 2003. TRACI - the tool for the
reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts. J. Ind.
Ecol. 6, 56e68.
Cai, H., Xie, S.D., 2010. Determination of emission factors from motor vehicles under
different emission standards in China. Acta Sci. Nat. Univ. Pekin. 46, 319e326 (in
Chinese).
Chen, C., Habert, G., Bouzid, Y., Jullien, A., 2010. Environmental impact of cement
production: detail of the different processes and cement plant variability
evaluation. J. Clean. Prod. 18, 478e485.
China Economic Information Network, 2010. Cement Industry Analysis in China, the
Fourth Quarter of 2009 (in Chinese). http://www.cei.gov.cn/LoadPage.aspx?
Page¼transform&CategoryAlias¼hangye/
hyjdbg&ProductAlias¼shuin&BlockAlias¼hyc6101.
China Economic Information Network, 2013. Cement Industry Analysis in China, the
Fourth Quarter of 2012 (in Chinese). http://www.cei.gov.cn/LoadPage.aspx?
Page¼transform&CategoryAlias¼hangye/
hyjdbg&ProductAlias¼shuin&BlockAlias¼hyc6101.
China Report Network, 2010. Statistics of China’s Cement Production in 2009 (in
Chinese). http://data.chinabaogao.com/jiancai/2010/0323O4152010.html.
Cui, S.P., Li, S., 2011. Research and application of cement life cycle assessment. Mater.
China 30, 35e41 (in Chinese).
Cui, X.W., Hong, J.L., Gao, M.M., 2012. Environmental impact assessment of three
coal-based electricity generation scenarios in China. Energy 45, 952e959.
Fairbairn, E.M.R., Americano, B.B., Cordeiro, G.C., Paula, Y.P., Toledo Filho, R.D.,
Silvoso, M.M., 2010. Cement replacement by sugar cane bagasse ash: CO2
emissions reduction and potential for carbon credits. J. Environ. Manag. 91,
1864e1871.
Frischknecht, R., Jungbluth, N., Althaus, H.J., Doka, G., Dones, R., Hellweg, S., Nemecek, T.,
Rebitzer, G., Spielmann, M., 2007. Implementation of Life Cycle Impact Assessment
Methods. Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories (Final Report).
Fu, X.L., Xu, W., Qiao, S.Q., 2009. The status and prospect of environmental tech-
nology in cement industry. Cem. Guide New. Epoch 5, 47e52.
Global Cement, 2013. Top 75 Global Cement Companies. http://www.globalcement.
com/magazine/articles/822-top-75-global cement%20companies.
Goedkoop, M., Heijungs, R., Huijbregts, M., De Schryver, A., Struijs, J., Van Zelm, R.,
2009. A Life Cycle Impact Assessment Method Which Comprises Harmonized
Category Indicators at the Mid-Point and the End-point Level, first ed. ReCiPe.
Report I: Characterisation. http://www.pre-sustainability.com/reports.
Goedkoop, M., Spriensma, R., 2000. The Eco-indicator 99: a Damage Orientated
Method for life Cycle Impact Assessment. VROM, Ministry of Housing, Spatial
Planning and the Environment, Netherlands.
Guinée, J.B., Gorrée, M., Heijungs, R., Huppes, G., Kleijin, R., de Koning, A., van Oers, L.,
Wegener Sleeswijk, A., Suh, S., Udo de Haes, H.A., de Bruijn, H., van Duin, R.,
Huijbregts, M.A.J., Lindeijer, E., Roorda, A.A.H., Weidema, B.P., 2001. Life Cycle
Assessment: an Operational Guide to the ISO Standards, Part 3: Scientific Back-
ground. Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment (VROM) and
Centre of Environmental Science (CML), Den Hag and Leiden, the Netherlands.
Available from: http://www.leidenuniv.nl/cml/ssp/projects/lca2/lca2.html.
Hasanbeigi, A., Lobscheid, A., Lu, H.Y., Price, L., Dai, Y., 2013. Quantifying the co-
benefits of energy-efficiency policies: a case study of the cement industry in
Shandong Province, China. Sci. Total Environ., 624e636.
Hasanbeigi, A., Morrow, W., Masanet, E., Sathaye, J., Xu, T., 2012. Assessment of
Energy Efficiency Improvement and CO2 Emission Reduction Potentials in the
Cement Industry in China. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.
Hasanbeigi, A., Price, L., Lu, H.Y., Wang, L., 2010. Analysis of energy-efficiency op-
portunities for the cement industry in Shandong province, China: a case study
of 16 cement plants. Energy 35, 3461e3473.
