Me-323b-Steam Power Engg

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
ME 323B: Steam Power

Engineering
DEPARTMENT: Mechanical Engineering
COMPILED BY:
VINCENT ANDREW A. ALOJAMIENTO
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of s mall-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates
of the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values……………………………………ii
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………...…...…………..iii
Course Description…………………......……………………………………………. iv
Course Outcomes……………………………..................……………………………iv
General Guidelines/Class Rules…………………................…………………………iv
Grading System…………………………………………….................………………iv
Learning Guide (Week No. 1) ………………………………………..................…….1
Topic/s……………………………………………………......…………..........1
Learning Outcomes………………………………………………................…1
Content/Technical Information……………………………………...............…1
Progress Check…… ……………………………………..............…………..10
References………………………………………………................…………11
Learning Guide (Week No. 2) ……………………………………….................……12
Topic/s…………………………………………………………..............……12
Learning Outcomes ………………………………………….............………12
Content/Technical Information …………………………...............…………12
Progress Check…… …………………..............……………………………..21
References………………………………………................…………………23
Learning Guide (Week No. 3)……………………………………….............…….…24
Topic/s………………………………………………………………..............24
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………………..........…24
Content/Technical Information……………………………………................24
Progress Check…… ………………………………………………................32
References………………………………………………………................…34
Learning Guide (Week No. 4) ………………………...............……..………………35
Topic/s…………………………………………………..............……………35
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………..........………35
Content/Technical Information………………………………................……35
Progress Check…… ………………………………………..............………..42
References………………………………………………................…………44
List of References…………………………………………...........................................……45
About the Author/s………………………………...................……………………………..46
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
An elective course which deals with automotive application of internal combustion engine. Complete
course covers basic knowledge of diesel and gasoline engines, and their auxiliaries such as; fuel
intake/exhaust system, lubricating system, cooling system, ignition system, steering system, and
transmission system
COURSE OUTCOMES
Know the different types of automotive ICE, their design, characteristics and application.
Understand the principle of operations of ICE, and auxiliaries.
Familiarize all parts and components, their uses, and principle of operation.
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Make-up exams and quizzes will only be given with prior approval of the Dean of College and
under any exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the exam, the university
policy will be followed.
2. Cell phones or any e-gadgets must be turned off or put in a silent mode during class hours.
Students with Special Needs:
Students with special medical needs should inform the instructor/professor ahead to as how they could
be best assisted
GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:
Average of examinations - 30%

Average of weekly assessment - 70%
Midterm Grade : (Average of Weekly Assessments from Week 1 to 6) X 0.70 +

(MTE x .0.30)
End term Grade : (Average of Weekly Assessments from Week 8 to 13) X 0.70 +
(ETE x .0.30)
Final Grade : (Midterm Grade + End term Grade) / 2
The passing grade for this course is 5.0.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __1__
TOPIC/S
Introduction to Steam Power Engineering

a. Principle of Steam Power Generation, Classification and Application
b. Steam and Steam Calorimetry
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:

• Discuss the principle of steam power generation, classification and application in thermal
power plants
• Discuss the operating principle in steam quality determination of a steam calorimeter.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Steam is a critical resource in today’s industrial world. It is essential for the production of
paper and other wood products, for the preparation and serving of foods, for the cooling and heating
of large buildings, for driving equipment such as pumps and compressors, and for powering ships.
However, its most important priority remains as the primary source of power for the production of
electricity.
Steam is extremely valuable because it can be produced anywhere in the world by using the
heat that comes from the fuels that are available in the area. Steam also has unique properties that are
extremely important in producing energy. Steam is basically recycled, from steam to water and then
back to steam again, all in a manner that is nontoxic in nature. The steam plants of today are a
combination of complex engineered systems that work to produce steam in the most efficient manner
that is economically feasible. Whether the end product of this steam is electricity, heat, or a steam
process required to develop a needed product such as paper, the goal is to have that product produced
at the lowest cost possible. The heat required to produce the steam is a significant operating cost that
affects the ultimate cost of the end product. In every situation, however, the steam power plant must
first obtain heat. This heat must come from an energy source, and this varies significantly, often based
on the plant’s location in the world.
These sources of heat could be
• A fossil fuel—coal, oil, or natural gas
• A nuclear fuel such as uranium
• Other forms of energy, which can include waste heat from exhaust gases of gas turbines; bark,
wood, bagasse, vine clippings, and other similar waste fuels; by-product fuels such as carbon
monoxide (CO), blast furnace gas (BFG), or methane (CH4); municipal solid waste (MSW);
sewage sludge; geothermal energy; and solar energy
Each of these fuels contains potential energy in the form of a heating value, and this is
measured in the amount of British thermal units (Btus) per each pound or cubic feet of the fuel (i.e.,
Btu/lb. or Btu/ft3) depending on whether the fuel is a solid or a gas. (Note: A British thermal unit is
about equal to the quantity of heat required to raise one pound of water one-degree Fahrenheit.)
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This energy must be released, and with fossil fuels, this is done through a carefully controlled
combustion process. In a nuclear power plant that uses uranium, the heat energy is released by a
process
called fission. In both cases the heat is released and then transferred to water. This can be done in
various ways, such as through tubes that have the water flowing on the inside. As the water is heated,
it eventually changes its form by turning into steam. As heat is continually added, the steam reaches
the desired temperature and pressure for the particular application.
The system in which the steam is generated is called a boiler, or often commonly called a
steam generator. Boilers can vary significantly in size and design. A relatively small one supplies heat
to a building, and other industrial-sized boilers provide steam for a process. Very large systems
produce enough steam at the proper pressure and temperature to result in the generation of 1300
megawatts (MW) of electricity in an electric utility power plant. Such a large power plant would
provide the electric needs for over 1 million people.
Small boilers that produce steam for heating or for a process are critical in their importance in
producing a reliable steam flow, even though it may be saturated steam at a pressure of 200 psig and
steam flow of 5000 lb/h. This then can be compared with the large utility boiler that produces 10
million pounds of superheated steam per hour at pressures and temperatures exceeding 3800 psig and
1000°F. To the operator of either size plant, reliable, safe, and efficient operation is of the utmost
importance. The capacity, pressure, and temperature ranges of boilers and their uniqueness of design
reflect their applications and the fuel that provides their source of energy.
Not only must the modern boiler produce steam in an efficient manner to produce power
(heat, process, or electricity) with the lowest operational cost that is practical, but also it must perform
in an environmentally acceptable way. Environmental protection is a major consideration in all
modern steam generating systems, where low-cost steam and electricity must be produced with a
minimum impact on the environment. Air pollution control that limits the emissions of sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and other acid gases, particulates, and nitrogen oxides (NOx) is a very important issue for all
combustion processes.
The simplest steam cycle of practical value is called the Rankine cycle, which originated
around the performance of the steam engine. The steam cycle is important because it connects
processes that allow heat to be converted to work on a continuous basis. This simple cycle was based
on dry saturated steam being supplied by a boiler to a power unit such as a turbine that drives an
electric generator. The steam from the turbine exhausts to a condenser, from which the condensed
steam is pumped back into the boiler.
This schematic also shows heat (Qin) being supplied to the boiler and a generator connected
to the turbine for the production of electricity. Heat (Qout) is removed by the condenser, and the
pump supplies energy (Wp) to the feedwater in the form of a pressure increase to allow it to flow
through the boiler.
A higher plant efficiency is obtained if the steam is initially superheated, and this means that
less steam and less fuel are required for a specific output. (Superheated steam has a temperature that is
above that of dry saturated steam at the same pressure and thus contains more heat content, called
enthalpy, Btu/lb.) If the steam is reheated and passed through a second turbine, cycle efficiency also
improves, and moisture in the steam is reduced as it passes through the turbine. This moisture
reduction minimizes erosion on the turbine blades.
When saturated steam is used in a turbine, the work required to rotate the turbine results in the
steam losing energy, and a portion of the steam condenses as the steam pressure drops. The amount of
work that can be done by the turbine is limited by the amount of moisture that it can accept without
excessive turbine blade erosion. This steam moisture content generally is between 10 and 15 percent.
Therefore, the moisture content of the steam is a limiting factor in turbine design.
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With the addition of superheat, the turbine transforms this additional energy into work
without forming moisture, and this energy is basically all recoverable in the turbine. A reheater often
is used in a large utility plant because it adds additional steam energy to the low-pressure portion of
the turbine, thereby increasing the overall plant efficiency. By the addition of regenerative feedwater
heating, the original Rankine cycle was improved significantly. This is done by extracting steam from
various stages of the turbine to heat the feedwater as it is pumped from the condenser back to the
boiler to complete the cycle. It is this cycle concept that is used in modern power plants, and the
equipment and systems for it will be described in this book
THE POWER PLANT

The steam generator or boiler is a major part of the many systems that comprise a steam
power plant. A typical pulverized-coal-fired utility power plant is shown schematically in the figure.
The major systems of this power plant can be identified as
1. Coal receipt and preparation

2. Coal combustion and steam generation
3. Environmental protection
4. Turbine generator and electric production
5. Condenser and feedwater system
6. Heat rejection, including the cooling tower
In this example, the fuel handling system stores the coal supply, prepares the fuel for
combustion by means of pulverization, and then transports the pulverized coal to the boiler. A forced-
draft (FD) fan supplies the combustion air to the burners, and this air is preheated in an air heater,
which improves the cycle efficiency. The heated air is also used to dry the pulverized coal. A primary
air fan is used to supply heated air to the pulverizer for coal drying purposes and is the source of the
primary air to the burners as the fuel-air mixture flows from the pulverizers to the burners. The fuel-
air mixture is then burned in the furnace portion of the boiler.
The boiler recovers the heat from combustion and generates steam at the required pressure
and temperature. The combustion gases are generally called flue gas, and these leave the boiler,
economizer, and finally the air heater and then pass through environmental control equipment. In the
example shown, the flue gas passes through a particulate collector, either an electrostatic precipitator
or a bag filter house, to a sulfur dioxide (SO2) scrubbing system, where these acid gases are removed,
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and then the cleaned flue gas flows to the stack through an induced-draft (ID) fan. Ash from the coal
is removed from the boiler and particulate collector, and residue is removed from the scrubber.
Steam is generated in the boiler under carefully controlled conditions. The steam flows to the
turbine, which drives a generator for the production of electricity and for distribution to the electric
system at the proper voltage. Since the power plant has its own electrical needs, such as motors,
controls, and lights, part of the electricity generated is used for these plant requirements.
After passing through the turbine, the steam flows to the condenser, where it is converted
back to water for reuse as boiler feedwater. Cooling water passes through the condenser, where it
absorbs the rejected heat from condensing and then releases this heat to the atmosphere by means of a
cooling tower. The condensed water then returns to the boiler through a series of pumps and heat
exchangers, called feedwater heaters, and this process increases the pressure and temperature of the
water prior to its reentry into the boiler, thus completing its cycle from water to steam and then back
to water.
The type of fuel that is burned determines to a great extent the overall plant design. Whether
it be the fossil fuels of coal, oil, or natural gas, biomass, or by-product fuels, considerably different
provisions must be incorporated into the plant design for systems such as fuel handling and
preparation, combustion of the fuel, recovery of heat, fouling of heat-transfer surfaces, corrosion of
materials, and air pollution control. Refer to the figure where a comparison is shown of a natural
gas–fired boiler and a pulverized-coal-fired boiler, each designed for the same steam capacity,
pressure, and temperature. This comparison only shows relative boiler size and does not indicate the
air pollution control equipment that is required with the coal-fired boiler, such as an electrostatic
precipitator and an SO2 scrubber system. Such systems are unnecessary for a boiler designed to burn
natural gas.
In a natural gas–fired boiler, there is minimum need for fuel storage and handling because the
gas usually comes directly from the pipeline to the boiler. In addition, only a relatively small furnace
is required for combustion. Since natural gas has no ash, there is no fouling in the boiler because of
ash deposits, and therefore the boiler design allows heat-transfer surfaces to be more closely spaced.
The combination of a smaller furnace and the closer spacing results in a more compact boiler design.
The corrosion allowance is also relatively small, and the emissions control required relates primarily
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to the nitrogen oxide (NOx) that is formed during the combustion process. The boiler designed for
natural gas firing is therefore a relatively small and economical design.
The power plant becomes much more complex when a solid fuel such as coal is burned. Coal and
other solid fuels have a high percentage of ash, which is not combustible, and this ash must be a factor
in designing the plant. A coal-fired power plant must include extensive fuel handling, storage, and
preparation facilities; a much larger furnace for combustion; and wider spaced heat-transfer surfaces.
Additional components are also required:
1. Soot blowers, which are special cleaning equipment to reduce the impact of fouling and erosion
2. Air heaters, which provide air preheating to dry fuel and enhance combustion
3. Environmental control equipment such as electrostatic precipitators, bag filter houses, and SO2
scrubbers
4. Ash handling systems to collect and remove ash
5. Ash disposal systems including a landfill
The units shown in the figure are designed for the same steam capacity, but one is designed
for natural gas firing and the other is designed for pulverized coal firing. Although the comparison of
the two units shows only a relative difference in the height of the units, both the depth and the width
of the coal-fired unit are proportionately larger as well.
The operators of power plants are continually investigating various means to increase their
revenues by increasing the efficiency of their plants, by reducing their costs, and by creating other
salable products. This all must be accomplished by reducing the impact of the operation on the
environment. For example, one utility has taken unique steps in the handling and disposing of fly ash.
This utility has constructed a storage dome that holds approximately 85,000 tons of fly ash,
which is the amount of fly ash produced from this plant in 2 months of operation. The storage dome is
filled in the winter and early spring so that the maximum amount of fly ash is available and used in
place of cement for the production of concrete in the summer months when many construction
projects are active.
Fly ash is an excellent substitute for cement in concrete. With its use, the following
improvements are found in concrete: strength, durability, permeability, and susceptibility to thermal
cracking and sulfate attack. In the past, small amounts of fly ash have been used in concrete, but
recent studies conclude that concrete containing 50 percent fly ash can be used, and the results show
the significant improvements identified above.
The use of fly ash not only reduces the cost of the concrete but also reduces the landfill costs
for this waste product, which must be disposed in some manner. Therefore, the use of fly ash in
concrete and other unique ideas will continue to be investigated.
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UTILITY BOILERS FOR ELECTRIC POWER

