TUP Visayas Mechanical Engineering Learning Module on Refrigeration Systems

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
ME 324A: Refrigeration
Systems
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
Engr. Judson Ray A. Quitco
______________________________________
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials; effect
technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-medium
scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality higher
and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension projects;
continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel competence and
effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory requirements; and
adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the mandates
of the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values…………………...…… 1
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………..…….. 2
Course Description…………………………………………………..……. 3
Learning Outcomes…………………………………………….…..……… 3
General Guidelines/Class Rules………………………………..…..……… 3
Grading System…………………………………………………….……… 3
Learning Guide (Week No. 1) ……………………………………..……… 4
Thermal Principles………………………………………………… 4
Expected Competencies……………………………………………. 4
Content/Technical Information………………………….…………. 4
Progress Check…… …………………………………………..…… 23
References………………………………………………….…….… 23
Learning Guide (Week No. 2) ………………………………………..…… 24
History of Refrigeration/Introduction to Refrigerants………...…… 24
Expected Competencies………………………………...….………. 24
Content/Technical Information ……………………………….…… 24
Progress Check…… …………………………………….….……… 38
References…………………………………………….…….……… 40
Learning Guide (Week No. 3)………………………………………………41
Carnot Refrigeration System………………………………..………41
Expected Competencies……………………………………..………41
Content/Technical Information………………………….….……… 41
Progress Check…… ……………………………………….………. 47
References……………………………………………….….……… 48
Learning Guide (Week No. 4) …………………………………….….…… 49
Standard Vapor-Compression Cycle………………………….…… 49
Expected Competencies…………………………………….……… 49
Content/Technical Information…………………………….……… 49
Progress Check……….. …………………………………………… 63
References………………………………….……………………… 67
List of References………………………………………………………………… 67
About the Complier………………………………………………………………..68
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course is designed to provide a thorough foundation of the thermodynamic principles and
components of mechanical refrigeration systems; cycles and associated equipment, and the
effect of their operation on the environment.
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of the course, the students will be able to do the following:
Solve problems relating to various refrigeration systems by applying theories and concept
relating to it.
Read graphs and tables and interpret data.
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Make-up exams and quizzes will only be given with prior approval of the Dean of
College and under any exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the
exam, the university policy will be followed.
2. Cell phones or any e-gadgets must be turned off or put in a silent mode during class
hours.
Students with Special Needs:
Students with special medical needs should inform the instructor/professor ahead to as
how they could be best assisted.
GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:
Average of examinations – 50%

Average of assessments – 50%
Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessments x 0.50)]

Midterm Grade : [(Midterm Exam x 0.50) + (Assessments x 0.50)]
End term Grade : [(Final Exam x 0.50) + (Assessments x 0.50)]
Final Grade : (Prelim Grade x 0.30) + (Midterm Grade x 0.30)+(Final term Grade x 0.40)
The passing grade for this course is 5.0.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __1__

TOPIC:
THERMAL PRINCIPLES
EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:
Review concepts of thermodynamics.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
The topic is intended to review the basic concepts of thermodynamics prior to the discussion
of refrigeration systems. This will help the students to recall laws and working formulas related
to thermal principles necessary in the next topics.
Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena of energy

and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy and vice versa.
Temperature
Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness therefore a measure of

intensity of heat.
Table 1-1. The six temperature scales
Celsius or Centrigrade Kelvin Reamur

Fahrenheit Rankine Ligem
Absolute Temperature – is the temperature measured from absolute zero.
Absolute zero – is the temperature at which the molecules stop moving.
Relation between temperature scales

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𝐹= 𝐶 + 32 𝐶= (𝐹 − 32) 𝑅 = 𝐹 + 460 𝐾 = 𝐶 + 273
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Where: R = Rankine (absolute temperature scale; English)
K = Kelvin (absolute temperature scale; SI)
C = Celsius or Centigrade
F = Fahrenheit
Temperature Interval – is the difference between two temperature readings from the same
scale, and the change in temperature which the body is heated.
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The Temperature Interval/Change

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∆𝑇𝑘 = ∆𝑇𝐶 ∆𝑇𝐶 = 9 ∆𝑇𝐹 1°𝑅𝑒 = °𝐶
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∆𝑇𝑅 = ∆𝑇𝐹 ∆𝑇𝐹 = ∆𝑇𝐶 1°𝑅𝑒 = 20°𝐿
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Note: 1 C° = 9/5 F° and degree is to be written after the scale to indicate that it is temperature
change.
Absolute and Gage Pressure
Absolute pressure – is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.
Gage pressure – is the pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by most
pressure recording instrument like pressure gage and open-ended manometer.
Atmospheric pressure – is the pressure obtained from barometric reading.
𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
Where Pabs = absolute pressure
Pgage = gage pressure
Patm = atmospheric pressure
Patm = 101.325 kPa
= 14.7 psi
= 1.032 kg/cm2
= 29.92 in. Hg
= 760 mmHg
= 1.013 x 106 dyne/cm2
= 760 torr
= 1 atm
= 0 Kpag
= 0 psig
Note: Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum. The pressure in perfect vacuum is -
101.325 Kpa.
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Thermodynamics Systems and Surroundings:
System – is the term given to the collection of matter under consideration enclosed within a
boundary.
Surrounding – is the region outside the boundary or the space and matter external to a
system.
Closed System – is a system in which there is no transfer of matter across the boundary.
Open System – is a system in which there is a flow matter through the boundary.
Isolated System – is a system in which neither mass nor energy cross the boundaries and it’s
not influenced by the surroundings.
Non-flow process – is a process that takes place in a closed system. Example: Compressor
Steady flow process – is a process that takes place in an open system in which the quantity
of matter within the system is constant. Example: Turbine
Non-flow work – is the work in a non-flow process

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𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 (𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
1
Steady flow work – is the work in a steady flow process.

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𝑊𝑠 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑉 (𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )
1
Where: P = pressure
V= volume
Law of Conservation of Mass
Mass (m1) entering the system is equal to the sun of the stored mass (Δm) and the mass (m 2)
that leaves the systems.
𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 + ∆𝒎
∆𝒎 = 𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐
Steady Flow System (Δm = 0)
𝒎 𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐
𝐴1 𝑉1 𝜌1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 𝜌2
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Where A = cross-sectional area
V = velocity
ρ = density
Heat and Entropy
Heat – is a form of energy associated with the kinetic random motion of large number of
molecules.
Sensible Heat – is the heat needed to change the temperature of the body without changing
its phase.
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇
Where Qs = sensible heat
m = mass
ΔT = change in temperature
C = specific heat
Example: Cwater = 1.0 Cal/gm.C° = 1.0 Btu/lb.F°
= 4.186 kJ/kg.K
Latent Heat – is the heat needed by the body to change its phase without changing its
temperature.
Latent Heat of Fusion – solid to liquid.
Latent Heat of Vaporization – liquid to gas.
Example: melting of ice at 0°C
𝑄𝐿 = ±𝑚𝐿
Where QL = heat needed
m = mass
L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)
(+) = heat entering; substance melts
(-) = heat leaving; substance freezes
Note:
Latent heat of fusion of ice (Lf)
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Lf = 144 BTU/lb = 334 KJ/kg = 80 Cal/gm
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)
Lv = 970 BTU/lb = 2257 KJ/kg = 540 Cal/gm
Entropy – is the measure of the randomness of the molecules of a substance.
Enthalpy and Internal Energy:
Enthalpy – is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant pressure process.
Internal Energy – is the energy stored within the body. It is the sum of the kinetic energies
of all its constituent particles plus the sum of all the potential energies of interaction among
these particles.
𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
Where H = enthalpy
U = internal energy
P = absolute pressure
V = volume
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy cannot be created nor be destroyed, it can only be transformed from one form to
another.
Sum Energy Entering = Sum of Energy Leaving
PE1 + KE1 + H1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + H2 + W
Figure 1-1
Where: PE = potential energy
KE = kinetic energy
H = U + PV
H = enthalpy
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Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Heat cannot be transferred from cold to a hot body, without an input of work. It similarly
states that cannot be converted 100% into work. The bottom line is that an engine must
operate between a hot and a cold reservoir. Also indicated, is that energy has different levels
of potential to do work, and that energy cannot naturally move from realm of lower potential
to a realm of higher potential.
Clausius Statement Applied to Heat Pump
It is impossible to construct a heat pump that operates without an input work.
Kelvin-Plank Statement Applied to Heat Engine
It is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a cycle and receives a given
amount of heat from a high temperature body and does an equal amount of work.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
The total entropy of pure substance approaches zero as the absolute thermodynamic
temperature approaches zero.
Note: The third body is usually a thermometer
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
When any two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
Ideal Gas or Perfect Gas
Perfect Gas – is a theoretically ideal gas which strictly follows Boyle’s law and Charles’ law
of gases.
The equation of State of an Ideal Gas:
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
Where
𝑅
R = gas constant P = absolute pressure R = 𝑀 (for any gas)
T = absolute temperature R = universal Gas constant n = no. of moles
m = mass (kg, gm, & lb) M =molecular weight (kg/mol, lb/mol & gm/mol)
R = 8.314 J/mol-K = 1545 ft-lbf / mol-R
R = 1.986 BTU/mol-R = 0.0821 L-atm/mol-°R
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𝑓𝑡−𝑙𝑏𝑓 𝑘𝐽
Note: 53.34 = 0.287
𝑙𝑏𝑚 𝑅 𝑘𝑔−𝐾
Relation Between Cp, Cv, k & R

