WSTP 10-13

0
TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
WSTP 112: METROLOGY

AND BENCHWORK
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
. Engr. Judson Ray A. Quitco

Engr. Dennis G. Quivis
Engr. Raymond L. Sia
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NOR FOR REPRODUCTION.
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials;
effect technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-
medium scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

higher and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension
projects; continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel
competence and effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory
requirements; and adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the
mandates of the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………... 1
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………. 2
Course Description…………………………………………………………. 3
Learning Outcomes……………………………………………………….... 3
General Guidelines/Class Rules……………………………………………. 3
Grading System…………………………………………………………….. 3
Benchwork Lay-out (Activity No. 8) .………………………………........... 5
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES………………………………… 5
II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………….. 5
III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS………………………... 7
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….………… 11
V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES…………………….…….……….. 14
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS…………………….. 16
Hacksawing (Activity No. 9) …………………………….............................18
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………….…... 18
II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES……………………………………... 18
III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS………………………… 22
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….……….… 22
V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES…………………….………….…… 24
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS………………….…. 25
Filing (Activity No. 10) ………………………….……….…...................... 27
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES……………………….……… 27
II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………….…….….. 27
III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS……………….……….... 33
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………..……………. 33
V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES………………………..……………. 35
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS………….…………... 36
Drilling (Activity No. 11)....………………….……........................................ 38
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………….……. 38
II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES……………………….……....……… 38
III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS………….……….……… 51
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS………………….…….....…….. 52
V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES……………………….……….……. 63
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS………………..….….. 64
Threading (Activity No. 12)...………………….……..................................... 66
V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES……………………….……….….…. 76
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS………………..……... 77
Grinding (Activity No. 13) ..………………….……....................................... 79
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V. TEST REVIEW EXERCISES……………………….……….……. 99
VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS………………..…….. 100
List of References………………………………………………………………… 102

About the Author/s…………………………………………………………….…. 103
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This subject is divided into two parts. The first part involves metrology which covers linear
and angle measuring instruments. The second part involves Benchwork which covers theory
and practice in the use of hand tools and some power driven tools.
COURSE OUTCOMES
To understand the basic measurement concept and how measuring tools applied to an
industry.
Hands-on practice gives high familiarity and creativity of a basic concept.
To demonstrate the value of high quality or correctness of the work.
GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Make-up exams and quizzes will only be given with prior approval of the Dean of
College and under any exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the
exam, the university policy will be followed.
2. Cell phones or any e-gadgets must be turned off or put in a silent mode during class
hours.
Students with Special Needs:
Students with special medical needs should inform the instructor/professor ahead to as
how they could be best assisted.
GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:
Average of examinations - 30%

Average of weekly assessment - 70%
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Midterm Grade :
(Average of Weekly Assessments from Week 1 to 6) X 0.70 + (MTE x .0.30)
End term Grade :
(Average of Weekly Assessments from Week 8 to 13) X 0.70 + (ETE x .0.30)
Final Grade :
(Midterm Grade + End term Grade) / 2
The passing grade for this course is 5.0.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __8__
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO BENCHWORK AND LAYOUT
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES
Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:
1. define the meaning of the word “bench work;

2. enumerate the different tools in bench work; and
3. Explain the procedures in laying out using different tools.
II. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION
Introduction
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions
when components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or
repair component which must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This
involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc,
involves certain amount of bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the
experience and skill of the fitter.
The term ‘bench work’ refers to the production of components by hand on the bench, as
shown in figure 1.1, whereas fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through
removal of metal, to obtain the required fit. Both the bench work and fitting requires the use
of number of simple hand tools and considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above
works consist of filing, chipping, scraping, sawing, drilling, and tapping.
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WHY USE HAND TOOLS?