Both in the United States and worldwide, the majority of electric power is produced in steam
power plants using fossil fuels and steam turbines. Most of the electric production comes from large
electric utility plants, although many of the newer plants are much smaller and owned and operated by
independent power producers (IPPs).
Until the 1980s, the United States and other Western nations developed large electrical
networks, primarily with electric utilities. Over the past several decades in the United States, the
increased electricity annual demand of about 2 percent has been met through independent power
producers. However, the United States is not dependent on this IPP capacity. The average electricity
reserve margin is 20 percent. This allows the opportunity to investigate the possible changes of
established institutions and regulations, to expand wheeling of power to balance regional supply, and
to demand and satisfy these low incremental capacity needs in less expensive ways. (Note: Wheeling
is the sale of power across regions and not restricted to the traditional local-only supply.)
However, this sale of power across regions has shown that there are problems with the
electrical distribution system, as evidenced by several critical blackouts in recent years in the United
States. Because power plants have become, in many cases, remote from the electricity user, a more
demanding electrical grid is required, as well as a managing computer and distribution complex to
ensure that electricity is transmitted to the user reliably and efficiently. The blackouts that have
occurred have resulted in a critical evaluation of the electrical grid in the United States and a
determination for the requirements to make it more reliable. It will be an expensive but necessary
process.
Many developing countries do not have the luxury of having a reserve margin. In fact, their
electric supply growth is just meeting demand, and in many cases, the electric supply growth is not
close to meeting demand. Power outages are frequent, and this has a serious
impact on the local economy.
As an average for large utility plants, a kilowatt-hour (kWh) of electricity is produced for
each 8500 to 9500 Btus that are supplied from the fuel, and this results in a net thermal efficiency for
the plant of 36 to 40 percent. These facilities use steam-driven turbine generators that produce
electricity up to 1300 MW, and individual boilers are designed to produce steam flows ranging from 1
million to 10 million lb/h. Modern plants use cycles that have, at the turbine, steam pressures
ranging from 1800 to 3500 psi and steam temperatures from 950 to 1000°F and at times over 1000°F.
In the United States, approximately 3900 billion kWh of electricity is generated from the following
energy sources:
• Coal 51%
• Oil 2
• Natural gas 16
• Nuclear 20
• Hydroelectric 8
• Geothermal and others 3
Total 100%
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COAL-FIRED BOILERS
The large coal-fired power plant utilizes pulverized coal firing where example of a medium-
sized modern pulverized-coal-fired boiler is shown in the figure and incorporates low NOx burners to
meet current emission requirements on nitrogen oxides. This unit is designed to produce 1,250,000
lb/h of steam at 2460 psig and 1005°F/1005°F (superheat/reheat). This unit has the coal burners in the
front wall and, as part of the NOx control system, has secondary air ports above the burners. This unit
has a two gas pass, three air pass tubular air heater. The forced-draft (FD) fan also takes warm air
from the top of the building (above the air heater) by means of a vertical duct. This design of the
combustion air intake
improves the air circulation within the building as well as using all available heat sources for
improving plant efficiency. The environmental control equipment is not shown in this illustration.
A larger pulverized-coal-fired boiler is shown in the figure. This illustration shows a boiler
system and its environmental control equipment that produces approximately 6,500,000 lb/h of steam
for an electrical output of 860 MW. This is a radiant-type boiler that is designed to produce both
superheated and reheated steam for use in the turbine. For air heating, it incorporates a regenerative
air heater instead of a tubular air heater. For environmental control, it uses a dry scrubber for the
capture of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and a baghouse for the collection of particulates. The boiler shown is
designed for indoor use (see building enclosing equipment), but depending on location, many boilers
and their auxiliary systems are designed as outside installations.
As noted previously, coal has a dominant role as a critical fuel in the production of electricity both in
the United States and throughout the world. The use of this fuel brings with it environmental concerns
that encompass the development of cost-effective and efficient systems for the control of pollutants.
These pollutants include emissions of solid, liquid, and gaseous wastes.
Coal piles can create fugitive dust problems, as well as storm water runoffs. Following the
combustion of coal, emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulates all
must be controlled within operating permit limits.
There are many projects in development, under construction, and in operation that will
demonstrate innovative ways to use coal efficiently while meeting strict environmental standards.
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OIL- AND GAS-FIRED BOILERS

The use of oil and gas as fuels for new utility boilers has declined except for certain areas of
the world where these otherwise critical fuels are readily available and low in cost. Large oil-
producing countries are good examples of places where oil- and gas-fired boilers are installed. In
other areas of the world, their use as fuels for utility boilers has declined for various reasons: high
cost, low availability, and government regulations. However, there have been significant
improvements in combined cycle systems that have made the use of oil and more often natural gas in
these systems more cost-effective. In addition, plants that have these gas turbine cycles are more
easily sited than other types of power plants because of their reduced environmental concerns.
However, in the majority of cases, they depend on a critical fuel, natural gas, whose availability for
the long term may be limited.
STEAM CONSIDERATIONS
The reheat steam cycle is used on most fossil fuel–fired utility plants. In this cycle, high-
pressure superheated steam from the boiler passes through the high-pressure portion of the turbine,
where the steam reduces in pressure as it rotates the turbine, and then this lower pressure steam
returns to the boiler for reheating. After the steam is reheated, it returns to the turbine, where it flows
through the intermediate- and low-pressure portions of the turbine. The use of this cycle increases the
thermal efficiency of the plant, and the fuel costs are therefore reduced. In a large utility system, the
reheat cycle can be justified because the lower fuel costs offset the higher initial cost of the reheater,
piping, turbine, controls, and other equipment that is necessary to handle the reheated steam.
BOILER FEEDWATER
When water is obtained from sources that are either on or below the surface of the earth, it
contains, in solution, some scale-forming materials, free oxygen, and in some cases, acids. These
impurities must be removed because high-quality water is vital to the efficient and reliable operation
of any steam cycle. Good water quality can improve efficiency by reducing scale Deposits on tubes, it
minimizes overall maintenance, and it improves the availability of the system. All of this means lower
costs and higher revenues.
Dissolved oxygen attacks steel, and the rate of this attack increases significantly as
temperatures increase. By having high chemical concentrations or high solids in the boiler water and
feedwater, boiler tube deposition can occur, and solids can be carried over into the superheater and
finally the turbine. This results in superheater tube failures because of overheating. Deposits and
erosion also occur on the turbine blades. These situations are serious maintenance problems and can
result in plant outages for repairs. The actual maintenance can be very costly; however, this cost can
be greatly exceeded by the loss of revenues caused by the outage that is necessary to make the repairs.
As steam-plant operating pressures have increased, the water treatment systems have become
more important to obtaining high availability. This has led to more complete and refined water
treatment facilities.
INDUSTRIAL AND SMALL POWER PLANTS

Various industries require steam to meet many of their needs: heating and air conditioning;
turbine drives for pumps, blowers, or compressors; drying and other processes; water heating;
cooking; and cleaning. This so-called industrial steam, because of its lower pressure and temperature
as compared with utility requirements, also can be used to generate electricity. This can be done
directly with a turbine for electric production only, or as part of a cogeneration system, where a
turbine is used for electric production and low-pressure steam is extracted from the turbine and used
for heating or for some process. The electricity that is produced is used for in-plant requirements, with
the excess often sold to a local electric utility.
Another method is a combined cycle system, where a gas turbine is used to generate electric
power and a heat recovery system is added using the exhaust gas from the gas turbine as a heat
source. The generated steam flows to a steam turbine for additional electric generation, and this
cogeneration results in an improvement in the overall efficiency. The steam that is generated also can
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be used as process steam either directly or when extracted from the system, such as an extraction
point within the turbine.
One of the most distinguishable features of most industrial-type boilers is a large saturated
water boiler bank between the steam drum and the lower drum. Shown is a typical two-drum
design. This particular unit is designed to burn pulverized coal or fuel oil, and it generates 885,000
lb/h of steam. Although not shown, this boiler also requires environmental control equipment to
collect particulates and acid gases contained in the flue gas.
The boiler bank serves the purpose of preheating the inlet feedwater to the saturated
temperature and then evaporating the water while cooling the flue gas. In lower-pressure boilers, the
heating surface that is available in the furnace enclosure is insufficient to absorb all the heat energy
that is needed to accomplish this function. Therefore, a boiler bank is added after the furnace and
superheater, if one is required, to provide the necessary heat-transfer surface.
As the pressure increases, the amount of heat absorption that is required to evaporate water
declines rapidly, and the heat absorption for water preheating and superheating steam increases. See
also Table 1.1 for examples of heat absorption at system pressures of 500 and 1500 psig.
The examples shown in the table assume that the superheat is constant at 100° higher than the
saturated temperature for the particular pressure.
It is also common for boilers to be designed with an economizer and/or an air heater located
downstream of the boiler bank in order to reduce the flue gas temperature and to provide an efficient
boiler cycle.
It is generally not economical to distribute steam through long steam lines at pressures below
150 psig because, in order to minimize the pressure drop that is caused by friction in the line, pipe
sizes must increase with the associated cost increase. In addition, for the effective operation of
auxiliary equipment such as soot blowers and turbine drives on pumps, boilers should operate at a
minimum pressure of 125 psig. Therefore, few plants of any size operate below this steam pressure. If
the pressure is required to be lower, it is common to use pressure-reducing stations at these locations.
For an industrial facility where both electric power and steam for heating or a process are
required, a study must be made to evaluate the most economical choice. For example, electric power
could be purchased from the local utility and a boiler could be installed to meet the heating or process
needs only. By comparison, a plant could be installed where both electricity and steam are produced
from the same system.
BUBBLING FLUID BED (BFB) BOILER.