𝐶𝑝
𝐶𝑝 − 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑅 =𝑘
𝐶𝑣
𝑅 𝑘𝑅
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑘−1 𝐶𝑝 = 𝑘−1
Where Cp = specific heat at constant pressure Cv = specific heat at constant
K = specific ratio R = gas constant
Boyle’s Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute temperature is held constant, the volume is inversely
proportional to the absolute pressure.
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2
Charles’s Law
In a confined gas, if the absolute pressure is held constant the volume is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
In a confined gas, if the volume is held constant, the absolute pressure is directly proportional
to the absolute temperature.
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
General Gas Law
(Combined Charles’ & Boyle’s Laws)
Each one of these laws states how one quantity varies with another if the third quantity
remains unchanged, but if the three quantities change simultaneously, it is necessary to
combine these laws in order to determine the final conditions of the gas.
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
The pressure exerted in a vessel by a mixture of gasses is equal to the sum of the pressure that
each separate gas would exert if it alone occupied the whole volume of the vessel.
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𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 +𝑃3 . . . + 𝑃𝑛
Where P = total pressure of the mixture
P1, P2, P3, . . . Pn = partial pressure of gases
Partial pressure – is the pressure exerted by each gas.
Avogadro’s Law
At equal volume, at the same temperature and pressure conditions, the gases contain the same
number of molecules.
𝑚1 𝑀 𝑅 𝑀
= 𝑀1 or 𝑅1 = 𝑀1
𝑚2 2 2 2
Where
m1 and m2 are masses
M1 and M2 are Molecular weights
R1 and R2 are gas constants
The Internal Energy, Enthalpy and Entropy of an Ideal Gas
Thermodynamic Processes
Processes
Whenever a system undergoes any change, it is said to have described a process.
Reversible and Irreversible processes
Reversible process – is one in which both the system and the surroundings are returned to
their original states, otherwise it is an irreversible process.
Cyclic Process
Cyclic Process – a process which gives the same states/conditions after the system undergoes
a series of processes.
Quasi-Static Process
Quasi-static Process – is one in which system departs from equilibrium state only
infinitesimally at every instant.
Processes of Ideal Gas
Isometric or Isochoric or Isovolumic Process
Isometric process is an internally reversible constant volume process of a working substance.
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Isobaric Process
Isobaric Process is an internally reversible constant pressure process of a working substance.
Isothermal Process
Isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a working

substance.
Isentropic Process
Isentropic Process is an internally constant entropy process of a working substance. It may

also known as a reversible adiabatic process.
Adiabatic Process is a reversible process in which there is no flow of heat between a system
and its surroundings (Q = 0).
Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process is an internally reversible process during which PVn = C, where n is

constant.
General Equation For Thermodynamic Curves
The general equation process is :
𝑷𝑽𝒏 = 𝑪
If:
𝑛 = 0; 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = 1; 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = 𝑘; 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 + ∞; 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑛 = ∞; 𝐼𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
Note: PVk is steeper than PV curve;
Mixture Involving Ideal Gases :
Mass or Gravimetric Analysis
𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 +. . . +𝑚𝑛
Volumetric or Molal Analysis
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 +. . . +𝑉𝑛
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Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 +. . . +𝑃𝑛
Specific Heat of the Mixture
𝑚𝐶𝑝 = 𝑚1 𝐶𝑝1 + 𝑚2 𝐶𝑝2 + 𝑚3 𝐶𝑝3 +. . . +𝑚𝑛 𝐶𝑝𝑛
𝑚𝐶𝑣 = 𝑚1 𝐶𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝐶𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝐶𝑣3 +. . . +𝑚𝑛 𝐶𝑣𝑛
Two Phase System (Pure – Substance)
1 Pure Substance – is a working substance that has homogenous and invariable chemical
composition even though there is a change of phase.
2 Working Substance – is substance which energy can be stored or from which energy can be
removed.
The PV and TS diagram of Pure Substance
Figure 1-2
Definition of terms (Pure substance – properties)
Saturation Temperature is the temperature at which liquid starts to boil and vapor start to
condense.
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Subcooled Liquid is a liquid whose temperature is lower than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the given pressure.
Compressed Liquid is a liquid whose pressure is higher than the saturation pressure
corresponding to the given temperature.
Saturated Liquid is a liquid at the saturation temperature or pressure whose temperature is

equal to the boiling point corresponding to the given pressure. It has no vapor content.
Vapor is the term given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with liquid phase.
Saturated Vapor is a vapor at saturation temperature and pressure. It has no liquid or moisture
content.
Superheated Vapor is a vapor whose temperature is higher than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the given pressure.
Degrees Superheat is the difference between the actual superheated temperature and the
saturation temperature.
Degrees Subcooled is the difference between the saturation temperature and the actual
subcooled temperature.
Wet Vapor is a mixture of saturated liquid.
Quality of Wet Vapor is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated vapor. It is the
ratio of the mass of saturated vapor to the total mass of the mixture.
Percentage moisture is the fraction or percentage by weight that is saturated liquid. It is the
ratio of the mass of saturated liquid to the total mass of the mixture.
Critical Point is a point that represent the pressure and temperature at which liquid and vapor
can coexist in equilibrium.
Properties of Mixture (Wet Vapor / Steam)
Figure 1-3
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N.B. the properties of liquid and vapor at a given temperature and pressure can be found in
Steam table and Mollier chart.
Processes Involving Pure Substance
Vapors (steam) and Ideal gases have similarity in their processes but ideal gas equations are
not generally applicable to vapors.
Isometric process is an internally reversible constant volume process of a pure substance.
a. PV and TS Diagram
Figure 1-4
b. Nonflow work
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𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1
𝑊𝑛 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑉 = 0 @𝑉
c. Steady Flow Work

2
𝑊𝑠 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 = 𝑉 (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )
1
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐾𝐸 − ∆𝑃𝐸 − ∆𝐻
d. Change in Internal Energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
e. Change in Enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
f. Heat Transferred
𝑄 = ∆𝑈
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𝑄 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
g. Change in Entropy
∆𝑆 = 𝑚(𝑆2 − 𝑆2 )
Isobaric Process
Isobaric process is a constant pressure process of a pure substance.
Figure 1-5
b. Nonflow work
2
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) = 𝑚𝑃(𝑣1 − 𝑣2 )
1
c. Steady Flow Work

2
𝑊𝑠 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃
1
𝑊𝑠 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑑𝑃 = 0 (𝑃 = 𝐶)
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
f. Heat Transferred
𝑄 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢1 + 𝑊𝑛
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𝑄 = ℎ2 − ℎ1
∆𝑆 = 𝑚(𝑆2 − 𝑆2 )
Isothermal Process
Isothermal Process is an internally reversible constant temperature process of a pure

substance.
Figure 1-6
b. Nonflow work
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑈
c. Steady Flow Work
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐾𝐸 − ∆𝑃𝐸 − ∆𝐻
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇2 (𝑆1 − 𝑆4)
f. Heat Transferred
𝑄 = 𝑇∆𝑆 = 𝑇(𝑆2 − 𝑆1 )
∆𝑆 = 𝑚(𝑆2 − 𝑆2 )
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Isentropic or Adiabatic Process
Isentropic process is a constant entropy process of a pure substance. It is a process in which

no heat is transferred.
Figure 1-7
b. Nonflow work
𝑊𝑛 = 𝑄 − ∆𝑈 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∶ 𝑄 = 0
𝑊𝑛 = − ∆𝑈
c. Steady Flow Work
𝑊𝑠 = − ∆𝐾𝐸 − ∆𝑃𝐸 − ∆𝐻
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
f. Heat Transferred
𝑄= 0
∆𝑆 = 0
Isenthalpic or Throttling Process
Isenthalpic process is a constant enthalpy process of a pure substance. It is a process in which

no work is being done and is utilized in getting the quality of steam.
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Figure 1-8
b. Steady Flow Work
𝑊𝑠 = 0
c. Change in Internal Energy
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
d. Change in Enthalpy
∆𝐻 = 0
e. Heat Transferred
𝑄= 0
f. Change in Entropy
∆𝑆 = 𝑚(𝑆2 − 𝑆2 )
Polytropic Process
Polytropic process is reversible process during which PVn = C where n is constant
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Figure 1-9
b. Nonflow work
2
(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1 )
𝑊𝑛 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉 =
1 1−𝑛
c. Steady Flow Work

2
𝑛(𝑃2 𝑉2 − 𝑃1 𝑉1)
𝑊𝑠 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑃 =
1 1−𝑛
𝑊𝑠 = 𝑛𝑊𝑛 ; 𝑊𝑠 = 𝑄 − ∆𝐾𝐸 − ∆𝑃𝐸 − ∆𝐻
∆𝑈 = 𝑚(𝑢2 − 𝑢1 )
∆𝐻 = 𝑚(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
f. Heat Transferred
𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑊𝑛
∆𝑆 = 𝑚(𝑆2 − 𝑆2 )
Carnot Cycle
Carnot Cycle is the most efficient thermodynamic cycle. It consists of two isothermal and
two isentropic processes.
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Figure 1-10
Process 1 – 2 : Isentropic Expansion
Process 2 – 3 : Isothermal Compression
Process 3 – 4 : Isentropic Compression
Process 4 – 1 : Isothermal Expansion
Analysis of Carnot Cycle:
a. Heat Added (QA)
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑇1 (𝑆1 − 𝑆4 )
b. Heat Rejected
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇2 (𝑆2 − 𝑆3 )
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑇2 (𝑆1 − 𝑆4 )
22
c. Network or Work Done:
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )(𝑆1 − 𝑆4 )
d. Cycle Efficiency
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑅
𝑒= =1−
𝑄𝐴 𝑄𝐴
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 𝑇2
𝑒= = 1−
𝑇1 𝑇1
e. Heat-temperature relations
𝑄𝑅 𝑇2
=
𝑄𝐴 𝑇1
Note: Carnot Cycle Efficiency can be increased by increasing T 1 and lowering T2.
PROGRESS CHECK
1 Define thermodynamics in your own words.
2 Differentiate the Laws of Thermodynamics.
3 Give an example of the following thermodynamic processes.
A Isobaric Process
B Isometric Process
C Isothermal Process
D Polytropic Process
E Isentropic Process
4 Why is it necessary to review the concepts of thermodynamics before you proceed to study
refrigeration systems?
23
REFERENCES
Trillana, AlexanderB., and Rama, Nicanor C. de la, Simplified Design of
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, Manila, Merriam and Webster Book
Store, Inc., 1995
Stoerker, W.F. and Jones, J.W., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 2 nd

Edition, New York, Mc Graw Hill Company, 1993
Miller,R. and Miller,M.,Airconditioning and Refrigeration,The McGraw-

Hill Companies,Inc., 2006
Arora,C.P., Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, 3rd Edition,The McGraw-