"Man without Tools is nothing; with tools he is all." - This sentence is defined by
Thomas Carlyle has well elaborated the importance of tooling to a man. The term 'Tooling' as
applied to the engineering discipline refers to any equipment or instruments that give helps in
the production of a product or any related activities. Simply speaking, it ranges from the most
fundamental type of hand tools such as a File to the very complex machine tools such as a
CNC Machining Centre. Thus, one may ask the question - Why we still have to use hand
tools in this modern age of technologies?
Yes, it is reasonable to say that the efficiency of any hand processes is low and the
outcome quality depends highly upon the skill of individuals. Perhaps it is fair to consider the
following points before a definite answer is given to the above question: -
1. Accuracy – Although the CNC machine can give a higher degree of dimensional
accuracy when compared with the inconsistent outcome of hand fitting, the extreme high
degree of flatness required for a surface table or a machine slide way is usually obtained
by hand scraping only.
2. Flexibility – Hand processes are very flexible and can be carried out at any place
where necessary while machining processes are not. In addition, machining usually
require a rigid setting up, while fitting is simple.
3. Quantity – For large batch size, advanced production machines are commonly
employed in order to maintain the accuracy as well as the efficiency. But for "jobbing
type" works, such as the manufacture of a prototype or the repairing of a single
component, it would be uneconomic to use these advanced machine tools. Instead,
"jobbing type" works are usually produced by conventional machining and followed by
hand fitting where necessary.
4. Final Assembly – In the assembly of precise component parts, no matter how accurate
they are being produced, a skilled fitter is often required to give the necessary "finishing
touch" on them to ensure that everything goes together correctly.
LAYING OUT
Laying out is the operation of scribing center locations, straight lines, arcs, circles, or
contour lines on the surface of a piece of metal to show the machinist the finished size and
shape of the part to be manufactured. The information regarding the size and shape of part is
taken from a technical drawing. The care and accuracy of the layout plays an important role
in determining the accuracy of finished parts, since the machinist uses these layout lines as a
guide for machining.
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A. Measuring & Layout Tools and Accessories
1. Surface Plate or Marking Table – Is a plate or a table made of cast iron or of

granite. It must be adjusted absolute horizontally. Its surface must be perfect plane to
ensure accurate scribing. To bring workpieces to the correct position on the marking
table there are some other devices like prism, angle plate, V−Blocks and Parallels. See
Figure 1.2.
Steel Rule – Steel rules are the most common linear measuring tools and are available
in the metric or inch system. Metric rules are graduated in both millimeters and
half−millimeters. Some rules are available with both inch and millimeter graduation.
See Figure 1.3.
2. Scriber – A scriber is a layout tool used for drawing layout lines on a workpiece.
They are made of tool steel with hardened and tempered points. It is important that the
point of the scriber be as sharp as possible to produce clear, thin, layout lines. See
Figure 1.4.
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3. Center Punch – Normal ground to an angle of 90 degree. Before drilling a hole the
center must be punched. To make a line more visible for cutting or oxy−acetylene
cutting it is helpful to punch the line. See Figure 1.5
4. Solid Square or Try−Square – Is used for laying out workpiece in combination

with steel rule and scriber. It is also used to check the angles and the surfaces for
flatness. See Figure 1.6.
5. Divider – The divider is used to transfer length or circles to the workpiece.

Dividers are available with and without fixing devices. See Figure 1.7.
6. Protractor – A simple protractor has a measuring range from 0 to 180 degree. The
measuring error is around 1 degree. See Figure 1.8.
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7. Surface Gauge or Vernier Height Gauge – Is normally used in combination with

a surface plate and an angle plate to mark parallel lines. Using the simple type, the
height can be adjusted with a steel rule. See Figure 1.9.
8. Angle Plate – An angle plate is a precision L−shaped tool usually made of

hardened steel. All its surfaces are ground to an accurate 90−degree angle and are
square and parallel. It is used to support workpieces on a 90−degree angle during the
layout process. See Figure 1.10.
9. V−Blocks or Prism – It is an accurate fabricated layout device to hold cylindrical