Of all the fluid bed technologies, the bubbling bed is the oldest. The primary difference
between a BFB boiler and a CFB boiler design is that with a BFB the air velocity in the bed is
maintained low enough that the material that comprises the bed (e.g., fuel, ash, limestone, and sand),
except for fines, is held in the bottom of the unit, and the solids do not circulate through the rest of the
furnace enclosure.
For new boilers, the BFB boilers are well suited to handle high moisture waste fuels, such as
sewage sludge, and also the various sludges that are produced in pulp and paper mills and in recycle
paper plants.
CIRCULATING FLUID BED (CFB) BOILER.

The CFB boiler provides an alternative to stoker or pulverized coal firing. In general, it can
produce steam up to 2 million lb/h at 2500 psig and 1000°F. It is generally selected for applications
with high-sulfur fuels, such as coal, petroleum coke, sludge, and oil pitch, as well as for wood waste
and for other biomass fuels such as vine clippings from large vineyards. It is also used for hard-to-
burn fuels such as waste coal culm, which is a fine residue generally from the mining and production
of anthracite coal. Because the CFB operates at a much lower combustion temperature than stoker or
pulverized-coal firing, it generates approximately 50 percent less NOx as compared with stoker or
pulverized coal firing.
The use of CFB boilers is rapidly increasing in the world as a result of their ability to burn
low-grade fuels while at the same time being able to meet the required emission criteria for nitrogen
oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic compounds (VOC), and
particulates. The CFB boiler produces steam economically for process purposes and for electric
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production. The advantages of a CFB boiler are reduced capital and operating costs that result
primarily from the following:
• It burns low-quality and less costly fuels.
• It offers greater fuel flexibility as compared with coal-fired boilers and stoker-fired boilers.
• It reduces the costs for fuel crushing because coarser fuel is used as compared with pulverized
fuel.
• Fuel sizing is slightly less than that required for stoker firing.
• It has lower capital costs and lower operating costs because additional pollution control
equipment,
15
STEAM AND STEAM CALORIMETRY
STEAM GENERATION
When heat energy is transferred to water, its enthalpy and its physical state change. As
heating takes place the temperature of the fluid rises and generally its density decreases. The rapidity
of the vaporization is dependent upon the rate of heat transfer to the water and its movement in the
confining vessel. The vapor thus formed is known as steam, and though it exists in a gaseous state it
does not entirely follow the laws of a perfect gas.
The temperature at which boiling or vaporization occurs is dependent upon the purity of the
water and the absolute pressure exerted upon it. For pure water the boiling temperature is definitely
fixed for each pressure exerted upon it, and it is less at low pressures than at high. Numerical
examples of pressures and the corresponding vaporization temperatures of pure water are 0.491 psia,
79.03 F; 14.696 psia, 212 F; and 600 psia, 486.2 F.
SATURATED STEAM.
Steam that exists at the vaporization temperature corresponding to its (absolute) pressure is
defined as saturated. Saturated steam may be completely free from unvaporized water particles, or it
may carry water globules in suspension. Thus saturated steam may be in either a wet or a dry
condition. The generation of steam is a steady-flow process to which equation 22 is applicable. The.
In the pro-duction of saturated steam the absorption of energy (heat), by each pound of water, takes
place in two stages which are: (1) addition of the enthalpy of the liquid, h1, and (2) addition of
enthalpy of evaporation, hfg. All materials having a temperature above —459.7 F possess energy. For
water and steam a base temperature of 32 F is more convenient to use than zero absolute.
Consequently, the custom is to reckon enthalpies of the liquid, evaporation, and the vapor as well as
all changes of entropy per pound above the 32 F datum temperature.
16
ENTHALPY OF LIQUID.
The amount of heat energy in Btu, necessary to raise 1 lb of water from a temperature of 32
F to its temperature of boiling, at a given absolute pressure, is the enthalpy of the liquid, hf. This
quantity may be computed h specific heat of the water and the elevation of its vaporization
temperature above 32 F.
The amounts of heat energy added to water, as enthalpy of the liquid, increase as its
pressure and temperature rise. The rate of the increase in the amount of heat added is not uniform for
equal increments of pressure rise. Change of enthalpy of the liquid is used to increase the temperature
of the water and to effect, at the expense of energy, small volume changes in the liquid. Consequently,
when heat is added to water the major portion of it goes to increase the internal energy of the liquid,
and only a very small portion is utilized in doing work. The prior discussion deals with water at its
saturation temperature corresponding to the absolute pressure exerted upon it. When water is at a
temperature other than that normal for the pressure its thermal properties of enthalpy of the liquid and
entropy as well as its specific volume are affected by compression under a high pressure.
ENTHALPY OF EVAPORATION
The heat energy, in Btu, necessary to convert 1 pound of liquid water into dry steam at the
same temperature and pressure is the enthalpy of evaporation, hfg. As the absolute pressure of the
steam increases, the enthalpy of evaporation decreases, becoming zero at the critical pressure of
3206.2 psia, corresponding to a saturation temperature of 705.4 F. At the critical pressure water passes
directly into steam without the addition of enthalpy of evaporation, and the total enthalpy of the dry
saturated vapor is equal to the enthalpy of the liquid, 902.7 Btu per lb.
Enthalpy of evaporation includes two parts: the internal energy and the work, P(vg — vf) , done in
effecting the change of the volume of 1 lb of water to the volume of 1 lb of dry steam formed at the
existing absolute pressure. Both items are usually given in Btu per pound.
The work equivalent, in Btu, is
P (vg — vf)/J = 144p(vg — vf)/778
where J = 778 ft-lb per Btu.

P = steam pressure, psfa.
p = steam pressure, psia.
vg = volume of the steam formed, cu ft per lb.
vf = volume of the water at the vaporization temperature, cu ft per lb.
The internal energy of evaporation ui„ is the energy, in Btu, necessary to overcome the
molecular attraction of the water molecules at the vaporization temperature. This internal energy of
evaporation is equal to ufg = hfg — P(vg – vf)/J
TOTAL ENTHALPY OF DRY SATURATED STEAM.

The total enthalpy hg, of 1 lb of dry saturated steam, reckoned above 32 F, is the sum of the
enthalpy of the liquid and the enthalpy of evaporation. hg = hf + hfg
where hg = the enthalpy of the vapor, Btu per lb.

hf = the enthalpy of the liquid, Btu per lb.
hfg = the enthalpy of evaporation, Btu per lb.
SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY OF DRY SATURATED STEAM.

The volume of 1 lb of steam varies inversely as the pressure. The density d, of dry saturated
steam is the weight of the steam in pounds per cubic foot and is the reciprocal of the specific volume
vg. The density varies as the pressure; thus, the higher the pressure, the greater is the weight of steam
per cubic foot. The volumes of of the liquid water are also given in the steam tables, and the density
of the liquid may be computed as the reciprocal of vf.
17
QUALITY OF STEAM.
Moisture present in saturated steam may be due to several causes. Steam conveyed by
piping may suffer a loss of heat by convection and radiation so that part of the enthalpy of evaporation
is given up and water particles are formed in the steam. The generation of the steam may have been
imperfect either on account of poor design of the steam generator, high rate of evaporation
maintained, or poor boiler feedwater.
The dry steam per pound of wet steam is the quality of the steam. The quality x of steam
may be expressed either as a percentage or as a decimal. As most calculations involve the use of
steam quality ex-pressed as a decimal, it will always be so used in this work.
TOTAL ENTHALPY OF WET SATURATED STEAM.

The total enthalpy of a pound of wet saturated steam is less than that of a pound of dry
saturated steam under the same pressure conditions. When the water is not completely vaporized, the
heat carried as enthalpy of evaporation is less than when the steam is dry. The quality factor affects
only the enthalpy of evaporation and does not change the enthalpy of the liquid at any given pressure.
The total enthalpy of a pound of wet steam reckoned above 32 F, is
have= hf + xhfg
where have= total enthalpy of wet steam, Btu per lb.

x = quality of the steam, expressed decimally.
hf = enthalpy of the liquid, Btu per lb.
hfg = enthalpy of evaporation of dry saturated vapor, Btu per lb.
SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY OF WET SATURATED STEAM.

When the quality of steam is expressed decimally, the specific volume vow of wet saturated
steam may be computed as vave = vf + x(vg— vf) (134) In the foregoing equation, vf and vg are
obtained from the steam tables giving the properties of dry saturated steam for the pressure involved.
When available vfg may replace (vg — vf). The steam density is the reciprocal of v.
SUPERHEATED STEAM.
The temperature and the total enthalpy of saturated steam, at any pressure, may be
increased by the application of additional heat. When the steam temperature is above the saturation
temperature, corresponding to the steam pressure, the steam is super-heated. The superheating process
usually takes place in a separate piece of equipment where the steam is not in contact with its liquid.
The total enthalpy of a pound of superheated steam may be computed by adding to the total enthalpy
of 1 lb of dry saturated steam, at the given pressure, the enthalpy added during the superheating
process. This latter quantity may be expressed as cpa(ta — t), when ta is the temperature of the super-
heated steam and t is the temperature of saturated steam at the existing absolute steam pressure. The
mean specific heat of superheated steam cpa, varies with the pressure and the steam temperature. The
range of values of the mean specific heat of superheated steam may be between 0.44 for small
amounts of superheating at sub atmospheric pressures and more than 2 for high temperatures and
pressures. The advantages of superheating steam are (1) the additional heat imparted to the vapor
causes it to behave more nearly as a perfect gas than saturated steam, (2) the temperature ranges in
certain pieces of steam-using equipment may be increased, and (3) steam condensation losses may be
eliminated or lessened in pipe lines and steam-using engines and turbines.
STEAM-QUALITY DETERMINATION.
The dryness or quality of saturated steam is determined by means of some type of steam
calorimeter. There are two general types of steam calorimeters: the separating and the throttling or
superheating instruments. Combinations of these types may be used where the steam is of low quality
and where a greater degree of accuracy is necessary. In all determinations of steam quality the
18
calorimeter must be insulated against the loss of heat from the incoming steam, and also the sample of
steam drawn must be representative of the steam for which the quality determination is desired.
Separating calorimeters employ mechanical removal of moisture from wet steam entering
them. Measurements are necessary of the weight of moisture collected, as water, and the weight of dry
steam escaping from the calorimeter. Separating calorimeters may be used for the determination of the
quality of low-pressure or very wet steam. The expression of quality is, decimally,
𝑚𝑑𝑠
𝑥= 𝑚𝑑𝑠 +𝑚𝑚
where x = quality of steam.