Capote, Mandawe, 1001 Solved Problems in Power and Industrial Plant

Engineering, vol. (Industrial Plant Engineering), 2001
24
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __2__

TOPICS
History of Refrigeration
Refrigerants and its application
1. Define refrigeration.
2. Describe aspects of various natural refrigeration methods, namely:
a. Use of ice transported from colder regions
b. Use of ice harvester in winter and stored in ice houses
c. Use of ice produced by nocturnal cooling
d. Use of evaporative cooling
e. Cooling by salts
3. Summarize the history of refrigeration in terms of:

a. Refrigerant development
4. State the importance of refrigerant selection.
5. List various refrigerants used before the invention of CFCs.
6. List various CFC refrigerants and their impact on refrigeration.
7. Identify the environmental issues related to the use of CFCs.
8. State the refrigerant development after Montreal protocol.
Introduction:
The development of refrigeration and air conditioning industry depended to a large

extent on the development of refrigerants to suit various applications and the development of
various system components. At present the industry is dominated by the vapour compression
refrigeration systems, even though the vapour absorption systems have also been developed
commercially. The success of vapour compression refrigeration systems owes a lot to the
development of suitable refrigerants and compressors. The theoretical thermodynamic
efficiency of a vapour compression system depends mainly on the operating temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial and operating costs,
25
safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of refrigerant and
compressor selected for a given application. This lesson presents a brief history of refrigerants
and compressors. The emphasis here is mainly on vapour compression refrigeration systems,
as these are the most commonly used systems, and also refrigerants and compressors play a
critical role here. The other popular type of refrigeration system, namely the vapour absorption
type has seen fewer changes in terms of refrigerant development, and relatively less number of
problems exist in these systems as far as the refrigerants are concerned.
Refrigerant development – a brief history
In general a refrigerant may be defined as “any body or substance that acts as a cooling
medium by extracting heat from another body or substance”. Under this general definition,
many bodies or substances may be called as refrigerants, e.g. ice, cold water, cold air etc. In
closed cycle vapour compression, absorption systems, air cycle refrigeration systems the
refrigerant is a working fluid that undergoes cyclic changes. In a thermoelectric system the
current carrying electrons may be treated as a refrigerant. However, normally by refrigerants
we mean the working fluids that undergo condensation and evaporation as in compression and
absorption systems. The history that we are talking about essentially refers to these substances.
Since these substances have to evaporate and condense at required temperatures (which may
broadly lie in the range of –100o C to +100o C) at reasonable pressures, they have to be
essentially volatile. Hence, the development of refrigerants started with the search for suitable,
volatile substances. Historically the development of these refrigerants can be divided into three
distinct phases, namely:
Refrigerants prior to the development of CFCs
The synthetic fluorocarbon (FC) based refrigerants
Refrigerants in the aftermath of stratospheric ozone layer depletion
Refrigerants prior to the development of CFCs
Water is one of the earliest substances to be used as a refrigerant, albeit not in a closed
system. Production of cold by evaporation of water dates back to 3000 B.C. Archaeological
findings show pictures of Egyptian slaves waving fans in front of earthenware jars to accelerate
the evaporation of water from the porous surfaces of the pots, thereby producing cold water.
Of course, the use of “punkahs” for body cooling in hot summer is very well known in countries
like India. Production of ice by nocturnal cooling is also well known. People also had some
knowledge of producing sub-zero temperatures by the use of “refrigerant mixtures”. It is
believed that as early as 4th Century AD people in India were using mixtures of salts (sodium
nitrate, sodium chloride etc.) and water to produce temperatures as low as –20o C. However,
these natural refrigeration systems working with water have many limitations and hence were
confined to a small number of applications.
Water was the first refrigerant to be used in a continuous refrigeration system by

William Cullen (1710-1790) in 1755. William Cullen is also the first man to have scientifically
observed the production of low temperatures by evaporation of ethyl ether in 1748. Oliver
26
Evans (1755-1819) proposed the use of a volatile fluid in a closed cycle to produce ice from
water. He described a practical system that uses ethyl ether as the refrigerant. As already
mentioned the credit for building the first vapour compression refrigeration system goes to
Jakob Perkins (1766-1849). Perkins used sulphuric (ethyl) ether obtained from India rubber as
refrigerant. Early commercial refrigerating machines developed by James Harrison (1816-
1893) also used ethyl ether as refrigerant. Alexander Twining (1801-1884) also developed
refrigerating machines using ethyl ether. After these developments, ethyl ether was used as
refrigerant for several years for ice making, in breweries etc. Ether machines were gradually
replaced by ammonia and carbon dioxide based machines, even though they were used for a
longer time in tropical countries such as India.
Ethyl ether appeared to be a good refrigerant in the beginning, as it was easier to handle
it since it exists as a liquid at ordinary temperatures and atmospheric pressure. Ethyl ether has
a normal boiling point (NBP) of 34.5o C, this indicates that in order to obtain low temperatures,
the evaporator pressure must be lower than one atmosphere, i.e., operation in vacuum.
Operation of a system in vacuum may lead to the danger of outside air leaking into the system
resulting in the formation of a potentially explosive mixture. On the other hand a relatively
high normal boiling point indicates lower pressures in the condenser, or for a given pressure
the condenser can be operated at higher condensing temperatures. This is the reason behind the
longer use of ether in tropical countries with high ambient temperatures. Eventually due to the
high NBP, toxicity and flammability problems ethyl ether was replaced by other refrigerants.
Charles Tellier (1828-1913) introduced dimethyl ether (NBP = 23.6o C) in 1864. However,
this refrigerant did not become popular, as it is also toxic and inflammable.
In 1866, the American T.S.C. Lowe (1832-1913) introduced carbon dioxide

compressor. However, it enjoyed commercial success only in 1880s due largely to the efforts
of German scientists Franz Windhausen (1829-1904) and Carl von Linde (1842-1934). Carbon
dioxide has excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties, however, it has a low
critical temperature (31.7o C) and very high operating pressures. Since it is non-flammable and
non-toxic it found wide applications principally for marine refrigeration. It was also used for
refrigeration applications on land. Carbon dioxide was used successfully for about sixty years
however, it was completely replaced by CFCs. It is ironic to note that ever since the problem
of ozone layer depletion was found, carbon dioxide is steadily making a comeback by replacing
the synthetic CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs etc.
One of the landmark events in the history of refrigerants is the introduction of ammonia.
The American David Boyle (1837-1891) was granted the first patent for ammonia compressor
in 1872. He made the first single acting vertical compressor in 1873. However, the credit for
successfully commercializing ammonia systems goes to Carl von Linde (1842- 1934) of
Germany, who introduced these compressors in Munich in 1876. Linde is credited with
perfecting the ammonia refrigeration technology and owing to his pioneering efforts; ammonia
has become one of the most important refrigerants to be developed. Ammonia has a NBP of
33.3°C, hence, the operating pressures are much higher than atmospheric. Ammonia has
excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties. It is easily available and inexpensive.
However, ammonia is toxic and has a strong smell and slight flammability. In addition, it is not
27
compatible with some of the common materials of construction such as copper. Though these
are considered to be some of its disadvantages, ammonia has stood the test of time and the
onslaught of CFCs due to its excellent properties. At present ammonia is used in large
refrigeration systems (both vapour compression and vapour absorption) and also in small
absorption refrigerators (triple fluid vapour absorption).
In 1874, Raoul Pictet (1846-1929) introduced sulphur dioxide (NBP= 10.0o C). Sulphur
dioxide was an important refrigerant and was widely used in small refrigeration systems such
as domestic refrigerators due to its small refrigerating effect. Sulphur dioxide has the advantage
of being an auto-lubricant. In addition it is not only non-flammable, but actually acts as a flame
extinguisher. However, in the presence of water vapour it produces sulphuric acid, which is
highly corrosive. The problem of corrosion was overcome by an airtight sealed compressor
(both motor and compressor are mounted in the same outer casing). However, after about sixty
years of use in appliances such as domestic refrigerators, sulphur dioxide was replaced by
CFCs.
In addition to the above, other fluids such as methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, isobutane,
propane, ethyl alcohol, methyl and ethyl amines, carbon tetra chloride, methylene chloride,
gasoline etc. were tried but discarded due to one reason or other.
The synthetic CFCs/HCFCs:
Almost all the refrigerants used in the early stages of refrigeration suffered from one
problem or other. Most of these problems were linked to safety issues such as toxicity,
flammability, high operating pressures etc. As a result large-scale commercialization of
refrigeration systems was hampered. Hence it was felt that “refrigeration industry needs a new
refrigerant if they expect to get anywhere”. The task of finding a “safe” refrigerant was taken
up by the American Thomas Midgley, Jr., in 1928. Midgley was already famous for the
invention of tetra ethyl lead, an important anti-knock agent for petrol engines. Midgley along
with his associates Albert L. Henne and Robert R. McNary at the Frigidaire Laboratories
(Dayton, Ohio, USA) began a systematic study of the periodic table. From the periodic table
they quickly eliminated all those substances yielding insufficient volatility. They then
eliminated those elements resulting in unstable and toxic gases as well as the inert gases, based
on their very low boiling points. They were finally left with eight elements: carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine and bromine. These eight elements clustered at
an intersecting row and column of the periodic table, with fluorine at the intersection. Midgley
and his colleagues then made three interesting observations:
Flammability decreases from left to right for the eight elements.
Toxicity generally decreases from the heavy elements at the bottom to the lighter elements at
the top.
Every known refrigerant at that time was made from the combination of those eight “Midgley”
elements.
28
Of the eight elements identified by Midgley (fluorine was not used till then). Other
researchers have repeated Midgley’s search with more modern search methods and databases,
but arrived at the same conclusions (almost all the currently used refrigerants are made up of
Midgley elements, only exception is Iodine, studies are being carried out on refrigerants
containing iodine in addition to some of the Midgley elements). Based on their study, Midgely
and his colleagues have developed a whole range of new refrigerants, which are obtained by
partial replacement of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons by fluorine and chlorine. They have
shown how fluorination and chlorination of hydrocarbons can be varied to obtain desired
boiling points (volatility) and also how properties such as toxicity, flammability are influenced
by the composition. The first commercial refrigerant to come out of Midgley’s study is Freon-
12 in 1931. Freon-12 with a chemical formula CCl2F2, is obtained by replacing the four atoms
of hydrogen in methane (CH4) by two atoms of chlorine and two atoms of fluorine. Freon-12
has a normal boiling point of 29.8o C, and is one of the most famous and popular synthetic
refrigerants. It was exclusively used in small domestic refrigerators, air conditioners, water
coolers etc. for almost sixty years. Freon-11 (CCl3F) used in large centrifugal air conditioning
systems was introduced in 1932. This is followed by Freon-22 (CHClF2) and a whole series of
synthetic refrigerants to suit a wide variety of applications.
Due to the emergence of a large number of refrigerants in addition to the existence of