Hashimoto, S., Fujita, T., Geng, Y., Nagasawa, E., 2010. Realizing CO2 emission
reduction through industrial symbiosis: a cement production case study for
Kawasaki. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 54, 704e710.
HJ 467, 2009. Cleaner Production Standard in Cement Industry. Ministry of Envi-
ronmental Production of the Peoples Republic of China (in Chinese).
Hong, J.L., Li, X.Z., 2012a. Environmental and uncertainty assessment: hazardous
industry waste as aggregate in cement production. Adv. Mater. Res., 373e378.
Hong, J.L., Li, X.Z., 2012b. Environmental assessment of sewage sludge as secondary
raw material in cement production e a case study in China. Waste Manag. 31,
1364e1371.
Hong, J.M., Zhou, J., Hong, J.L., Xu, X., 2012. Environmental and economic life cycle
assessment of aluminum-silicon alloys production: a case study in China.
J. Clean. Prod. 24, 11e19.
Huntzinger, D.N., Eatmon, T.D., 2009. A life-cycle assessment of Portland cement
manufacturing: comparing the traditional process with alternative technolo-
gies. J. Clean. Prod. 17, 668e675.
 W. Chen et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production xxx (2014) 1e9
ISO 14040, 2006. International Standard. Environmental Management-Life Cycle
Assessment-Principles and Framework. http://www.iso.org/iso/home/store/
catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber¼37456.
ISO 14044, 2006. International Standard. Environmental Management-Life Cycle
Assessment-Requirements and Guidelines, first ed. http://www.iso.org/iso/
catalogue_detail?csnumber¼38498.
Jia, S.P., Mao, B.H., Liu, S., Sun, Q.P., 2010. Calculation and analysis of transportation
energy consumption level in China. J. Transp. Syst. Eng. Inform. Technol. 10, 22e
27 (in Chinese).
Jiang, R., Wang, H.T., 2010. Life cycle assessment of cement industry in China. Chem.
Eng. Equip. 4, 183e187 (in Chinese).
Jiang, R., Wang, H.T., Zhang, H., Chen, X.X., 2010. Life cycle assessment of cement
technologies in China and recommendations. Acta Sci. Circumst. 30, 2361e2368
(in Chinese).
Jiang, X.Q., Kang, Y.B., Liu, Q., Zhao, M., 2012. Analysis on carbon dioxide emission
trend and reduction path of cement industry in China in 2020. Energy Environ.
34, 17e21, 36 (in Chinese).
Jolliet, O., Margni, M., Charles, R., Humbert, S., Payet, J., Rebitze, G., Rosenbaum, R.,
2003. IMPACT2002þ: a new life cycle impact assessment methodology. Int. J.
Life Cycle Assess. 8, 324e330.
Josa, A., Aguado, A., Byars, E., Cardim, A., Byars, E., 2007. Comparative analysis of the
life cycle impact assessment of available cement inventories in the EU. Cem.
Concr. Res. 37, 781e788.
Karellas, S., Leontaritis, A.D., Panousis, G., Bellos, E., Kakaras, E., 2013. Energetic and
exergetic analysis of waste heat recovery systems in the cement industry. En-
ergy 58, 147e156.
Li, 2009. Application Research on Clean Production Technology in Cement Industry.
Master Thesis. Lanzhou University.
Lei, Y., Zhang, Q., Nielsen, C., He, K., 2011. An inventory of primary air pollutants and
CO2 emissions from cement production in China, 1990e2020. Atmos. Environ.
45, 147e154.
Lu, H.Y., Masanet, E., Price, L., 2009. Evaluation of Life-cycle Assessment Studies of
Chinese Cement Production: Challenges and Opportunities. Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.
Madlool, N.A., Saidur, R., Rahim, N.A., Kamalisarvestani, M., 2013. An overview of energy
savings measures for cement industries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 19, 18e29.
Mao, Z.W., Yang, R.S., Gan, H., 2012. Study on denitrification technology in cement
kiln. China Cem. 5, 56e58.
Ministry of Environmental Protection, People’s Republic of China, 2008. Manual of
Census on Industrial Pollution Sources in China. In: Nonmetal Mineral Products,
Middle Book (in Chinese).
Ministry of Environmental Protection, People’s Republic of China, 2010. Bulletin on
the Environmental Condition of China in 2009 (in Chinese).
National Bureau of Statistics, People’s Republic of China, 2013. National Report on
Economic and Social Development in 2012 (in Chinese). http://www.gov.cn/
gzdt/2013-02/22/content_2338098.htm.