mds = weight of dry steam passing through the calorimeter, lb.
mm = weight of moisture separated from md, lb of dry steam, lb.
Throttling calorimeters operate upon the principle that, if steam is throttled and then
expanded without doing any work or without the loss of heat, the total energy of the steam is
unchanged. Radiation losses should be minimized by having the calorimeter, as well as its connection
to the steam main, thoroughly insulated. The calorimeter shown in the figure involves the principles
of the throttling calorimeter. Steam enters through the sampling nozzle and is expanded in an orifice.
The expanded steam enters the steam chamber and escapes at its top after traversing a U-
path. Momentary excess moisture is separated and re-evaporated within the steam chamber, and the
effect is indicated in direct proportion by the superheat thermometer placed in the path of the steam. A
throttling, separating, and re-evaporating calorimeter is formed in a single chamber which is jacketed
by the escaping steam. The jacket steam is protected against chilling by heavy insulation and a nickel-
plated casing. A steam pressure gage is necessary to indicate the initial pressure of the steam. The
exhaust takes place freely to the atmosphere.
If the total energy of the steam is unchanged in the expansion process and the moisture of
the steam is not excessive it will be evaporated, and the steam in the low-pressure side of the
calorimeter will be superheated at its existing pressure. This relation may then be established: the total
enthalpy of the wet saturated steam before expansion (hf + xhfg) is equal to the total enthalpy h of the
superheated steam after expansion. In equation form this may be stated hf + xhfg = h and
ℎ− ℎ𝑓
𝑥= ℎ𝑓𝑔
where x = initial quality of the steam expressed decimally.

hf = enthalpy of the liquid at the initial pressure abs, Btu per lb.
hg = enthalpy of evaporation of dry saturated vapor at the initial pressure abs, Btu per lb.
19
h = total enthalpy of the superheated steam at the calorimeter pressure absolute, Btu per lb.
For accurate work, corrections should be properly applied to the readings of thermometers
having mercury columns exposed to the surrounding air. At least 10 F of superheat must be obtained
by the expansion of the steam.
PROGRESS CHECK
1. Why are the study and understanding of steam power plants so important?
2. Describe the various forms of energy input to a power plant. Provide examples of the plant
output that uses this energy
3. Provide a list of the major uses of steam in industry.
4. What are the sources of heat that are used to generate steam?
5. What is a British thermal unit (Btu)?
6. Why is air pollution control equipment so important in the production of steam?
7. Provide a sketch and describe the operation of the Rankine steam cycle. What is the
advantage of superheating the steam?
8. Define dry saturated steam and superheated steam.
9. What are the major systems of a coal-fired power plant? Provide a brief description of each.
10. What is the purpose of an air heater?
11. Why is condensing the steam from the turbine and returning it to the boiler so important?
12. Why is a natural gas–fired boiler far less complex than a boiler that burns coal?
13. Why are water treatment systems important to a well-operated power plant?
14. From an environmental point of view, what are the advantages of a fluidized bed boiler?
15. Of all the power plant costs, which one has the most significant cost impact?
16. A pure substance is said to have ____ degrees of freedom.
a) one
b) two
c) three
d) four
17. Which of the following statement is true?
a) it is easiest to measure the temperature and pressure of a substance
b) when pressure and temperature are independent properties, they are measured to determine
that state of the substance
c) it is measured in the compressed liquid region or the superheated vapour region
d) all of the mentioned
18. For a substance in two-phase region,
a) both pressure and temperature are independent properties
b) if pressure is given, the saturation temperature gets fixed
c) no other property is required to be known
19. Devices such as calorimeters are used to for determining the quality or enthalpy of the
mixture.
20
a) true
b) false
20. For the measurement of quality, the state of the substance is brought from the two-phase
region to
a) single-phase region
b) superheated region
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned
21. To fix the state and determine the quality of the mixture, we can do this by
a) adiabatic throttling
b) electric heating
c) both of the mentioned
d) none of the mentioned
22. To be sure that steam after throttling is in the single-phase or superheated vapour, a minimum
of ____ is desired.
a) 10 degree Celsius
b) -5 degree Celsius
c) 0 degree Celsius
d) 5 degree Celsius
23. A combined separating and throttling calorimeter is also used to measure the quality.
a) true
b) false
24. In a combined separating and throttling calorimeter,
a) steam is first passed through a separator
b) in separator, some moisture separates out due to sudden change in direction
c) then the partially dry vapour is throttled and taken to the superheated region
25. The quality of wet steam can also be measured by an electric calorimeter.
a) true
b) false
21
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __2__
TOPIC/S
Review on Fuels and Combustion:

• Classification of Fuels and Properties
• Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Fuels
• Combustion Equations and Formulas
• Flue Gas Analysis
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Discuss the classification of fuels and its properties
• Differentiate the Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of fuels
• Determine complete combustion with stoichiometric amount of air through combustion
equations and formulas
• Discuss steps in conducting flue gas analysis
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
COAL
Coal was formed by the decomposition of vegetation that grew in prehistoric forests. At that
time the climate was favorable for very rapid growth. Layer upon layer of fallen trees was covered
with sediment, and after long periods of aging, the chemical and physical properties of the now
ancient vegetation deposits were changed, through various intermediate processes, into coal. The
process of coal formation can be observed in the various stages on the earth today. However, present-
day formations are insignificant when compared with the magnitude of the great coal deposits.
It is estimated that 100 years is required to deposit 1 ft of vegetation in the form known as
peat, and 4 ft of peat is necessary for the formation of 1 ft of coal. Therefore, it requires 400 years to
accumulate enough vegetable matter for a 1-ft layer of coal. The conversion from peat to coal requires
ages of time. In some areas where other fuel is scarce, the peat is collected, dried, and burned.
The characteristics of coal depend on the type of vegetation from which it was formed, the
impurities that became intermixed with the vegetable matter at the time the peat bog was forming, and
the aging, time, temperature, and pressure. It is apparent that the characteristics of coal vary widely.
For example, peat often contains partially decomposed stems, twigs, and bark. Peat is
progressively transformed to lignite, which eventually can become anthracite when provided with the
proper progression of geologic changes. However, this transformation takes hundreds of years to
complete. Coal is a heterogeneous material that varies in chemical composition according to location.
In addition to the major organic ingredients of C, H2, and O2, coal also contains impurities. The
impurities that are of major concern are ash and sulfur.
The ash results from mineral or inorganic material that was introduced during formation of
the coal. Ash sources include inorganic substances, such as silica, which are part of the chemical
structure of the plants. Dissolved mineral grains that are found in swamp water are also captured by
the organic matter during the formation of coal. Mud, shale, and pyrite are deposited in pores and
cracks of the coal seams.
Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms:
22
• Organic sulfur, which is part of the coal’s molecular structure