the older refrigerants, it has become essential to work out a numbering system for refrigerants.
Thus all refrigerants were indicated with ‘R’ followed by a unique number (thus Freon-12 is
changed to R12 etc.). The numbering of refrigerants was done based on certain guidelines. For
all synthetic refrigerants the number (e.g. 11, 12, 22) denotes the chemical composition. The
number of all inorganic refrigerants begins with ‘7’ followed by their molecular weight. Thus
R-717 denotes ammonia (ammonia is inorganic and its molecular weight is 17), R-718 denotes
water etc.. Refrigerant mixtures begin with the number 4 (zeotropic) or 5 (azeotropic), e.g. R-
500, R-502 etc.
The introduction of CFCs and related compounds has revolutionized the field of
refrigeration and air conditioning. Most of the problems associated with early refrigerants such
as toxicity, flammability, and material incompatibility were eliminated completely. Also,
Freons are highly stable compounds. In addition, by cleverly manipulating the composition a
whole range of refrigerants best suited for a particular application could be obtained. In addition
to all this, a vigorous promotion of these refrigerants as “wonder gases” and “ideal refrigerants”
saw rapid growth of Freons and equally rapid exit of conventional refrigerants such as carbon
dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc. Only ammonia among the older refrigerants survived the Freon
magic. The Freons enjoyed complete domination for about fifty years, until the Ozone Layer
Depletion issue was raised by Rowland and Molina in 1974. Rowland and Molina in their now
famous theory argued that the highly stable chlorofluorocarbons cause the depletion of
stratospheric ozone layer. Subsequent studies and observations confirmed Rowland and Molina
theory on stratospheric ozone depletion by chlorine containing CFCs. In view of the
seriousness of the problem on global scale, several countries have agreed to ban the harmful
Ozone Depleting Substances, ODS (CFCs and others) in a phase-wise manner under Montreal
Protocol. Subsequently almost all countries of the world have agreed to the plan of CFC phase-
29
out. In addition to the ozone layer depletion, the CFCs and related substances were also found
to contribute significantly to the problem of “global warming”. This once again brought the
scientists back to the search for “safe” refrigerants. The “safety” now refers to not only the
immediate personal safety issues such as flammability, toxicity etc., but also the long-term
environmental issues such as ozone layer depletion and global warming.
Refrigerants in the aftermath of Ozone Layer Depletion:
The most important requirement for refrigerants in the aftermath of ozone layer
depletion is that it should be a non-Ozone Depleting Substance (non-ODS). Out of this
requirement two alternatives have emerged. The first one is to look for zero ODP synthetic
refrigerants and the second one is to look for “natural” substances. Introduction of
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and their mixtures belong to the first route, while the
reintroduction of carbon dioxide (in a supercritical cycle), water and various hydrocarbons and
their mixtures belong to the second route. The increased use of ammonia and use of other
refrigeration cycles such as air cycle refrigeration systems and absorption systems also come
under the second route. Both these routes have found their proponents and opponents.
HFC134a (synthetic substance) and hydrocarbons (natural substances) have emerged as
alternatives to Freon-12. No clear pure fluid alternative has been found as yet for the other
popular refrigerant HCFC-22. However several mixtures consisting of synthetic and natural
refrigerants are being used and suggested for future use. Table 2.1 shows the list of refrigerants
being replaced and their alternatives. Mention must be made here about the other
environmental problem, global warming. In general the non-ODS synthetic refrigerants such
as HFC-134a have high global warming potential (GWP), hence they face an uncertain future.
Since the global warming impact of a refrigerant also depends on the energy efficiency of the
system using the refrigerant (indirect effect), the efficiency issue has become important in the
design of new refrigeration systems. Though the issues of ozone layer depletion and global
warming has led to several problems, they have also had beneficial effects of making people
realize the importance of environmental friendliness of technologies. It is expected that with
the greater awareness more responsible designs will emerge which will ultimately benefit the
whole mankind.
Introduction to Refrigerants:
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system depends mainly on its

operating temperatures. However, important practical issues such as the system design, size,
initial and operating costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the
type of refrigerant selected for a given application. Due to several environmental issues such
as ozone layer depletion and global warming and their relation to the various refrigerants used,
the selection of suitable refrigerant has become one of the most important issues in recent times.
Replacement of an existing refrigerant by a completely new refrigerant, for whatever reason,
is an expensive proposition as it may call for several changes in the design and manufacturing
of refrigeration systems. Hence it is very important to understand the issues related to the
selection and use of refrigerants. In principle, any fluid can be used as a refrigerant. Air used
in an air cycle refrigeration system can also be considered as a refrigerant. However, in this
30
lecture the attention is mainly focused on those fluids that can be used as refrigerants in vapour
compression refrigeration systems only.
Primary and secondary refrigerants:
Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified into primary and secondary
refrigerants. Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used directly as working fluids,
for example in vapour compression and vapour absorption refrigeration systems. When used
in compression or absorption systems, these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a phase
change process in the evaporator. As the name implies, secondary refrigerants are those liquids,
which are used for transporting thermal energy from one location to other. Secondary
refrigerants are also known under the name brines or antifreezes. Of course, if the operating
temperatures are above 0o C, then pure water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for
example in large air conditioning systems. Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is
required at sub-zero temperatures. Unlike primary refrigerants, the secondary refrigerants do
not undergo phase change as they transport energy from one location to other. An important
property of a secondary refrigerant is its freezing point. Generally, the freezing point of a brine
will be lower than the freezing point of its constituents. The temperature at which freezing of
a brine takes place depends on its concentration. The concentration at which a lowest
temperature can be reached without solidification is called as eutectic point. The commonly
used secondary refrigerants are the solutions of water and ethylene glycol, propylene glycol or
calcium chloride. These solutions are known under the general name of brines.
In this lecture attention is focused on primary refrigerants used mainly in vapour

compression refrigeration systems.
Refrigerant selection criteria:
Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is based on the following requirements:
i. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties
ii. Environmental and safety properties, and
iii. Economics
Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties:
The requirements are:
a) Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the saturation pressure should be above
atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture ingress into the system and ease of leak detection.
Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to smaller compressor displacement
b) Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the discharge pressure should be as

small as possible to allow light-weight construction of compressor, condenser etc.
31
c) Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high volumetric efficiency and low power
consumption
d) Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so that the required mass flow
rate per unit cooling capacity will be small
The above requirements are somewhat contradictory, as the operating pressures,

temperatures and latent heat of vaporization are related by Clausius Clapeyron Equation:
In the above equation, Psat is the saturation pressure (in atm.) at a temperature T(in
Kelvin), hfg and sfg are enthalpy and entropy of vaporization and R is the gas constant. Since
the change in entropy of vaporization is relatively small, from the above equation it can be
shown that:
In the above equation, Pc and Pe are the condenser and evaporator pressures, Tc and Te
are condenser and evaporator temperatures. From the above equation, it can be seen that for
given condenser and evaporator temperatures as the latent heat of vaporization increases, the
pressure ratio also increases. Hence a trade-off is required between the latent heat of
vaporization and pressure ratio.
In addition to the above properties; the following properties are also important:
e) Isentropic index of compression: Should be as small as possible so that the temperature rise
during compression will be small
f) Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of subcooling will be large leading to
smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet
g) Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree of superheating will be small
h) Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid as well as vapour phase should
be high for higher heat transfer coefficients
i) Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and vapour phases for smaller frictional
pressure drops
The thermodynamic properties are interrelated and mainly depend on normal boiling
point, critical temperature, molecular weight and structure.
The normal boiling point indicates the useful temperature levels as it is directly related
to the operating pressures. A high critical temperature yields higher COP due to smaller
compressor superheat and smaller flash gas losses. On the other hand since the vapour pressure
will be low when critical temperature is high, the volumetric capacity will be lower for
32
refrigerants with high critical temperatures. This once again shows a need for trade-off between
high COP and high volumetric capacity. It is observed that for most of the refrigerants the ratio
of normal boiling point to critical temperature is in the range of 0.6 to 0.7. Thus the normal
boiling point is a good indicator of the critical temperature of the refrigerant.
The important properties such as latent heat of vaporization and specific heat depend
on the molecular weight and structure of the molecule. Trouton’s rule shows that the latent heat
of vaporization will be high for refrigerants having lower molecular weight. The specific heat
of refrigerant is related to the structure of the molecule. If specific heat of refrigerant vapour is
low then the shape of the vapour dome will be such that the compression process starting with
a saturated point terminates in the superheated zone (i.e, compression process will be dry).
However, a small value of vapour specific heat indicates higher degree of superheat. Since
vapour and liquid specific heats are also related, a large value of vapour specific heat results in
a higher value of liquid specific heat, leading to higher flash gas losses. Studies show that in
general the optimum value of molar vapour specific heat lies in the range of 40 to 100
kJ/kmol.K.
The freezing point of the refrigerant should be lower than the lowest operating
temperature of the cycle to prevent blockage of refrigerant pipelines.
Environmental and safety properties:
Next to thermodynamic and thermophysical properties, the environmental and safety