National Bureau of Statistics, People’s Republic of China, 2003. National Report on
Economic and Social Development in 2002 (in Chinese). http://www.stats.gov.
cn/tjgb/ndtjgb/qgndtjgb/t20030228_69102.htm.
Please cite this article in press as: Chen, W., et al., Pollutants generated by cement production in China, their impacts, and the potential for
environmental improvement, Journal of Cleaner Production (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.04.048
9
National Development and Reform Commission, 2011. Guideline on the Inventory
Establishment of Greenhouse Gas at Provincial Level (in Chinese).
Navia, R., Rivela, B., Lorber, K., Méndez, R., 2006. Recycling contaminated soil as
alternative raw material in cement facilities: life cycle assessment. Resour.
Conserv. Recycl. 48, 339e356.
Pang, J., Shi, Y.C., Feng, X.Z., Liu, J., Sun, W.L., 2013. Analysis on impacts and co-
abatement effects of implementing the low carbon cement standard. Prog-
ress. Inquisit. Mutat. Clim. 9, 275e283 (in Chinese).
Pennington, D.W., Margni, M., Ammann, C., Jolliet, O., 2005. Multimedia fate and
human intake modeling: spatial versus noncapital insights for chemical emis-
sions in Western Europe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 39, 1119e1128.
Piao, W.H., Chen, Y., Zhang, S.S., Xu, X.N., 2012. Cleaner production audit for a
cement enterprise based on LCA. Acta Sci. Circumst. 32, 1785e1792 (in Chinese).
Price, L., Hasanbeigi, A., Lu, H.Y., Wang, L., 2009. Analysis of Energy-efficiency Op-
portunities for the Cement Industry in Shandong Province, China. Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA.
Schryver, A., Brakkee, K., Goedkoop, M., Huijbregts, M., 2009. Characterization
factors for global warming in life cycle assessment based on damages to
humans and ecosystems. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43, 1689e1695.
Scrivener, K.L., Kirkpatrick, R.J., 2008. Innovation in use and research on cementi-
tious material. Cem. Concr. Res. 38, 128e136.
Shao, M., Tang, X.Y., Zhang, Y.H., Li, W.J., 2006. City clusters in China: air and surface
water pollution. Front. Ecol. Environ. 4, 353e361.
Sun, Z., 2011. Techno-economic analysis on hybrid electrostatic-bag filter in the
large-scale power plant boiler. Energy Technol. Econ. 23, 58e61 (in Chinese).
Tang, J.Q., 2010. Status of low temperature cogeneration technology in dry rotary
cement kilns of China. China Cem. 10, 56e58 (in Chinese).
Wang, C., 2007. Research on Life Cycle Assessment of Calcium Carbide Sludge
Cement and Limestone Cement. Master Thesis. Southwest Jiaotong University.
Wang, X.S., 2013. Magnetic properties and heavy metal pollution of soils in the
vicinity of a cement plant, Xuzhou (China). J. Appl. Geophys. 98, 73e78.
Wu, H., Cu, S.P., W, Z.H, 2006. Environmental burden generated by the cement
industry in China. China Build. Mater. Sci. Technol. 15, 50e53 (in Chinese).
Xu, X.N., 2013. Life Cycle Assessment of Cement in China. Master Thesis. Dalian
University of Technology.
Xu, X.N., Chen, Y., Zhang, S.S., Zhang, Y., Song, G.B., 2013. Life cycle assessment of
composite Portland cement. Acta Sci. Circumst. 33, 2632e2638 (in Chinese).
Yuan, B.R., Nie, Z.R., Di, X.H., Zuo, T.Y., 2006. Life cycle inventories of fossil fuels in
China (Ⅱ): final life cycle inventories. Mod. Chem. Ind. 26, 59e61 (in Chinese).
Ze, X.Z., 2010. Analysis on the Development of Cement Industry in China. Digital
Cement (in Chinese). http://www.dcement.com/article/201007/88224.html.
Zeng, X.M., Yu, W.M., Hu, Z.J., Tao, C.X., Liu, J.K., Chai, X.T., et al., 2009. Review on
guide of energy consumption index in cement industry. Cement 6, 1e9 (in
Chinese).
Zhang, Y.X., 2010. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in China: Emission, Atmo-
spheric Transport and Lung Cancer Risk. Doctor Thesis. Peking University.
Zhao, J.N., Wei, D.Q., 2013. Carbon emission factors for cement plants in China.
Resour. Sci. 35, 800e808 (in Chinese).