• Pyritic sulfur, which occurs as the mineral pyrite
• Sulfate sulfur, which is primarily from iron sulfate
The highest sulfur source is sulfate iron, which is found in water. Fresh water has a low sulfate
concentration, whereas salt water is high in sulfate. Bituminous coal is found deposited in the interior
of the United States, where oceans once covered the region, and this coal has a high sulfur content.
PEAT.
Peat is the first product in the formation of coal and consists of partially decomposed plant
and mineral matter. Peat has a moisture content of up to 70 percent and a heating value as low as 3000
Btu/lb. Although it is not an official coal classification, it is used as a fuel in
some parts of the world.
LIGNITE.
Lignite is the lowest ranking of coal with a heating value of less than 8300 Btu/lb and a
moisture content as high as 35 percent. The volatile content is also high, and therefore lignite ignites
easily.
SUBBITUMINOUS.
These coals are non-coking; i.e., they have minimal swelling on heating and have a relatively
high moisture content of 15 to 30 percent. They are high in volatile matter and thus ignite easily. They
also have less ash and burn cleaner than lignite. They have a low sulfur content, generally less than 1
percent, and a heating value between 8300 and 11,500 Btu/lb. Because of the low sulfur content,
many power plants have changed to subbituminous coal in order to limit SO2 emissions.
BITUMINOUS.
This coal is the one most commonly burned in electric utility boilers, and it has a heating
value between 10,500 and 14,000 Btu/lb. As compared with lignite and subbituminous coals, the
heating value is higher, and the moisture content and volatile matter are lower. The high heating value
and its relatively high volatile matter enable these coals to burn easily when fired as pulverized coal.
Some types of bituminous coal, when heated in the absence of air, soften and release volatiles and
then form coke, a porous, hard, black product. Coke is used as fuel in blast furnaces to make iron.
ANTHRACITE.
This is the highest ranked coal. It has the highest contentof fixed carbon, ranging from 86 to
98 percent. It has a low volatile content, which makes it a slow-burning fuel. Its moisture content is
low at about 3 percent, and its heating value can be as high as 15,000 Btu/lb. Anthracite is low in
sulfur and volatiles and burns with a hot, clean flame. It is used mostly for domestic heating as well as
some metallurgical processes. However, utility-type boilers are designed to burn this low-volatile coal
in pulverized coal-fired boilers Preparation plants are capable of upgrading coal quality. In this
process, foreign materials, including slate and pyrites, are separated from the coal. The coal may be
washed, sized, and blended to meet the most exacting power plant demands. However, this processing
increases the cost of coal, and an economic evaluation is required to determine whether the cost can
be justified. If the raw coal available in the area is unsatisfactory, the minimum required upgrading
must be determined. Utility plants obtain the lowest steam cost by selecting their combustion
equipment to use the raw coal available in the area.
23
Because of the varied and complex nature of coal, a number of methods for evaluating and
specifying have been developed. One of the simplest methods of controlling coal quality is the
proximate analysis, which includes moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon, ash, heating value, and
sometimes sulfur. The procedure for obtaining a proximate analysis must be in accordance with
ASTM1 laboratory procedures, which are generally as follows:
MOISTURE.
A 1-g sample of coal is placed in an oven where the temperature is maintained at 220°F for 1
h. The difference between the weight before and after drying is the amount of moisture removed.
Volatile matter. The sample is next placed in a furnace in a covered crucible, where the temperature is
maintained at 1700°F for a period of 7 min. The gaseous substance driven off is called volatile matter.
FIXED CARBON.
The lid is now removed from the crucible, the furnace temperature is increased, and the
crucible is allowed to remain in the furnace until the combustible has been completely burned. The
loss in weight as a result of this burning is the amount of fixed carbon.
ASH.
The residual material in the crucible is ash.
HEATING VALUE.
The heating value of coal may be determined by use of a bomb calorimeter. The bomb
calorimeter provides a means of burning a small sample of coal under controlled conditions and
measuring the resulting temperature rise in a given quantity of water. A 1-g sample (a gram is 1/453.6
lb) of pulverized and dried coal is placed in a tray. The tray is then placed in a steel bomb with a fuse
wire arranged to extend into the tray of coal. The bomb is then closed, connected to an oxygen tank,
and pressurized. A measured amount of water is poured into the calorimeter bucket. The bucket is
placed in the calorimeter, and the bomb is carefully submerged in the water. A stirring device agitates
the water to maintain uniform temperature. A calibrated thermometer permits the operator to observe
the temperature. The coal is now ignited by means of the fuse wire and the temperature rise is noted.
The heating value of the coal in Btu/lb is found by multiplying the temperature rise by a constant for
the specific calorimeter.
Coal analyses are expressed in three different ways depending on the constituents included.
The designation as received or as fired refers to an analysis in which the actual moisture is included.
When the expression moisture-free or dry coal is used, the analysis considers the moisture as having
been removed. Since neither moisture nor ash adds to the heating value of coal, analyses are
calculated to exclude these constituents and in this way to give a true indication of the nature of the
combustible material. When the moisture and ash are not included, the analysis is referred to as
moisture- and ash-free or combustible. Sulfur has some heating value but is nevertheless an
objectionable constituent of coal because of its corrosiveness and because of its contribution to air
pollution, which is commonly referred to as acid rain.
The ultimate analysis of coal includes carbon (C), hydrogen (H), sulfur (S), oxygen (O), and
nitrogen (N). This analysis is performed in a chemical laboratory. Analyses of coal types vary based
on their location throughout the world.
In this ultimate analysis, the moisture content is included in the hydrogen and oxygen values.
Ash is an inert material, but its characteristics frequently determine the desirability of a coal for a
given installation. Because of the importance of the fusion or melting temperature of the ash, tests
have been devised to determine this property. The ash to be tested is molded into\ a small pyramid,
placed in a test furnace, and exposed to a steadily increasing temperature. The atmosphere
surrounding the sample is controlled, and the temperature is measured while the pyramids are
observed through a peephole in the side of the furnace. The temperature of the pyramids is noted and
recorded at three stages of melting: initial deformation, when the tip of the pyramid first shows a
change; ash-softening temperature, when the pyramid forms in a sphere; and melting point, when the
ash
24
becomes fluid and the sphere flattens. These three temperatures are reported in reference to ash
fusion. Fusion temperatures provide ash melting characteristics and are used to determine the
potential for slagging under normal operating conditions. The degree of slagging can determine the
firing method for the boiler. When coal is heated in the absence of air or with a large deficiency of air,
the lighter constituents are volatilized and the heavier hydrocarbons crack, liberating hydrogen and
leaving a residue of carbon.
FUEL OIL
The origin of petroleum has not been definitely established, but several theories have been
offered. The combination of carbon and hydrogen as they exist in petroleum could have been
generated from either animal or vegetable matter. One theory holds that large amounts of some
form of animal or vegetable matter, and perhaps both, decayed and aged under pressure and in the
presence of salt water. Those who offer this theory point to the fact that petroleum deposits are
usually found in the presence of salt water. Another theory holds that petroleum either animal or
vegetable life. This theory is based on the fact that material containing hydrogen and carbon has been
produced experimentally by the action of certain carbides and water. Petroleum is believed, by the
advocates of this theory, to have been formed in the interior of the earth by the action of minerals,
water, and gases.
Deposits of petroleum are found floating on subterranean lakes of salt water. A dome-shaped
layer of nonporous rock holds the petroleum in place. The dome-shaped rock formation usually also
entraps a quantity of natural gas. The deposit consists of natural gas, petroleum, and water, which are
separated from the rock down in the order named by virtue of their specific gravity. Oil is obtained by
drilling through the layer of rock that covers the oil and gas. This procedure releases the natural gas,
which is stored underground or transmitted through pipelines for use in distant cities. The oil is
removed from the ground by a pumping operation that frequently fails to remove all the oil deposit.
When compared with coal, fuel oils are relatively easy to handle and burn, and there is
significantly less ash to dispose of. In most oil burners, the oil is atomized and mixed with combustion
air. In this atomized state, the characteristics of oil approximate those of natural gas.
Fuel oils include virtually all petroleum products that are less volatile than gasoline. They
range from light oils, which are used in internal combustion or turbine engines, to heavy oils, which
require heating. The heavier fuel oils are those used for steam generation in boilers.
The specific gravity of fuel oil is used as a general index of its classification and quality in
much the same manner as the proximate analysis is used to specify the characteristics of coal. In
determining the specific gravity of oil or any substance, the weight of a given volume of the substance
is divided by the weight of an equal volume of water when both are measured at the same
temperature.
Special laboratory determinations of fuel oil are made in terms of specific gravity, but in
practical fieldwork the gravity is measured by a hydrometer and read in degrees Baumé or API. The
API scale as adopted by the American Petroleum Institute is now generally accepted to determine the
relative density of oil. It differs slightly from the Baumé scale. The specific gravity as expressed in
relation to water may be converted into degrees API by the use of the following formula:
Note: Sp. gr. at 60/60°F means that oil at 60°F has been referred to
water at 60°F. Since water has a specific gravity of 1, we find from
this formula that it has an API gravity of 10. The API gravity of commercial
fuel oil varies from 10 to 40.
Example: A sample of fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.91 at 60°F. What is its gravity in degrees
API?
Solution
25
Specific gravity, therefore, is the ratio of the density of oil to the density of water, and it is
important because oil is purchased by volume, either by the gallon or by the barrel.
Heavier, liquid fuels have a lower API gravity, as noted in Table 4.11. The viscosity or
resistance to flow of an oil is important because it affects the ease with which it can be handled and
broken up into a fine mist by the burner. An increase in temperature lowers the viscosity of an oil and
causes it to flow more readily. It is therefore necessary to heat heavy oils in order to handle them
effectively in pumps and burners.
Fuel oils may be classified according to their source as follows:
RESIDUAL OILS.
These are the products that remain after the more volatile hydrocarbons have been extracted.
The removal of these hydrocarbons lowers the flash point and makes the oil safe for handling and
burning. This residual oil is usually free from moisture and sediment except for that which is
introduced by handling and in transit from refinery to consumer. These oils are high-viscosity fluids
and require heating for proper handling and combustion. Fuel oils in grades 4 and 5 are less viscous
and therefore more easily handled and burned than no. 6 oil. Number 6 usually requires heating for
handling and burning.
CRUDE PETROLEUM.
This is the material as it comes from the oil well without subsequent processing. Sometimes,
because of exposure to the weather or for other reasons, the crude petroleum is too low in quality to
justify refining, and it is then used as fuel under power boilers. Since it may contain some volatile
gases, it must be handled with care. Present-day refinery practices make it possible to recover some
high-quality product from almost all crude petroleum. Therefore, only a small quantity of this material
is now available for use as fuel oil. The processing of crude oil yields a wide range of more valuable
products.
DISTILLATE OILS.
These are obtained by fractional distillation and are of a consistency between kerosene and
lubrication oils. Fuel oil produced in this manner does not contain the heavy tar residue found in
others. The light grades of fuel oils are produced in this manner. These oils are typically clean and
essentially free of sediment and ash and are relatively low in viscosity. These fuel oils are generally in
grades 1 and 2 Although no. 2 oil is sometimes used as a fuel for steam generation, it is used primarily
for home heating and industrial applications where there is a very high importance on low ash and low
sulfur. For steam-generation applications, these fuel oils are used as a startup or supplemental fuel to a
solid-fuel combustion process.
BLENDED OILS.
These are mixtures of two or all of the above, in proportions to meet the desired specifications
26
GAS
Natural gas usually occurs in the same region as petroleum. The gas, because of its low
specific gravity, is found above the petroleum and trapped by a layer of nonporous rock. Since natural
gas and petroleum are usually found together, it is believed that they have a similar origin. The gas in
its natural state is under pressure, which causes it to be discharged from the well.
Electric production by utilities has in the past consumed relatively small amounts of natural
gas. However, the use of gas turbine cycles is increasing this consumption significantly. For industrial
steam generation, natural gas is used widely because of its ease in distribution, the requirement for a
smaller boiler space, and its relative simplicity in overall plant design.
Methane (CH4) is the largest component of natural gas, with the remainder primarily ethane
(C2H6). Natural gas is the most desirable fuel for steam generation because it can be piped directly to
the boiler, which eliminates the need for storage.
Natural gas is free of ash and mixes easily with air, providing complete combustion without
smoke. However, because of the high content of hydrogen in natural gas as compared with coal or oil,
more water vapor is produced in the combustion process. This results in a lower boiler efficiency as
compared with burning coal or oil. In addition, the fuel cost and availability are directly related, and
high fuel costs can result when demand is high or the supply is limited.
Manufactured substitutes for natural gas may be produced from solid or liquid fuels. These
gases are produced for special industrial applications and for domestic use. Because they cost more
than other fuels, they are seldom used under power boilers.
Producer gas is manufactured from coke or coal. Steam and air are blown up through the
incandescent fuel bed. Both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide are generated here and pass up
through what is termed a reduction zone. In this zone the shortage of oxygen causes gases pass
through this zone, they encounter a heavy layer of coal. The volatile gases are distilled from this coal
and, together with the carbon monoxide obtained from the region below, pass from the top. The
combustibles are carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and a small amount of volatile gases. The heating value
of this gas is slightly above that of blast-furnace gas.
Water gas and oil gas are manufactured for industrial applications where a gaseous fuel is
required and for domestic supply, sometimes being used to augment the natural gas supply. These
gases are too expensive to use under power boilers unless the unit is small, and if they are used, full
automatic control is necessary.
In most cases, gaseous fuels that are derived from coal have currently been replaced by
natural gas and fuel oil because of their greater availability and less cost.
An analysis of gases consists of expressing the chemical compounds of which they are
composed in percentage by either volume or weight. The combustible constituents are composed of
various combinations of hydrogen and carbon known as hydrocarbons. Also, there are various inert
gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen. The chemical analysis of a gas is useful in determining the
air required for combustion and in calculating the products of combustion, the heating value, the type
of burners required, etc.
The heating value of gas is determined by burning a sample in a gas calorimeter. This is an
instrument in which a given quantity of gas is burned and the resulting heat transferred to a measured
quantity of water. Unlike a solid- or liquid-fuel calorimeter, the gas calorimeter utilizes a constant
measured flow of gas and water. The heat generated by the combustion of gas is absorbed by the
cooling water. The temperature rise of the water is an index of the heat produced and, by use of
suitable constants for a given calorimeter, may be converted into Btu/ft3 of gas.
In order for gas to be burned efficiently, it must be mixed with the correct proportion of air.
Since the fuel is already in the gaseous state, it is unnecessary to break it up, as is the case with solid
and liquid fuels. Correct proportioning and mixing are, however, essential. This process is
accomplished by the burner and by admission of secondary air. Combustion must be complete before
the mixture of gases reaches the boiler heating surfaces.
With optimal conditions, it is possible to obtain complete combustion
27
of gas with a very low percentage of excess air.
These conditions include furnace and burner design for correct mixing of fuel and air, sensitive
controls, and scheduled maintenance and calibration of all equipment.
Gas is a desirable fuel because it is easy to control, requires no handling equipment, and
leaves no ash to remove from the furnace.
BY-PRODUCT FUELS
Industrial processes frequently produce materials that may be burned in industrial furnaces.
The utilization of these by-products not only reduces the cost of fuel and thus lowers operating costs
but also frequently solves a disposal problem at the same time. However, the economic advantage to
be derived from the use of these fuels must be evaluated in terms of added investment for equipment
and of increased operating costs. By-product fuel is often not available in quantities sufficient to meet
the total steam demand. In these situations, it is necessary to provide for a supplementary fuel.
Wood is available as a by-product fuel in sawmills, paper mills, and factories that
manufacture articles made of wood. The sawmill waste products consist of slabs, edgings, trimmings,
bark, sawdust, and shavings in varying percentages. This material is passed through a hogging
machine, which reduces it to shavings and chips in preparation for burning. A hogging machine
consists of knives or hammers mounted on an element that rotates within a rigid casing. The knives
shred the wood waste and force it through a series of spacer bars mounted in a section of the casing.
Dry wood waste has a heating value of 8000 to 9000 Btu/lb. This shredded material (hog fuel)
contains approximately 50 percent moisture and, therefore, has a low heating value. Woodworking
plants that manufacture furniture and similar articles use seasoned wood. The moisture content of the
waste material is from 20 to 25 percent. This waste material consists of sawdust and shavings and
only a small amount of trimmings. Precautions are necessary in its handling and storing to prevent
fires and explosions.
Bark is removed from logs before they are ground into pulp in paper mills. This bark may
contain 80 percent moisture, a part of which is often pressed out before it can be utilized for fuel.
Even these moisture contents are often above 65 percent, and a large part of the heat from combustion
is required to evaporate the inherent moisture.
A by-product solution (black liquor) containing wood fibers and residual chemicals is
produced in some paper mills. The wood fibers are burned, and the chemicals are recovered as ash in
the furnace. In this operation a savings is realized both by the reclamation of heat and by the recovery
of the chemicals used in the pulping process. The black liquor is concentrated before being introduced
into the furnace, where it is atomized and burned in a manner similar to fuel oil.
Bagasse is a by-product material produced when the juice is removed from the cane in a sugar
mill. The moisture content is 40 to 55 percent, and the heating value, 4000 to 5200 Btu/lb. The
28
utilization of this by-product material is an important factor in the economic operation of a sugar mill.
Special furnaces have been developed to provide a means of utilizing the heat from the furnace to
evaporate some of the moisture before attempting to burn the fuel. Bagasse is frequently
supplemented with auxiliary fuels.
Coke-oven gas is the volatile material removed when coal is heated to produce coke. These
volatile gases are collected and burned as a byproduct of the coke production. Coke-oven gas has a
heating value of 460 to 650 Btu/ft3. This gas burns very well because of its high concentration of
hydrogen, and it presents few problems when used as a fuel to produce steam.
Blast-furnace gas is produced as a by-product of steel mill furnaces. The air is blown up
through the hot fuel bed of the blast furnace, where it combines with carbon to form carbon
monoxide. The resulting gases contain carbon monoxide and small quantities of hydrogen as
combustibles in addition to inert gases consisting of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The heating value
varies from 90 to 110 Btu/ft3. Because the production of this gas is irregular and the steam demand
does not coincide with the gas production, gas storage is necessary combustion of blast-furnace gas
adhere readily to boiler heating surfaces, and provisions for soot blowers must be made for cleaning.
Refinery gas is a by-product of crude oil refining operations. The heating value of this gas is
high because of the large amount of heavy hydrocarbons present and will vary from 1000 to 1800
Btu/ft3 depending on the refining process. The gas produced is frequently adequate to generate the
steam required by the refinery. Refineries also produce petroleum coke, which has a high carbon but
low hydrogen and ash content. This fuel is used by the refinery or sold for use in neighboring plants.
Although not truly defined as a by-product fuel similar to those described earlier, various
sludges are produced in industrial processes, and these can be used in a boiler as a fuel to produce
steam. In the papermaking process, a number of sludges are generated. The now common recycling of
old newspapers, magazines, and corrugated paper containers has increased the quantity of sludge
because of the deinking process. This has created a disposal problem that generally has been solved
by depositing the sludge in a landfill.
Typical sludges from pulp mills are very good fuels because they have heating values
between 8000 and 10,000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash contents of approximately 10 percent. However,
sludges from the deinking process are less suitable fuels, having heating values between 4000 and
6000 Btu/lb (dry) and ash contents from 20 to 50 percent. Therefore, for a deinking sludge having a
moisture content of 50 to 60 percent, the heating value is only about 2800 Btu/lb. The combination of
high moisture content and low heating value makes it difficult to burn. The burning of this high
moisture sludge on a stoker presents some significant problems because the removal of the moisture
in the fuel results in a lower furnace temperature, which, in turn, affects combustion. High air
temperatures are limited on both a traveling-grate stoker and a water-cooled hydrograte stoker
because of limitations on stoker grate materials. Therefore, on stokers, sludge is generally fired in
combination with another fuel such as bark. This has led to the successful use of fluidized bed
combustion technology as a viable solution and in particular the bubbling bed technology
FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