properties are very important. In fact, at present the environment friendliness of the refrigerant
is a major factor in deciding the usefulness of a particular refrigerant. The important
environmental and safety properties are:
a) Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the ODP of
refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting substances. Refrigerants
having non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out (e.g. R 11, R 12) or will be phased-
out in near-future(e.g. R22). Since ODP depends mainly on the presence of chlorine or bromine
in the molecules, refrigerants having either chlorine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot
be used under the new regulations
b) Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value as possible
to minimize the problem of global warming. Refrigerants with zero ODP but a high value of
GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in future.
c) Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The factor TEWI considers both direct (due to
release into atmosphere) and indirect (through energy consumption) contributions of
refrigerants to global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with as a low a value of TEWI are
preferable from global warming point of view.
d) Toxicity: Ideally, refrigerants used in a refrigeration system should be nontoxic. However,

all fluids other than air can be called as toxic as they will cause suffocation when their
concentration is large enough. Thus toxicity is a relative term, which becomes meaningful only
when the degree of concentration and time of exposure required to produce harmful effects are
33
specified. Some fluids are toxic even in small concentrations. Some fluids are mildly toxic, i.e.,
they are dangerous only when the concentration is large and duration of exposure is long. Some
refrigerants such as CFCs and HCFCs are non-toxic when mixed with air in normal condition.
However, when they come in contact with an open flame or an electrical heating element, they
decompose forming highly toxic elements (e.g. phosgene-COCl2). In general the degree of
hazard depends on:
- Amount of refrigerant used vs total space
- Type of occupancy
- Presence of open flames
- Odor of refrigerant, and
- Maintenance condition
Thus from toxicity point-of-view, the usefulness of a particular refrigerant depends on the
specific application.
e) Flammability: The refrigerants should preferably be non-flammable and nonexplosive. For

flammable refrigerants special precautions should be taken to avoid accidents.
Based on the above criteria, ASHRAE has divided refrigerants into six safety groups
(A1 to A3 and B1 to B3). Refrigerants belonging to Group A1 (e.g. R11, R12, R22, R134a,
R744, R718) are least hazardous, while refrigerants belonging to Group B3 (e.g. R1140) are
most hazardous.
Other important properties are:
f) Chemical stability: The refrigerants should be chemically stable as long as they are inside
the refrigeration system.
g) Compatibility with common materials of construction (both metals and nonmetals)
h) Miscibility with lubricating oils: Oil separators have to be used if the refrigerant is not
miscible with lubricating oil (e.g. ammonia). Refrigerants that are completely miscible with
oils are easier to handle (e.g. R12). However, for refrigerants with limited solubility (e.g. R 22)
special precautions should be taken while designing the system to ensure oil return to the
compressor
i) Dielectric strength: This is an important property for systems using hermetic compressors.
For these systems the refrigerants should have as high a dielectric strength as possible
j) Ease of leak detection: In the event of leakage of refrigerant from the system, it should be
easy to detect the leaks.
Economic properties:
The refrigerant used should preferably be inexpensive and easily available.
34
Designation of refrigerants:
The figure 2-1 page shows the classification of fluids used as refrigerants in vapour
compression refrigeration systems. Since a large number of refrigerants have been developed
over the years for a wide variety of applications, a numbering system has been adopted to
designate various refrigerants. From the number one can get some useful information about the
type of refrigerant, its chemical composition, molecular weight etc. All the refrigerants are
designated by R followed by a unique number.
i) Fully saturated, halogenated compounds: These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes

(CnH2n+2) such as methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6). These refrigerants are designated by R
XYZ, where:
X+1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms
Y-1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and
Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
The balance indicates the number of Chlorine atoms. Only 2 digits indicates that the value of
X is zero.
Ex: R 22
X = 0 ⇒ No. of Carbon atoms = 0+1 = 1 ⇒ derivative of methane (CH4)
Y = 2 ⇒ No. of Hydrogen atoms = 2-1 = 1
Z = 2 ⇒ No. of Fluorine atoms = 2
The balance = 4 – no. of (H+F) atoms = 4-1-2 = 1 ⇒ No. of Chlorine atoms = 1
∴The chemical formula of R 22 = CHClF2
Similarly it can be shown that the chemical formula of:
R12 = CCl2F2
R134a = C2H2F4 (derivative of ethane)
(letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules having same chemical composition but different
atomic arrangement, e.g. R134 and R134a)
ii) Inorganic refrigerants: These are designated by number 7 followed by the molecular weight
of the refrigerant (rounded-off).
Ex.: Ammonia: Molecular weight is 17, ∴ the designation is R 717
Carbon dioxide: Molecular weight is 44, ∴ the designation is R 744
Water: Molecular weight is 18, ∴ the designation is R 718
35
Figure 2-1
iii) Mixtures: Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where as zeotropic refrigerants
(e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are designated by 400 series.
Azeotropic mixtures:
R 500: Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R 152a (26.2%)
R 502: Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%)
R503: Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%)
R507A: Mixture of R 125 (50%) and R 143a (50%)
Zeotropic mixtures:
R404A : Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and R 134a (4%)
R407A : Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a (40%)
R407B : Mixture of R 32 (10%), R 125 (70%) and R 134a (20%)
R410A : Mixture of R 32 (50%) and R 125 (50%)
iv) Hydrocarbons:
Propane (C3H8) : R 290
n-butane (C4H10) : R 600
iso-butane (C4H10) : R 600a
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons:
R1150 (C2H4)
R1270 (C3H6)
36
Comparison between different refrigerants:
Synthetic refrigerants that were commonly used for refrigeration, cold storage and air
conditioning applications are: R 11 (CFC 11), R 12 (CFC 12), R 22 (HCFC 22), R 502 (CFC
12+HCFC 22) etc. However, these refrigerants have to be phased out due to their Ozone
Depletion Potential (ODP). The synthetic replacements for the older refrigerants are: R-134a
(HFC-134a) and blends of HFCs. Generally, synthetic refrigerants are non-toxic and non-
flammable. However, compared to the natural refrigerants the synthetic refrigerants offer lower
performance and they also have higher Global Warming Potential (GWP). As a result, the
synthetic refrigerants face an uncertain future. The most commonly used natural refrigerant is
ammonia. This is also one of the oldest known refrigerants. Ammonia has good
thermodynamic, thermophysical and environmental properties. However, it is toxic and is not
compatible with some of the common materials of construction such as copper, which
somewhat restricts its application. Other natural refrigerants that are being suggested are
hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon di-oxide (R-744). Though these refrigerants have some
specific problems owing to their eco-friendliness, they are being studied widely and are likely
to play a prominent role in future.
Prior to the environmental issues of ozone layer depletion and global warming, the most
widely used refrigerants were: R 11, R 12, R 22, R 502 and ammonia. Of these, R 11 was
primarily used with centrifugal compressors in air conditioning applications. R 12 was used
primarily in small capacity refrigeration and cold storage applications, while the other
refrigerants were used in large systems such as large air conditioning plants or cold storages.
Among the refrigerants used, except ammonia, all the other refrigerants are synthetic
refrigerants and are non-toxic and non-flammable. Though ammonia is toxic, it has been very
widely used due to its excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties. The scenario
changed completely after the discovery of ozone layer depletion in 1974. The depletion of
stratospheric ozone layer was attributed to chlorine and bromine containing chemicals such as
Halons, CFCs, HCFCs etc. Since ozone layer depletion could lead to catastrophe on a global
level, it has been agreed by the global community to phase out the ozone depleting substances
(ODS). As a result except ammonia, all the other refrigerants used in cold storages had to be
phased-out and a search for suitable replacements began in earnest. At the same time, it was
also observed that in addition to ozone layer depletion, most of the conventional synthetic
refrigerants also cause significant global warming. In view of the environmental problems
caused by the synthetic refrigerants, opinions differed on replacements for conventional
refrigerants. The alternate refrigerants can be classified into two broad groups:
i) Non-ODS, synthetic refrigerants based on Hydro-Fluoro-Carbons (HFCs) and their blends
ii) Natural refrigerants including ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and their blends
It should be noted that the use of natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons is not a new phenomena, but is a revival of the once-used-anddiscarded
technologies in a much better form. Since the natural refrigerants are essentially making a
comeback, one advantage of using them is that they are familiar in terms of their strengths and
37
weaknesses. Another important advantage is that they are completely environment friendly,
unlike the HFC based refrigerants, which do have considerable global warming potential. The
alternate synthetic refrigerants are normally non-toxic and non-flammable. It is also possible
to use blends of various HFCs to obtain new refrigerant mixtures with required properties to
suit specific applications. However, most of these blends are non-azeotropic in nature, as a
result there could be significant temperature glides during evaporation and condensation, and
it is also important take precautions to prevent leakage, as this will change the composition of
the mixture. Table 2.1 shows a list of refrigerants being replaced and their replacements.
Table 2-1
38
PROGRESS CHECK
Questions and answers:
1. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
a) A primary refrigerant does not undergo phase change in a refrigeration cycle
b) A secondary refrigerant does not undergo phase change in a refrigeration cycle
c) The freezing point of a brine is generally lower than the freezing point of its constituents
d) The freezing point of a brine is generally higher than the freezing point of its constituents
a) The suction pressure of a refrigerant should be as high as possible
b) The suction pressure of a refrigerant should be as low as possible
c) The discharge pressure of a refrigerant should be as high as possible
d) The discharge pressure of a refrigerant should be as low as possible
a) At a given temperature, as the latent heat of vaporization increases, the saturation pressure
decreases
b) For given evaporator and condenser temperatures, as the latent heat of vaporization
increases, the pressure ratio decreases
c) As the latent heat of vaporization increases, the required mass flow rate of refrigerant,
becomes smaller for a given capacity
d) For a given pressure ratio, as the isentropic index of compression increases, the
compressor discharge temperature increases
a) A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields high COP and high volumetric
capacity
b) A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields low COP and high volumetric
capacity
c) A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields low COP and low volumetric capacity
d) A refrigerant having high critical temperature yields high COP and low volumetric
capacity
39
a) Low molecular weight refrigerants have high latent heat of vaporization
b) Low molecular weight refrigerants have low latent heat of vaporization
c) For saturated state at the inlet to the compressor, a refrigerant having high vapour specific
heat may give rise to wet compression
d) For saturated state at the inlet to the compressor, a refrigerant having low vapour specific
heat may give rise to wet compression
6. The chemical formula of refrigerant R11 is:
a) CCl3F
b) CClF3
c) CClHF
d)CHF
7. The chemical formula of R141 is:
a) C2H3ClF3
b) C2H2Cl3F
c) C2H3Cl2F
d) C2H2ClF3
8. Which of the following statements is TRUE?
a) Evaporation process is non-isothermal for zeotropic mixtures
b) Evaporation process is non-isothermal for azeotropic mixtures
c) Composition of azeotropic mixture changes in the event of a leak
d) Composition of zeotropic mixture changes in the event of a leak
9. Which of the following refrigerants are phased-out due to Montreal protocol on ozone
layer depletion
a) R11
b) R21
c) R12
d) R32
40
10. Which of the following refrigerants replace R12 in domestic refrigerators?
a) R22
b) R11
c) R134a
d) R141b
11. Which of the following refrigerants are suggested as replacements for R22 in large air
conditioning and cold storage systems?
a) R134a
b) R21
c) R410A
d) R407C
REFERENCES
Store, Inc., 1995