Conventional oil and gas burners controlled by standard systems require 3 to 15 percent
excess air for complete combustion. However, low-excess-air burners and accessory control
equipment are available for reducing the air necessary for combustion to nearly the theoretical
requirement. Advanced methods of atomizing oil are used. The temperature of the oil supplied to the
burners is carefully controlled. Both the fuel and air supplies to the burners are metered. This
lowexcess- air operation can be obtained with a clear stack to meet stringent air pollution ordinances
and with not more than a trace of carbon monoxide.
The necessary equipment for low-excess-air operation is more costly to install and requires
more precise adjustment and care in operation than standard equipment. The reduction in excess air
results in an improvement in efficiency, a reduction in the corrosive effect of the products of
combustion on the heating surfaces, and a reduction in objectionable contaminants (including nitrogen
oxides).
29
The measure of stack losses is based on analysis of the products of combustion and a
determination of the exit temperature of the flue gases. A commercial portable flue gas analyzer is
shown in figure.
This Orsat flue gas analyzer has been used for a long time, and it remains a trusted standard for the
verification of sophisticated electronic equipment.
The Orsat uses chemicals to absorb the CO2, SO2, CO, and O2, and the amount of each is
determined by the reduction in volume from the original flue gas sample. A sample of flue gas is
obtained by inserting a sampling tube into the flue gas stream in the boiler, economizer, or air heater,
depending on the information required. A 1⁄4-in standard pipe is satisfactory if the temperature of the
flue gases in the pass does not exceed 1000°F. Care must be exercised to locate the end of the
sampling pipe to obtain a representative sample of flue gases. It is advisable to take samples with the
pipe located at various places in the pass to make certain that the analysis is representative.
The procedure for operating the flue gas analyzer is shown diagrammatically by steps
Step 1. The inlet tube is carefully connected to the sampling tube to prevent air leakage from diluting
the sample. The flue gas is then drawn into the measuring burette by means of the rubber bulb. The
excess is expelled through the level bottle. The aspirator bulb is operated long enough to ensure a
fresh sample of flue gas in the burette.
Step 2. The handle of the three-way cock is then moved to a vertical position, closing off the sampling
line and opening the burette to the atmosphere. The sample is measured by bringing the water level
in the measuring chamber exactly to zero. The excess flue gas is discharged through the three-way
valve to the atmosphere, and the amount remaining is measured at atmospheric pressure to ensure
accuracy.
Step 3. The handle of the three-way cock is next moved away from the operator to a horizontal
position, entrapping the sample of flue gas in the measuring chamber. The valve above the absorption
chamber is now opened and the leveling bottle raised to force the flue gas sample into contact with the
chemical that absorbs the carbon dioxide. Care must be exercised in this operation to prevent the
30
chemical and water from becoming mixed. It is necessary to raise and lower the leveling bottle and
expose the flue gas to the chemical from two to four times to ensure complete absorption of the
carbon dioxide.
Step 4. The remainder of the flue gas sample is drawn back into the measuring chamber, and when the
chemical level in the absorption chamber has been restored to zero, the valve closes. The leveling
bottle is held with the water at the same level as that in the measuring chamber. The percentage of
carbon dioxide in the sample is then read directly on the etched wall of the measuring chamber.
To obtain the percentage of oxygen and carbon monoxide, respectively, the same sample of
flue gas is exposed to the chemicals in the second and third absorption chambers of the flue gas
analyzer.
To determine the percentage of excess air, and for heat-balance calculations, it is necessary to
make a completebflue gas analysis. For a routine check on operation, when there is no change in the
character of the fuel, carbon dioxide determination is sufficient for comparison with established
satisfactory readings. The carbon monoxide absorption chamber has been omitted from the gas
analyzer. The solutions have a limited gas absorption ability and must be replaced after continued use
or long periods of storage. They may be purchased mixed ready for use or compounded using
standard chemicals.
There are disadvantages with the use of an Orsat. It lacks the accuracy of more refined
devices, it requires an experienced operator, and the results do not lend themselves to electronic
recording unless input separately by hand. As stated before, however, it is used often as a trusted
verification of electronic equipment or when specialized equipment is not available at a particular
plant.
The use of automatic recording equipment for such areas as steam and airflow is
recommended, as well as automatic analyzers to record the carbon dioxide, oxygen, sulfur oxides, and
other substances that are present in the flue gases. They are valuable aids to the operator in
maintaining the optimal combustion conditions at all times and ensuring compliance with any permit
requirements. Not only does this equipment provide continuous emission monitoring, but also the data
can be recorded for immediate access and evaluation. Continuous emission monitoring (CEM) and
associated reporting systems are absolutely essential to the compliance tracking of many power
plants. New pollution regulations have forced plants to evaluate their use of various fuels to produce
electricity.
A CEM analyzer can continuously measure up to six gases simultaneously such as HCl, NO,
NO2, N2O, NH3, SO2, HC, CO, CO2, etc., as well as opacity, dust loading, and flue gas flow.
Applications for operating permits include environmental compliance monitoring plus combustion
and process control for industrial and utility boilers
31
COMBUSTION FORMUAS & EQUATIONS

1. ANALYSIS OF COMPOSITION
Proximate Analysis - is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the
relative amounts of moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash.
Ultimate Analysis - is an analysis of the composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the
relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitgrogen, sulphur, ash and moisture.
2. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
 FLUID
SGFLUID =
WATER
 GAS
SGGAS =
 AIR
 air = 1.225 kg/m 3
3. API AND BAUME GRAVITY UNITS
141.5
 API = − 131.5
SG @15.6 C
140
Baume = − 130
SG @15.6 C
4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT TEMPERATURE (T):
SGt = ( SG @ 15.6)(CorrectionFactor)
SGt = ( SG @ 15.6)(CF )
CF = 1 − 0.00072(t − 15.6) t in deg.C

CF = 1 − 0.0004(t − 60) t in deg F
32
5. HEATING OR CALORIFIC VALUE

Higher Heating Value (HHV) or Gross Calorific Value - is the heating value obatained when
the water in the products of combustion is in the liquid state.
Lower Heating Valuw (LHV) or Net Calorific Value - is the heating value obatained when the
water in the products of combustion is in the vapor state.
Dulong ' s Formula :

 O
Qh = 33,820 C + 144,212  H -  + 9,304 S kJ/kg
 8
ASME Formula for Petroleum Products :

Qh = 41,130 + 139.6 (API) kJ/kg
Bureau of Standards Formula :

Qh = 51,716 - 8,793.8 (SG) 2 kJ/kg
Lower heating Value of Solid Fuels
Q L = Qh - 9H 2 (2442 ) kJ/kg
COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

𝐴
Theoretical Weight of air ( ) if ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL IS AVAILABLE
𝐹 𝑡
 A  O kg air
  = Wta = 11.5 C + 34.5  H −  + 4.3 S
 F t  8 kg fuel
Wta = ideal proportion of air to completely burn the fuel

C, H, O and S are proportions by weight of Carbon, Hydrogen,
Oxygen, and Sulfur per kg of fuel from the ultimate analysis
33
if ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL IS NOT AVAILABLE
 A Qh (kJ/kg) kg air
  = Wta =
 F t 3117 kg fuel
 A Qh (kcal/kg) kg air
  = Wta =
 A Qh (Btu/lb) kg air
  = Wta =
ACTUAL WEIGHT OF AIR
 A 1  C x N2  kg air
  = Waa =  
 F a 32.72  CO 2 + CO  kg fuel
 A  % excess air  kg air

  = Waa = Wta 1 + 
 F a  100  kg fuel
PERCENT EXCESS AIR:
Waa − Wta
% excess air =
Wta
34
COMBUSTION HYDROCARBON FUELS
Hydrocarbon fuels consist mainly of combustible elements Carbon and hydrogen. The chemical
formula of hydrocarbon is CnHm , where the values of the subsript “m” and “n” depends on the
hydrocarbon family.
Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion
C n H m + a O 2 + 3.76 a N 2 = b CO 2 + c H 2 O + 3.76 a N 2
where :
a, b and c represents number of moles
COMPOSITION OF AIR:
By Weight: By Volume:
O2 = 23% O2 = 21%
N2 = 77 % N2 = 79 %
100% 100%
MOLAL RATIO
The molal ratio or the ratio by volume of nitrogen to oxygen in air when both gases are in the same
temperature
Moles N 2 79%
= = 3.76
Moles O2 21%
35
CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTION REACTION
1. Combustion Reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition, general chemical of the

fuel is CnHm.
 m  m m
C n H m +  n +  O 2 + 3.76  n +  N 2 → n CO 2 + H 2 O
 4  4 2
 m
+ 3.76  n +  N 2
 4
2. Combustion Reaction with greater amount of theoritical air, or having fuel-lean mixture.
3. Combustion Reaction with lesser amount of theoritical air, having fuel-rich mixture.
Equivalence Ratio for given mass of air:
A
 
 F t
=
 A
 
 F a
where :
 = 1 , for stoichiometric mixture
  1 , for fuel - lean mixture
  1 , for fuel - rich mixture
PROGRESS CHECK
1. The ultimate analysis of coal is as follows: carbon, 60 percent; H2, 7 percent; N2, 3 percent; O2,
12 percent; S, 5 percent; and ash, 13 percent. How many pounds of O2 would be required to burn this
fuel? How many pounds of air (theoretically) would be required?
2. Why is sulfur in a fuel considered undesirable?
3. Define perfect, complete, and incomplete combustion.
4. What is meant by excess air?
5. If the flue gas analysis shows CO2, 15.2 percent, O2, 4.7 percent, and N2, 80.1 percent, what is the
percentage of excess air?
6. What two methods are used to analyze flue gas and the results used to calculate the percentage of
excess air?
7. How many pounds of air would be required to burn a pound of coal with the analysis given in 50
percent excess air were used?
8. Using the analysis in and Dulong’s formula, determine the heating value of the fuel.
9. Excess air is important to ensure complete combustion. Why, then, should it be minimized?
10. Define and describe the various classifications of coal.
11. Describe the proximate and ultimate analyses of coal.
12. What are soft and hard coals? What types of coal fall into these categories?
36
13. Discuss the characteristics to be considered when buying coal. Is coal size a consideration? Why?
14. A fuel oil has a specific gravity of 0.92. What is its specific gravity on the API scale?
15. Define the various classifications of fuel oils. Provide examples of those oils which are used as a
fuel oil.
16. What are important characteristics to be considered when selecting fuel oil for a particular plant?
17. When must fuel oils be heated?
18. What fuel oil is used most often for the production of steam? Why?
19. Why is natural gas the most desirable gas for steam generation? What are the disadvantages for its
use?
20. Name some of the major by-product fuels that are burned in boilers. Provide the major advantages
for the burning of these fuels.
21. Sludges are a common by-product. What combustion technology is often used to burn this fuel,
and what advantages does this provide?
22. What is the purpose of an Orsat gas analyzer? Name its advantages and disadvantages.
23. What is a continuous-emission monitoring (CEM) system?
REFERENCES
Everett B. Woodruff, Herbert B. Lammers, Thomeas F. Lammers (2004), Steam Plant Operation, 2nd
ed
Severns, Degler and Miles (1982), Steam, Air and Gas Power, 5th ed
37
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __3-4__
TOPIC/S
Steam Boilers and Generators:

Classification, Accessories. Boiler Rating and Performance, Heat Balance
LEARNING OUTCOMES

• Discuss classification of boilers/steam generators
• Evaluate boiler rating and performance
• Discuss and evaluate boiler efficiency
• Summarize heat balance of boiler
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM BOILER
Depending on the construction and operation, steam generators or commonly named as boilers are
classified on the basis of:
(a) Alignment of axis of boiler:

Boilers are classified as Horizontal, Vertical and Inclined type boiler. Horizontal boiler
occupies more floor area but is easily accessible for inspection and maintenance. Vertical
boiler occupies less floor area but difficult to access and clean. In a dairy processing plant,
we generally find horizontal type boiler.
(b) Flow of water and hot flue gases through the boiler:
Boilers are broadly classified as fire tube and water tube boiler. This is the first major
classification of boilers. Most of the boilers are actually shell and tube type heat exchangers
in which one fluid i.e. either water or hot gas flows through the shell and other through the
tubes. In a boiler, if fire flows through tubes and water remains in the shell, it is called fire
tube boiler. Conversely if water flows through tubes and fire or hot flue gases pass through
the shell it is called water tube boiler. In a dairy processing plant, fire tube boilers are
generally used due to low pressure requirement, comparatively safe, less operational cost
and easy to maintain type characteristics.
(c) Location of furnace or burner:

Boilers are classified as: Externally fired and internally fired. If fuel is burnt outside the
boiler and after burning only, hot flue gases are forced to flow through boiler, it is called
externally fired. e.g. Babcock & Wilcox boiler, Sterling boiler etc.
38
If the furnace is located inside the boiler itself, it is called internally fired boiler e.g.
Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler etc.
(d) Mode of water circulation:

Boilers are classified as forced circulation and natural circulation boilers. If the water flows
through boiler by the force of pump, it is called forced circulation boiler. If water flows due
to natural current produced, it is called natural circulation boiler.
(e) Pressure of steam produced:

Boilers are classified as high pressure and low pressure boilers. Above 80 bar pressure,
boilers are called high pressure boilers and below this limit, boilers are called low pressure
boilers. In a dairy processing plant where steam is used only for heating purpose and not to
produce any mechanical work, low pressure boilers are used. High pressure boilers are used
in applications where steam is used as a working agent like in thermal power plants etc.
High pressure boilers are Benson, Babcock & Wilcox, and Lamont etc. Low pressure
boilers are Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire & Locomotive boilers.
TYPES OF BOILERS
• Boilers are commonly subdivided into watertube or firetube units. These designations reflect
the way the water and combustion gases are designed to pass through the unit.
• Boilers are sometimes classified by their heat sources. For example, boilers are often referred
to as oil-fired, gas-fired, coal-fired, or solid fuel-fired boilers. Coal-fired boilers can be further
divided based on the equipment used to fire the boiler. The three major coal-fired boiler
subclasses are pulverized-coal (PC) fired, stoker-fired, and fluidized-bed combustion (FBC)
boilers.
• Boilers are occasionally distinguished by their method of fabrication. Packaged boilers are
assembled in a factory, mounted on a skid, and transported to the site as one package ready
for hookup to auxiliary piping. Shop-assembled boilers are built up from a number of
individual pieces or subassemblies. After these parts are aligned, connected, and tested, the
entire unit is shipped to the site in one piece. Field-erected boilers are too large to transport as
an entire assembly. They are constructed at the site from a series of individual components.
Sometimes these components require special transportation and lifting considerations because
of their size and weight.
FIRETUBE BOILERS
Firetube boilers consist of a series of straight tubes that are housed inside a water-filled outer
shell. The tubes are arranged so that hot combustion gases flow through the tubes. As hot gases flow
through the tubes, they heat the water that surrounds the tubes. The water is confined by the outer
shell of the boiler. To avoid the need for a thick outer shell, firetube boilers are used for lower-
pressure applications. Generally, the heat input capacities for firetube boilers are limited to 50 MBtu/h
or less,5 but in recent years the size of firetube boilers has increased.
Firetube boilers are subdivided into three groups. Horizontal return tubular (HRT) boilers
typically have horizontal, self-contained firetubes with a separate combustion chamber. Scotch,
Scotch marine, or shell boilers have the firetubes and combustion chamber housed within the same
39
shell. Firebox boilers have a water-jacketed firebox and employ, at most, three passes of combustion
gases.
Most modern firetube boilers have cylindrical outer shells with a small round combustion
chamber located inside the bottom of the shell. Depending on construction details, these boilers have
tubes configured in either one, two, three, or four pass arrangements. Because the design of firetube
boilers is simple, they are easy to construct in a shop and can be shipped fully assembled as a package
unit.
40
WATERTUBE BOILERS
Watertube boilers are designed to circulate hot combustion gases around the outside of a large
number of water-filled tubes.8 The tubes extend between an upper header, called a steam drum, and
one or more lower headers or drums. In older designs, the tubes are either straight or bent into simple
shapes. Newer boilers have tubes with complex and diverse bends. Because the pressure is confined
inside the tubes, watertube boilers can be fabricated in larger sizes and used for higher-pressure
applications. Small watertube boilers, which have one and sometimes two burners, are generally
fabricated and supplied as packaged units. Because of their size and weight, large watertube boilers
are often fabricated in pieces and assembled in the field.
Almost any solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel can be burned in a watertube boiler. Common fuels
include coal, oil, natural gas, biomass, and other solid fuels such as municipal solid waste (MSW),
tire-derived fuel (TDF), and RDF. Designs of watertube boilers that burn these fuels can be
significantly different
Coal-fired watertube boilers are classified into three major categories: stoker-fired units, PC-
fired units, and FBC boilers.
Stoker-fired boilers include a mechanical system that is designed to feed solid fuel into the
boiler. These stokers are designed to support the combustion process and to remove the ash as it
accumulates. All stokers operate similarly. They use both undergrate and overfire air to burn fuel
located on a grate. During operation, finely ground coal is mixed with primary combustion air and fed
to the burner or burners where it ignites. Secondary combustion air is then supplied to complete the
combustion process. Depending on the location of the burners and the direction of coal injection, PC-
fired boilers can be classified as single- or opposed-wall, tangential (corner), or cyclone boilers.
Depending on whether the ash is removed in a solid or molten state, PC-fired boilers are also
classified as dry or wet bottom. Opposed-wall boilers are usually much larger than 250-MBtu/h heat
input capacity. They are used primarily for utility but may be suitable for certain industrial
applications. Coal burned in cyclone boilers is crushed rather than pulverized.
BABCOCK & WILCOX BOILER (WATER-TUBE BOILER)
41
It is a simple water-tube boiler and used where higher steam pressure and higher steam production rate
is required. It can be used for stationary and marine purposes.
It consists of a horizontal shell supported on the masonry structure. The shell is connected to two
headers on both ends, which are at different level and connected by a number of inclined tubes. When
shell remains filled with water, up to the desired level, the headers and tubes also remain filled with
water. The tubes are inclined at an angle of 15° and remain suspended/ supported inside the closed
furnace/flue gases space. The flue gases produced from burning of the fuel are directed over the tubes
in between the baffles forming the zig-zag flame passage. Steam is produced inside the inclined tubes
and lifts through the top header and collects in the steam space of the boiler shell. Water from the bottom
header comes in place of steam. Water level is checked by level indicator and maintained by feed pump.
The boiler shell & tubes are hung by means of wrought iron girders supported on pillars. This
arrangement allows the drum and tubes to expand or contract freely
COMPARISON BETWEEN FIRE TUBE AND WATER TUBE BOILERS
Fire Tube Boilers Water Tube Boilers
1. Hot gases flow through tubes or flues passing Water flows through tubes passing through the
through water stored in the shell passage of the flue gases.
2. Steam production rate is less i.e. up to 9 tons Steam production rate is high. It can be up to 450
/ hour tones/hour.
3. Steam pressure is limited to 25 bar approx. Steam pressure is generally in the range of 125 bar
or even more in high pressure or super critical
boilers.
4. Due to low pressure and less production rate Due to high pressure and high production rate of
of steam, their use is generally limited to steam, these are commonly used in large capacity
processing plant or small size power plants power plants like thermal plants for power
used in private industries. generation.
5. Chances of bursting are less but in case of Chances of bursting are more due to high pressure,
bursting, a great damage to the life & but the damage is not so severe as in case of fire
property occur. It is because the main shell is tube boilers.
under pressure and whole shell bursts.
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6. Feed water treatment is necessary but not so Feed water treatment is critical and highly
critically required because small deposit in essential as even a small deposit in boiler tube may
the boiler shell does not deteriorate much the cause overheating and bursting.
performance of boiler.
7. Construction is more complicated. It Construction is simpler. It occupies less floor area.