ITT Kharagpur, 40 Lessons on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, India,

2008
41
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __3__

TOPIC
Carnot Refrigeration System
1. Understand the concept of Carnot Refrigeration System

2. Solve problems related to Carnot Refrigeration System.
Heat Engine and Refrigerating Machine
A system operating in a cycle and producing a net quantity of work from a supply of
heat is called a heat engine and is represented as shown in Fig. 3-1.
Fig. 3-1. Representation of heat engine
W = QA - QR
W QA − QR
e=Q -
A QA
where QA = the heat supplied
QR = the heat rejected
W = the net work
e = the thermal efficiency
42
A refrigerating machine will either cool or maintain a body at a temperature below that
of its surroundings. A refrigerating machine may be represented by the diagram shown in Fig.
3-2. The machine R absorbs the heat QA from the cold body at temperature T1 and rejects heat
QR to the surroundings at temperature T2 and, during the process, requires work W to be done
on the system.
Fig 3-2. Representation of a refrigerating machine.
W = QR - QA
QA QA
COP = -Q
W A − QR
where Q = the heat absorbed from the cold body or refrigeration

produced Q = the heat rejected to the surroundings
W = the work done or mechanical energy consumed
COP = the coefficient of performance
The performance of a heat engine is expressed by its thermal efficiency. The performance of a
refrigerating machine is expressed by the ratio of useful result to work, called energy ratio or
coefficient of performance (COP).
43
The Carnot Cycle
Fig. 3-3. Carnot Cycle
The Carnot power cycle consists of the following reversible processes:
process a-b: isothermal expansion, Ta = Tb = T1
process b-c: isentropic expansion, Sb = Sc
process c-d: isothermal compression, Tc = Td = T2
process d-a: isentropic compression, Sd = Sa
QA = T1 (Sb - Sa)
QR = T2 (Sd – Sc) = -T2 (Sc – Sd)
= - T2 (Sb - Sa)
W = QA - QR
= T1 (Sb - Sa) - T2 (Sb - Sa)
= (T1 - T2) (Sb - Sa)
W (T1 − T2 ) (Sb − Sa )
e= ==
Q T1 (Sb − Sa )
T1 − T 2
e=
T1
44
where QA = the heat added by the hot body
QR = the heat rejected to the cold body
W = the work done
e = the thermal efficiency
T1 = the temperature of the source of heat
T2 = the temperature of the sink or receiver of heat
The Reversed Carnot Cycle
Fig. 3-4. The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The reversed Carnot cycle follows the same processes as in the power producing Carnot
cycle, but the cycle operates in the counterclockwise or reverse direction. The reversed Carnot
cycle consists of the following processes.
process a-b: isentropic compression, Sa = Sb
process b-c: isothermal heat rejection, Tb = Tc = T2
process c-d: isentropic expansion, Sc = Sd
process d-a: isothermal heat absorption, Td = Ta = T1
QA = T1 (Sa – Sd)
QR = T2 (Sc – Sb) = -T2 (Sb – Sc)
= - T2 (Sa – Sd)
45
W = QR – QA
= T2 (Sa – Sd) – T1 (Sa – Sd)
= (T2 – T1) ((Sa – Sd)
QA T1 (Sa − Sd )
COP = = (T
W 2 − T1 ) (Sa − Sd)
T1
COP = (T
2 − T1 )
where QA = the heat added by the cold body
QR = the heat rejected to the hot body
W = the work done
COP = the coefficient of performance
T1 = the temperature of the source of heat
T2 = the temperature of the sink or receiver of heat
(Example Problem 3-1) A refrigerating system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle.
The higher temperature of the refrigerant in the system is 120°F and the lower is 10⁰F. The
capacity is 20 tons. Neglect losses. Determine:
(a) Coefficient of performance.
(b) Heat rejected from the system in Btu/min.
(c) Net work in Btu/min.
(d) Horsepower
SOLUTION
46
T1 470
(a) COP = (T = 580−470 = 4.273
2 − T1 )
(b) QA = (20) (200) = 4000 Btu/min

Q 4000
ΔS = T = 470 = 8.511Btu/min (⁰R)
1
QR = T2 (ΔS) = (580) (8.511) = 4936 Btu/min
(c) W = (T2 – T1) (ΔS) = (580 – 470) (8.511) = 936 Btu/min

936
(d) W =42.4 = 22.08 hp
(Example Problem 3-2) A refrigeration system operates on the reversed Carnot cycle.
The minimum and maximum temperatures are minus 25°C and plus 72°C. respectively. If the
heat rejected at the condenser is 6000 k.J/min, draw the TS diagram and find,
(a) power input required and
(b) tons of refrigeration developed.
(Board Problem – April 13, 1981)
SOLUTION
QR 6000
(a) ΔS = = = 17.39 kJ/min (K)
T2 345
W = (T2 – T1) (ΔS) = (345 – 248) (17.39) = 1686.8 kJ/min

(b) QA = (T1) (ΔS) = (248) (17.39) = 4313 kJ/min
4313
QA = = 20.44 TR
211
47
(Example Problem 3-3) The power requirement of a Carnot refrigerator in maintaining

a low temperature region at 238.9 K is 1.1 kW per ton. Find (a) COP, (b) T2 and (c) the heat
rejected.
SOLUTION
(a) QA = 1 TR or 3.52 kW
W = 1.1 kW
QA 3.52 kW
COP = = = 3.2
W 1.1 kW
T1
(b) COP = (T
2 − T1 )
238.9
32 = (T
2 − 238.9)
T2 = 313.6 K
W 1.1 kJ/s
(c) ΔS = (T = (313.6 − 238.9)K = 0.01473 kJ/s(K)
2 − T1 )
(d) QA = T2 (ΔS) = (313.6 K) (0.01473 kJ/s(K)) = 4.62 kJ/s or 4.62 kW
PROGRESS CHECK
(1) A reversed Carnot cycle is used for refrigeration and rejects 1,000 kW of heat at
340 K while receiving heat at 250 K. Determine (a) COP, (b) the power required, and (c)
the refrigerating effect. (Answers: a. 2.778, b. 264.7 kW c. 735.3 kW)
(2) A reversed Carnot cycle has a refrigerating COP of 4. What is the ratio
Tmax/Tmin? (b) If the work input is 6 kW, what will be the maximum refrigerating effect,
kJ/min and tons. (Answers: a. 1.25, b. 6.82 TR)
(3) A reversed Carnot engine removes 40,000 kW from a heat sink. The temperature
of the heat sink is 260 K and the temperature of the heat reservoir is 320 K. Determine the
power required of the engine. (Answer: 9230.7 kW)
48
REFERENCES
Trillana, Alexander B., and Rama, Nicanor C. de la, Simplified Design of
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning , Manila, Merriam and Webster Book
Store, Inc., 1995



Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, SI Edition.

Manila; National Book Store, 1989.
49
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __4__
TOPIC
Standard Vapor-Compression Cycle
1. Understand the concept of Standard Vapor-Compression Cycle.

2. Solve problems related to Standard Vapor-Compression Cycle.
Refrigeration is that branch of science which deals with the process of reducing and
maintaining the temperature of a space or material below the temperature of the surroundings.
Refrigerant is the working substance in a refrigeration system.
Fig. 4-1 Vapor compression refrigeration system
The cycle of operation, that is the cooling process, consists of four separate steps as
follows:
1. The vaporizing process. As the low temperature, low pressure refrigerant in the
evaporator absorbs the heat from the material and space that is being refrigerated,
it is transformed from a liquid to a vapor in the process.
2. The compressing process. The compressor draws the vapor from the evaporator,
it then compresses this vapor until its temperature is above that of condensing
medium.
3. The condensing process. When the compressor has raised the temperature of a
vapor to a temperature above that of condensing medium, the heat of the vapor will
flow to the condensing medium and so condense the refrigerant to a high-pressure
50
liquid. This high-pressure liquid then flows to the receiver where it is stored until it
is supplied to the cooling unit through the expansion valve.
4. The pressure reducing process. As to the compressor withdraws the vapor from
the evaporator, the cooling unit must be supplied with more low pressure refrigerant
capable of absorbing heat. This is accomplished by a liquid control valve known as
an expansion valve. This valve reduces the pressure of the high pressure liquid from
the receiver to a low pressure liquid capable of absorbing heat, it maintains a
constant supply of liquid in the evaporator and acts as a dividing point between the
high pressure and low pressure side of the system.
Fig.4-2. Typical vapor compression refrigeration system
Division of the System
A refrigerating system us divided into two parts according to the pressure exerted by
the refrigerant in the parts. The low-pressure part of the system consists of the refrigerant flow
control (expansion valve), the evaporator, and the suction line. The pressure exerted by the
refrigerant in these parts is the low pressure under which refrigerant is vaporizing in the
evaporator. The pressure is known variously as the “low side pressure”, the “evaporator
pressure”, the “suction pressure, or the “back pressure”.
The high-pressure side or "high side" of the system consists of the compressor, the
discharge or "hot gas" line, the condenser, the receiver tank, and the liquid line. The pressure
exerted by the refrigerant in this part of the system is the high pressure under which the
refrigerant is condensing in the condenser. This pressure is called the "condensing pressure,"
the "discharge pressure," or, more often, the "head pressure.
51
The dividing points between the high and low pressure sides of the system are the
refrigerant flow control, where the pressure of the refrigerant is reduced from the condensing
pressure to the vaporizing pressure, and the discharge valves in the compressor through which
the high pressure vapor is exhausted after compression.
Fig. 4-3. Brine system of refrigeration
Refrigeration is distributed through several methods as follows:
1. In direct expansion, the volatile refrigerant is allowed to expand and evaporate

in a pipe or coil placed in the space to be cooled, where the refrigerant absorbs
heat from the material or space to be cooled.
This method of utilizing refrigeration is used in small cold storage

rooms, in freezer rooms and other locations where possible losses due to the
leakage of refrigerant would be low.
2. In the indirect system, some refrigeration medium, such as brine (sodium

chloride or calcium chloride) is cooled down by direct expansion of the
refrigerant, and is then pumped through the material or space to be cooled,
where it absorbs its sensible heat.
Brine systems are used to advantage in large installations, where the

danger due to leakage of the large amount of refrigerant present is important,
and in rooms or series of rooms of fluctuating temperatures
52
Fig. 4-4. The p-h and T-s diagrams of standard vapor of compression cycle
The processes which comprise the standard vapor-compression cycle are:
1-2, reversible and adiabatic compression from saturated vapor to the condenser
pressure
2-3, reversible rejection of heat at constant pressure desuperheating and condensation
3-4, irreversible expansion at constant enthalpy from saturated liquid to the evaporator
pressure
Analysis of the Vapor Compression Cycle
1. Compressor
Figure 4-5
w = work of compression, kJ/kg
h1 = enthalpy entering the compressor, kJ/kg
h2 = enthalpy leaving the compressor, kJ/kg
m = mass flow rate, kg/s
W = theoretical compressor power, kJ/s or kW
v1 = specific volume of vapor, m3/kg or L/kg
V1 = volume flow rate, m/s or L/s
53
2. Condenser
Figure 4-6
qc = heat rejected, kJ/kg
h2 = enthalpy entering the condenser, kJ/kg
h3 = enthalpy leaving the condenser, kJ/kg
Qc = total heat rejected, kJ/s
3. Expansion valve
Figure 4-7
h3 = enthalpy entering the expansion valve, kJ/kg
h4 = enthalpy leaving the expansion valve, kJ/kg
4. Evaporator
Figure 4-8
qe = refrigerating effect, kJ/kg
h4 = enthalpy entering the evaporator, kJ/kg
54
h1 = enthalpy leaving the evaporator, kJ/kg
Qe = refrigerating capacity, kJ/s
5. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

The coefficient of performance is the ratio of the refrigerating effect to the work of
compression.
h1 − h4 h 1 − h3
COP = -
h2 − h 1 h2 − h1
The power per kW of refrigeration is the inverse of the coefficient of performance, and
an efficient refrigeration system has a low value of power per kW of refrigeration but a high
coefficient of performance.
6. Efficiency
⫪
VD = 4 D2LN
VD = displacement rate of compressor
D = diameter of cylinder (bore)
L = length of stroke
N = number of cycles completed per unit time
N = (n) (1) (number of cylinders) for single-acting compressor
N = (n) (2) (number of cylinders) for double- acting compressor
n = compressor speed
A single-acting compressor makes one complete cycle in one revolution.
A double-acting compressor makes two complete cycles in one revolution.
The actual volumetric efficiency n va is defined as volume flow rate entering compressor
displacement rate of compressor.

displacement flow rate entering compressor
nva = displacement rate of compressor
V1
nva = VD
Displacement rate is the volume swept through by the pistons in their suction strokes
per unit time.
55
The clearance volumetric efficiency n vc is given by:

p V V1
nvc = 1+c – c [ 2 ]1/k = 1 – c [ 1] = 1 – c [ – 1]
P1 V2 VD
c = percent clearance
v2 = specifie volume of vapor after isentropic compression to p 2
k = 1.304 for ammonia
Figure 4-9
Fig. 4-3 Clearance and actual volumetric efficiency of a Refrigerant 22 high-speed

compressor.
The adiabatic compression efficiency or simply compression efficiency n c is defined

as:
isentopric work of compression
nc = actual work of compression
The mechanical efficiency nm is given by

indicated work W 1HP
nm = = W 1 = BHP
brake work B
where 1HP = indicated horsepower of the compressor
BHP = brake horsepower of the compressor
(Example Problem 4-1) A simple saturated refrigeration cycle for R-12 system operates
at an evaporating temperature of -5°C and a condensing temperature of 40°C. Determine (a)
the refrigerating effect per kg, (b) the work per kg, (c) the heat rejected at the condenser per
56
kg, (d) the COP. For a refrigerating capacity of 1 kW, determine (e) the total heat rejected at
the condenser, (f) the work, and (g) the volume flow rate.
SOLUTION
h3 = hf at 40°C = 238.5 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at-5°C = 349.3 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at-5°C = 0.06496 m/kg
h2 = h at 961 kPa and s2 equal to s1 = 372 kJ/kg
(a) Refrigerating effect = h1 – h3 = 349.3- 238.5 = 110.8 kJ/kg
(b) Work = h2 – h1 = 372 – 349.3 = 22.7 kJ/kg
(c) Heat rejected = h2 – h3 = 372 - 238.5 = 133.5 kJ/kg

h1 − h3 110.8
(d) COP = = = 4.88
h2 − h1 22.7
For a refrigerating capacity of 1 kW

Qe 1 kJ/s
(e) m = h = 110.8 kJ/kg = 0.00903 kg/s
1 − h3
Qc = (m) (h2 – h3) = (0.00903 kg/s) (372 – 238.5) kJ/kg = 1.206 kJ/s
(f) W = (m) (h2 – h1) = (0.00903 kg/s) (372 – 349.3) kJ/kg = 0.205 kJ/s
(g) V1 = (m) (v1) = (0.00903 kg/s) (0.06496 m3/kg) = 0.0005866 m3/s
(Example Problem 4-2) A refrigeration system using refrigerant 22 is to have a refrigerating

capacity of 60 kW. The evaporating temperature -10°C and the condensing temperature is
42°C. Determine, (a) the volume flow rate of refrigerant at inlet to the compressor, (b) the
57
power required by the compressor, and (c) the fraction of vapor in the mixture at entrance to
the evaporator expressed both on a mass basis and a volume basis.
SOLUTION
h3 = hf at 42⁰C = 252.4 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at-10°C 401.6 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at-10°C 65.34 L/kg
h2 = h at 1610 kPa and sg equal to s1 440 kJ/kg

Qe 60 kJ/s
(a) m = h = (401.6−252.4) kJ/kg = 0.4021 kg/s
1 − h3
V1 = (m) (v1) = (0.4021 kg/s) (65.54 L/kg) = 26.27 L/s

(b) W = (m) (h2 – h1) = (0.4021 kg/s) (440 – 401.6) kJ/kg = 15.44 kW
h4 − hf4 h −h 252.4−188.4
(c) X4 = = h 4 − hf4 = 401.6−188.4 = 0.3002
hfg4 g4 f4
v4 = vf4 + x4vfg4 = vf4 + x4(vg4 - vf4)

= 0.7588+(0.3002) (65.34 -0.7588) = 20.146 L/kg
For 1 kg of refrigerant entering the evaporator, point 4, the volume of vapor is, (0.3002
kg/kg) (65.34 L/kg) = 19.615 L/kg
19.615
Fraction of vapor, volume basis = 20.146 = 0.9736 or 97.36%
(Example Problem 4-3) A refrigeration system is to be used to cool 45,000 kg of water from
29°C to 18°C in 5 hours. The refrigerant is ammonia and the operation conditions are 616 kPa
evaporating pressure and 1737 kPa liquefaction pressure. Determine (a) the coefficient of
performance, (b) the quantity of cooling water in the condenser for an increase in temperature
58
of 7°C, (c) the compressor power, and (d) the volume of flow rate entering the compressor.
The specific heat of water is 4.187 kJ/kg• C.
SOLUTION
h3 =hf at 1737 kPa = 410.4 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at 616 kPa = 1471.6 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at 616 kPa = 205.2 L/kg

h1 − h3 1471.6−410.4
(a) COP = = = 7.15
h2 − h1 1620−1471.6
4.187 kJ/kg.℃)(29−18)℃
(b) Qe = (45,000 kg) = 115.1 kJ/s
(5 h)(3600 s/h)
Qe 115 kJ/s
m=h = (1471.6−410.4) kJ/kg = 0.1085 kg/s
1 − h4
Let mw = mass flow rate of cooling water circulated in the condenser
Heat to water = Heat from refrigerant
(mw) (cw) (Δtw) = (m) (h2- h3)

kg
(0.1085 )(1620−410.4)kJ/kg
s
mw = 4.187kJ = 4.48 kg/s
( 0 )(70C)
kg C
(c) W = (m) (h2 – h1) = (0.1085 kg/s) (1620- 1471.6) kJ/kg = 16.10 kW
(d) V1 = (m) (v1) = (0.1085 kg/s) (205.2 L/kg) = 22.3 L/s
(Example Problem 4-4) An ammonia refrigerating cycle operates at 247 kPa suction
pressure and 1200 kPa condenser pressure. Other data are the following:
refrigerating capacity 28 kW
59
compressor clearance 5%
compression efficiency 80%
mechanical efficiency 75%
actual volumetric efficiency 74%
Determine (a) the clearance volumetric efficiency, (b) the ideal and actual COP, (c)
the mass flow rate of ammonia, and (d) the brake work.
SOLUTION
h3 = hf at 1200 kPa =-346.1 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at 247 kPa = 1445.2 kJ/kg
h2 = h at1200kPa and S2 equal to s1 = 1675 kJ/kg
p 1200
(a) nvc = 1+c – c [P2 ]1/k = 1+0.05 - (0.05) [ 247 ]1/1.304 = 0.882 or 88.2%
1
isentropic work h2 − h1 1675−1445.2