occupies more floor area. Transportation is Transportation is not difficult because it can be
difficult. Because it comes in assembled easily dismantled & assembled. Overall cost is
position. Hence overall cost is high for a unit less for a unit steam production rate.
steam production rate.
8. Overall efficiency is up to 75%. Overall efficiency with economizer is 90%
9. It can cope up with fluctuating load. It can also bear fluctuating load but only for a
shorter period.
10. It takes time to produce steam and increase It produces steam fast and so increases the steam
the steam pressure at a slower rate. pressure at a faster rate.
BOILER TERMS
(i) Boiler Shell: It is a cylindrical shaped structure fabricated with steel plates rolled &
riveted or welded together.
(ii) Grate: It is a Cast Iron platform in the furnace of boiler on which fuel is burnt. Fuel is coal
or wood or any other solid fuel which rests on the perforated surface of grate made of C.I. bars.
Air can easily pass through perforated surface from the bottom and also after burning, ash can
fall down itself easily.
(iii) Furnace/Fire box: It is an enclosed space where fuel is burnt and hot flue gases accumulate.
From the furnace, flue gases are directed to flow through the boiler.
(iv) Water Space: Volume occupied by water in the boiler is termed as water space which is
maintained at a constant level with the help of water level indicator fitted on boiler shell.
(v) Steam Space: It is volume occupied by steam over the water surface in boiler. As steam is
light, it lifts up and remains in the steam space at the top end of the boiler.
(vi) Boiler Mountings: Various fittings on the boiler like pressure gauge, safety valves etc
which are necessary for its safe and efficient operation are called Boiler Mountings.
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(vii) Boiler Accessories: The integral parts of boiler which are required to enhance its efficiency
or for overall performance are called accessories e.g. super heater, economizer, feed pump etc.
(viii) Foaming: The formation of bubbles on the surface of boiling water is called foaming.
(ix) Scale: The deposits of water salts and foreign particles on the heating surface in the form
of a hard layer or film is called scale.
(x) Blowing off: The suspended impurities in the boiler water usually settle down and are
thrown out through a cock due to pressure difference inside and outside the boiler. This process
is called blowing off and the cock used is called blow-off-cock.
(xi) Lagging: The insulation block mode or rope made of asbestos or magnesia wrapped or
fixed outside the boiler shell and steam pipe are called lagging.
(xii) Refractory: The fire bricks or clay having low thermal diffusivity are used in the furnace
walls and other passages of flue gases where flue gases should retain their heat i.e. where heat
loss of flue gases is to be prevented.
BOILER MOUNTINGS
These are the fitting and devices which are necessary for the operation and safety of a boiler and required
for proper and safe functioning of the boiler which are generally mounted over the boiler shell. The
following are:
• Water level indicator: This is required to indicate the safety level of water inside the boiler shell.
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• Pressure gauge: This is required to indicate the steam pressure inside the boiler shell.
• Steam Stop Valve: The valve used to regulate the supply of steam to the turbine.
• Safety valves: These are required to release the internal boiler pressure if the pressure exceeds a
predetermined safety level.
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• Fusible plug: This is required to stop the boiler if the boiler gets dry to prevent damage to the boiler.
It is a metallic plug installed in the water pathway. If the boiler temperature exceeds a safe value, it
melts and allows shell water to pass through extinguish the furnace fire.
Feed Check Valve: The high-pressure feed water is supplied to the boiler through this valve. This
valve opens towards the boiler only and feeds the water to the boiler.
Blow-off cock: It is fitted at the lowest part of the boiler either directly with the boiler shell or
to a pipe connected with the boiler.
The blow-off cock has two main functions:
It may empty the boiler when necessary for cleaning, inspection and repair.
It may discharge a portion of water when the boiler is in operation to blow out mud, scale or
sediments periodically
46
BOILER ACCESSORIES
These are auxiliary plants required for steam boilers for the proper operation and for the increase of
their efficiency.
Types of Accessories:
1. Feed pumps
2. Steam Injector
3. Economizer
4. Air preheater
5. Superheater
6. Steam separator
FUNCTIONS OF BOILER ACCESSORIES:
Air preheater: This is usually used to utilize the waste heat of the chimney to preheat the furnace air
thus increasing the boiler efficiency.
Economizer: This is usually used to utilize the waste heat of the chimney to preheat the boiler feed
water thus increasing the boiler efficiency.
Superheater: This is usually used to utilize the waste heat to dry and/or superheat the steam leaving the
boiler on the delivery side, thus increasing the steam quality and boiler efficiency.
Baffles: These are built inside the boilers. These baffles significantly increase the efficiency by helping
feed water in extracting heat from the flue gas.
Steam Separator: The function of steam separator is to remove the entrained water particles from the
steam conveyed to the steam engine or turbine. It is installed as close to the steam engine as possible
on the main stem pipe from the boiler.
PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION
It is defined as the weight of saturated water at 100°C evaporated to dry and saturated steam at 100°C
by utilizing heat at the same rate as would have been used under the actual working conditions.
If H = Total heat of steam at given working pressure in kJ/kg
Hw1 = Total heat of feed water in kJ/kg
L = Latent heat of steam at atmospheric pressure = 2257 kJ/kg
Wa = Weight of steam produced per hour at given working pressure per kg of fuel
47
We = Equivalent evaporation in kg per kg of fuel
Then as per the above definition, We x L = Wa (H - Hw1)
Or
= Wa .F, where F = = Factor of Evaporation
FACTOR OF EVAPORATION
It is a quantity which when multiplied by the actual amount of steam generated at a given pressure from
water at given temperature, gives the equivalent evaporation.
Equivalent Evaporation = F x Actual Evaporation
Thus, factor of evaporation may also be defined as ratio of Equivalent Evaporation to actual
Evaporation.
BOILER EFFICIENCY
It is the ratio of heat actually utilized in generation of steam in a given period to the heat supplied by
fuel in the same period or it is the ratio of heat utilized in generation of a given quantity of steam to the
heat supplied by fuel burnt to produce this steam.
Where C = calorific value of fuel in kJ/kg
Wf = weight of fuel per hour.
Boiler efficiency is always less than 1 because of some loss of heat through hot gases escaping to
atmosphere and also directly to atmosphere by conduction convection and radiation.
BOILER HORSEPOWER
This term is although not justified in the boiler as it is not producing any mechanical work/power; even
then it is adopted by American Society of Mechanical Engineers as standard of measurement of capacity
of boiler.
48
One boiler horsepower means evaporation of 15.653 kg of water per hour from and at 100oC into dry
saturated steam at 100℃. Or a boiler generating 15.653 kg of equivalent evaporation per hour means
developing one boiler H.P.
PROBLEMS
A boiler evaporates 3.6 kg of water per kg of coal burnt into dry saturated steam at 10 bar pressure .The
temperature of feed water is 32oC. Find the equivalent evaporation from and at 100oC as well as factor
of evaporation.
Solution
Mass of steam produced, ms = 3.6 kg/kg of coal
Initial temperature of feed water, tw = 32 °C
So, Enthalpy of feed water, H1= m.cp.tw = 3.6 ( 4.187 )32 = 482.34 kJ
Enthalpy of dry saturated steam produced
H2 = m. hg
At 10 bar pressure, the value of hg from steam tables is = 2776.2 kJ/kg
So, H2 = 3.6 ( 2776.2) = 9994.3 kJ
Hence the heat supplied to steam per kg of coal burnt in the boiler is
H2 - H1= 9994.3 - 482.3 = 9512 kJ
Equivalent Evaporation of Boiler
(Ans)
24.8.2 The following readings were obtained during a boiler trial of 6 hour duration
Mean Steam Pressure = 12 bar
Mass of steam generated = 40000Kg
49
Mean dryness fraction = 0.85
Mean feed water temp = 30o C
Coal Used = 4000kg
Calorific value of coal = 33400 kJ/kg
Calculate: (1) Factor of equivalent evaporation
(2) Equivalent evaporation
(3) Efficiency of boiler
Solution
Mass of steam produced in 6 hours duration = 40000 Kg
Mass of coal burnt in 6 hours duration = 4000kg
Thus mass of steam produced per kg of coal
Now specific enthalpy of feed water at temperature 30oC
h1 = Cpt = 4.187 ( 30) = 125.6 kJ/kg
Specific enthalpy of steam produced at 12 bar pressure and dryness fraction 0.85
h2 = hf + x hfg
Now at 12 bar pressure value of hf and hfg from Steam Tables are
hf = 798.4 kJ/kg
hfg = 1984.3 kJ/kg
Putting in above equation
h2= 798.4 + 0.85 ( 1984.3) = 2485 kJ/kg
50
= 1.045 (Ans)
Equivalent Evaporation = mass of steam x Factor of Evaporation
= 10 x 1.045 = 10.45 kg/kg of coal burnt (Ans)
Efficiency of boiler,
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PROGRESS CHECK
Efficiency for an oil-fired boiler
The following are the data collected for a boiler using furnace oil as the fuel. Find out the boiler
efficiency by indirect method and tabulate the summary of the oil-fired boiler.
Ultimate analysis (%)

Carbon = 84
Hydrogen = 12
Nitrogen = 0.5
Oxygen = 1.5
Sulphur = 1.5
Moisture = 0.5
GCV of fuel = 10000 kCal/kg
Fuel firing rate = 2648.125 kg/hr
Surface Temperature of boiler = 80 oC
Surface area of boiler = 90 m2
Humidity = 0.025 kg/kg of dry air
Flue gas analysis (%)

Flue gas temperature = 190oC
Ambient temperature = 30 oC
CO2% in flue gas by volume = 10.8
O2% in flue gas by volume = 7.4

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1

TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

ME 323B: Steam Power

DEPARTMENT: Mechanical Engineering

VINCENT ANDREW A. ALOJAMIENTO

T - Transparent and participatory governance

Understand the principle of operations of ICE, and auxiliaries.

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Students with Special Needs:

The student will be graded according to the following:

Average of examinations - 30%

Midterm Grade : (Average of Weekly Assessments from Week 1 to 6) X 0.70 +

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __1__

Introduction to Steam Power Engineering

Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:

THE POWER PLANT

1. Coal receipt and preparation

UTILITY BOILERS FOR ELECTRIC POWER

OIL- AND GAS-FIRED BOILERS

INDUSTRIAL AND SMALL POWER PLANTS

BUBBLING FLUID BED (BFB) BOILER.

CIRCULATING FLUID BED (CFB) BOILER.

STEAM AND STEAM CALORIMETRY

The work equivalent, in Btu, is

P (vg — vf)/J = 144p(vg — vf)/778

where J = 778 ft-lb per Btu.

TOTAL ENTHALPY OF DRY SATURATED STEAM.

where hg = the enthalpy of the vapor, Btu per lb.

SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY OF DRY SATURATED STEAM.

TOTAL ENTHALPY OF WET SATURATED STEAM.

where have= total enthalpy of wet steam, Btu per lb.

SPECIFIC VOLUME AND DENSITY OF WET SATURATED STEAM.

where x = quality of steam.

where x = initial quality of the steam expressed decimally.

Week No.: __2__

Review on Fuels and Combustion:

Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:

Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms:

• Organic sulfur, which is part of the coal’s molecular structure

Fuel oils may be classified according to their source as follows:

of gas with a very low percentage of excess air.

FLUE GAS ANALYSIS

COMBUSTION FORMUAS & EQUATIONS

 air = 1.225 kg/m 3

3. API AND BAUME GRAVITY UNITS

4. SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT TEMPERATURE (T):

CF = 1 − 0.00072(t − 15.6) t in deg.C

5. HEATING OR CALORIFIC VALUE

Dulong ' s Formula :

ASME Formula for Petroleum Products :

Bureau of Standards Formula :

Lower heating Value of Solid Fuels

COMBUSTION OF SOLID FUELS

Wta = ideal proportion of air to completely burn the fuel

if ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL IS NOT AVAILABLE

ACTUAL WEIGHT OF AIR

 A  % excess air  kg air

PERCENT EXCESS AIR:

COMBUSTION HYDROCARBON FUELS

Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion

CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTION REACTION

1. Combustion Reaction with chemically-correct or stoichiometric condition, general chemical of the

Week No.: 1

Week No.: 2

Week No.: 3-4