(b) Actual work + = = = 287.3 kJ/kg
nc nc 0.80
h1 − h3 1445.2−346.1
Ideal COP = = = 4.78
h2 − h1 1675−1445.2
1 3 h −h 1445.2−346.1
Actual COP = actual = = 3.83
work 287.3
Qe 28 kJ/s
(c) m = h = (1445.2−346.1) kJ/kg = 0.02547 kg/s
1 − h3
(d) Indicated work = (0.02547 kg/s) (287.3 kJ/kg) = 7.318 kW
indicated work 7.318

Brake work = = = 9.76 kW
nm 0.75
60
(Example Problem 4-5) A six-cylinder, 6.70 x 5.70-cm, refrigerant 22 compressor operating

at 30 r/s indicate a refrigerating capacity 96.4 kW and a power requirement of 19.4 kW at an
evaporating temperature of 5°C and a condensing temperature of 35°C. Compute (a) the
clearance volumetric efficiency if the clearance volume is 5 percent, (b) the actual volumetric
efficiency, and (c) the compression efficiency.
SOLUTION
h3 = hf at 35℃ = 243.1 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at 5℃ = 407.1 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at 5℃ = 40.36 L/kg
v2 = v at 1355 kPa and s2 equal to s1 = 20 L/kg
V 40.36
(a) nvc = 1 – c [ V 1 – 1] = 1 - 0.05[ − 1] = 0.9491 or 94.91%
D 20
Qe 96.4 kJ/s
(b) m = = = 0.5878 kg/s
h1 − h3 (407.1−243.1) kJ/kg
V1 = (m) (v1) = (0.5878 kg/s) (40.36 L/kg) = 23.72 L/s
cycles
𝜋 (π)(6.70cm)2(5.70 cm)(30x6 )
2 s
VD = 4 D LN = 1000cm3
= 36.17 L/s
(4)( )
L
V1 23.72
nva = = 36.17 = 0.6558 or 65.58%
VD
19.4kJ/s
(c) Actual work of compression = 0.5878kg/s = 33.00 kJ/kg
61
Isentropic work of compression = h2 – h1 = 428 – 407.1 = 20.9 kJ/kg

20.9
Compression efficiency, n c = 33.00 = 0.6332 or 63.33%
(Example Problem 4-6) A 100 x 200-mm ammonia compressor with a compression

efficiency of 80 per cent operates with a suction pressure of 291.6 kPa and a condenser pressure
of 1204 kPa at 23 r/s. The refrigerant cools 102 kg/min of brine by 8 degrees in the brine cooler.
The specific heat of the brine is 3.14 kJ/kg℃. Electric input to the motor driving the compressor
is 14.33 kW. Motor efficiency at this load is 92 per cent. Assuming 5 per cent of the useful
refrigerating effect is lost by brine cooler from the room, determine the mechanical and
volumetric efficiencies of the compressor.
SOLUTION
h3 = hf at 1204 kPa = 346.6 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at 291.6 kPa = 1450.2 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at 291.6 kPa = 417.5 L/s
h2 = h at 1204 kPa and S2 equal to S1 = 1653 kJ/kg
Qe = (1.05) (mb) (cb) (∆tb) = (1.05) (102) (3.14) (8) = 2690kJ/min or 44.83 kW
Qe 44.83 kJ/s
m=h = (1450.2−346.6) kJ/kg = 0.0406 kg/s
1 − h3
W = (m) (h2 – h1) = (0.0406) (1653 - 1450.2) = 8.23 kW
8.23 8.23
Indicated work = = 0.80 = 10.29 kW
nc
Brake work = output of motor = (14.33) (0.92) = 13.18 kW
62
10.29
Mechanical efficiency = = 0.781 or 78.1%
13.18
V1 = (m) (v1) = (0.0406) (417.5) = 16.96 L/s
cycles
𝜋 (π)(10cm)2 (20 cm)(23 )
2 s
VD = 4 D LN = 1000cm3
= 21.68 L/s
(4)( )
L
V1 16.95
nva = = 21.68 = 0.7818 or 78.18%
VD
(Example Problem 4-7) A four-cylinder refrigerant 12 compressor operates between

evaporator and condenser temperatures of 4°C and 43°C. It is to carry a load of 20 tons of
refrigeration at 1200 rpm. If the average piston speed is 213 m/min and the actual volumetric
efficiency is 80 percent, what should be the bore and stroke of the compressor.
h3 = hf at 43°C = 241.6 kJ/kg
h1 = hg at 4°C = 353.18 kJ/kg
v1 = vg at 4°C =0.04895 m3/kg
h2 = h at 1034 kPa and S2 equal to S1 = 372 kJ/kg
211kJ
Qe (20 tons)( )
min(ton)
m=h = (353.18−241.6) kJ/kg = 37.82 kg/min
1 − h3
V1 = (m) (v1) = (37.82 kg/min) (0.04895 m3/kg= 1.851 m3/min
V1 1.851
VD = = = 2.314 m3/min or 2.314 x 106 cm3/min
nva 0.80
Piston speed = 2L(rpm)
cm
(213 m/ min)(100 )
m
L= = 8.875 cm
2(1200)rev/min
63
𝜋
VD = 4 D2LN
π cycles
106 = (4 ) (D cm)2 (8.875 cm)(1200 x 4 )
min
D = 8.315 cm
PROGRESS CHECK
(1) An ammonia vapor refrigeration cycle operates at an evaporator temperature of -
16°C and a condensing temperature of 32°C. Determine the coefficient of performance (a) for
an ideal saturation cycle, (b) for wet compression with saturated vapor leaving the compressor,
and (c) if the vapor at suction to the compressor is superheated 6 degrees. (Answers: a. 4.5, b.
4.70, c. 4.28)
2) A standard vapor compression system produces 20 tons of refrigeration using R-12

as a refrigerant while operating between a condenser temperature of 41.6°C and an evaporator
temperature of -25°C. Determine (a) the refrigerating effect in kJ/kg, (b) the circulating rate in
kg/s, (c) the power supplied, (d) the COP, (e) the heat rejected in kW, and (f) the volume flow
rate in L/s. (Answers: a. 100.26 kJ/kg, b. 0.7022 kg/s, c. 25.69 kW, d. 2.74, e. 96.09 kW, f.
92.18 L/s)
(3) An industrial plant has available a 4-cylinder, 76-mm bore by 102-mm stroke, 800
rpm, single-acting compressor for use with Refrigerant 12. Proposed operating conditions for
the compressor are 38°C condensing temperature and 5°C evaporating temperature. It is
estimated that the refrigerant will enter the expansion valve as a saturated liquid, that the vapor
will leave the evaporator at a temperature of 7°C, and will enter the compressor at a temperature
of 13°C. Assume a compressor volumetric efficiency of 70 per cent. Assume frictionless flow.
Calculate the refrigerating capacity in kW for a system equipped with this compressor.
(Answer: 40.96 kW)
64
65
66
67
REFERENCES
Store, Inc., 1995



LIST OF REFERENCES
Textbooks
Store, Inc., 1995



Capote, Mandawe, 1001 Solved Problems in Power and Industrial Plant

Engineering, vol. (Industrial Plant Engineering), 2001
ITT Kharagpur, 40 Lessons on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, India,

2008
68
ABOUT THE COMPILER
The compiler is a full-time faculty member of the College of Engineering Mechanical

Engineering Department of Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas. He has been
teaching mechanical engineering subjects for more than 2 years. He is a registered
mechanical engineer and a 2007 graduate of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engieering
from Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas Talisay City, Negros Occidental.
He worked at Central Azucarera De La Carlota from 2008 to 2010 as a technical staff and
Cadet Engineer under the Mills department. He had been a technical auditor under the
Internal Audit Group of Roxas Holdings Inc. from April to September 2010.
He taught at Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas as a part-time faculty under
the Mechanical Engineering Technology (now Manufacturing Engineering Technology) from
2010 to 2013. He had been a foreign teacher in Vietnam and Cambodia from 2013 to 2018.
At present, he is continuing his Graduate Studies in Masters of Technology at the

Technological University of the Philippines Manila.

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

T - Transparent and participatory governance

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Students with Special Needs:

The student will be graded according to the following:

Average of examinations – 50%

Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessments x 0.50)]

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __1__

Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena of energy

Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness therefore a measure of

Table 1-1. The six temperature scales

Celsius or Centrigrade Kelvin Reamur

Absolute Temperature – is the temperature measured from absolute zero.

Absolute zero – is the temperature at which the molecules stop moving.

Relation between temperature scales

Where: R = Rankine (absolute temperature scale; English)

K = Kelvin (absolute temperature scale; SI)

The Temperature Interval/Change

Absolute and Gage Pressure

Absolute pressure – is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.

Atmospheric pressure – is the pressure obtained from barometric reading.

𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 + 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚

Where Pabs = absolute pressure

Pgage = gage pressure

Patm = atmospheric pressure

Patm = 101.325 kPa

= 1.013 x 106 dyne/cm2

Thermodynamics Systems and Surroundings:

Non-flow work – is the work in a non-flow process

Steady flow work – is the work in a steady flow process.

Law of Conservation of Mass

Steady Flow System (Δm = 0)

Where A = cross-sectional area

Heat and Entropy

Where Qs = sensible heat

Example: Cwater = 1.0 Cal/gm.C° = 1.0 Btu/lb.F°

Latent Heat of Fusion – solid to liquid.

Latent Heat of Vaporization – liquid to gas.

Example: melting of ice at 0°C

Where QL = heat needed

L = latent heat (fusion/vaporization)

(+) = heat entering; substance melts

(-) = heat leaving; substance freezes

Latent heat of fusion of ice (Lf)

Lf = 144 BTU/lb = 334 KJ/kg = 80 Cal/gm

Latent heat of vaporization (Lv)

Lv = 970 BTU/lb = 2257 KJ/kg = 540 Cal/gm

Entropy – is the measure of the randomness of the molecules of a substance.

Enthalpy and Internal Energy:

Enthalpy – is the heat energy transferred to a substance at a constant pressure process.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Sum Energy Entering = Sum of Energy Leaving

PE1 + KE1 + H1 + Q = PE2 + KE2 + H2 + W

Where: PE = potential energy

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

Clausius Statement Applied to Heat Pump

It is impossible to construct a heat pump that operates without an input work.

Kelvin-Plank Statement Applied to Heat Engine

Third Law of Thermodynamics

Week No.: 1