workpieces during the layout process. They have one or more accurate 90−degree
V−slots. See Figure 1.11.
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10. Calipers – Calipers are the very simple tools used together with a steel rule for the
measurement or comparison of linear dimensions. An experienced worker can achieve
+/-0.05mm in the measurement. Calipers are classified into two, outside and inside
calipers. See Figure 1.12.
11. Combination set – Combination set is a set of equipment combining the functions
of protractor, engineer’s square, steel rule, Centre finder, level rule, and scriber. See
Figure 1.13.
14. Engineer's square – Engineer's square is made of hardened tool steel. It is used
for checking the straightness and the squareness of a workpiece. It can also be used
for marking perpendicular lines onto a workpiece. See Figure 1.14
15. Surface Plate – Surface plate is made of malleable cast iron or of granite. It has
been machined and scraped to a high degree of flatness. The flat surface is being used
as a datum surface for marking out and for measuring purposes. If it can stand on the
floor, it is called surface table. See Figure 1.15.
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B. Layout Procedure
1) Laying out with Try−Square and Steel Rule
1. Remove all burrs from the workpiece and clean it properly.
2. Start the layout from a square machined (or filed) surface.
3. Use a try−square and a steel rule.
4. Place the point of the sriber on the workpiece against the try−Square edge. Hold the
scriber 15 degree inclined away from the workpiece and in the direction in which it is
to be drawn. See Figure 1.16. for step 3 and 4.
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2) Laying Out Circles and Straight Line with the Divider.
1. Lay out the center of the circle
2. Punch the center of the circle
3. Adjust the divider to the proper radius while using a steel rule or a vernier caliber
4. Place one point of the divider in the center punch hole and give some force to this
leg.
5. Move around the fixed leg and scratch the surface. See figure 1.17(a).
6. Lay out a straight line using the edge of the material as guide. See figure 1.17(b).
3) Laying Out Horizontal Lines with Surface Gauge

1. Set the surface gauge to the desired dimension.
2. Place the edge of the work from which the line is to be scribed on the surface
plate.
3. Hold the surface gauge down on the surface plate.
4. Draw the surface gauge along the work in the direction of arrow to scribe the
line. Push will cause the scriber point to dig into the work which will result in
faulty layout. See Figure 1.18.
5. Reset the surface gauge with the combination square rule for each dimension.
6. Layout all the lines which are parallel to the edge resting on surface plate.
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4) Laying Out With Protractor
1. Place the protractor on the surface to lay out with its fixed-blade edge touching
the edge of the material using it as guide.
2. Locate the desired angle on the graduation on the fixed blade by moving the
indicator of the movable blade to the correct angle.
3. Scribe the line using the edge of the movable-blade. See Figure 1.19.
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5) Center Punch Procedure
1. Mark the material to be punched with an "X" (1).
2. Hold the punch (2) over the mark. Tilt it so that youcan align the tip with the
center of the “X.”
3. Position the punch upright and strike the bluntend (3) of the punch with a
hammer (4).
4. Remove the punch and check your mark (5). If it is not in the center of the
"X," or not deep enough, you will have to repeat the procedure. Refer to Figure
1.20. (Tpub, n.d., para.1)
III. TEST/ REVIEW/ EXERCISES…………………….…….…….…….
A. Enumeration
1. Enumerate the four (4) points to be considered why we still need to use handtools in
this modern age.
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
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2. Enumerate the twelve (12) laying out tools discussed in this topic?
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
3. Give four (4) laying out procedures discussed in this topic.

____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
____________________________
B. Explain Briefly
1. What does it mean when we say bench work?
2. Why we need use handtools?
3. Why we need to develop the skill of laying out?
C. Activity
1. Using an improvised center punch from tools available in you house, please send
photos of step by step demonstration of center punch procedure.
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IV. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS…………………….
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Benchwork tools ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE
familiarization 8
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
DIRECTION: This form should afford the Instructor to rate the Productivity/Performance of
the student/s for a given Employable Skill/Activity/Project. On the space provided for, write
the points which likely coincide with your evaluation for each of the following factors:
OUTSTANDING – (9-10); PLUS SATISFACTORY (7-8); SATISFACTORY (5-6);
BELOW SATISFACTORY (3-4 / NEED TO REPEAT)
SATISFACTORY TASK PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT
Provided with detailed drawing nos., complete tools and materials, the student should be able
to:
1. Benchwork Tools Familiarization
1.1 Identify different types of benchwork tools.
1.2 know and familiarize the uses of benchwork tools.
FACTORS RATING
I. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

Verticality, Horizontality; Workmanship, Finish)
J. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Dimension/specification, High, Medium, Low
Criticality)
K. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
save over estimated)
L. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
Safety and Hygiene, Initiative)
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
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RUBRICS
Weight Criteria 10 - 9 8-7 6-5 4-0
40% Finish No visible error burrs. No major burrs visible Minor burrs Plenty of burrs
Few measurement
Minor measurement No attention to
Measurements are errors.Plans not
errors.Plans followed measurements.Very
20% Tolerance accurate.Plans are followed
but some are done little accuracy in
followed. closely.Many steps
incorrectly. following plans.
done incorrectly.
Strictly observes safety Observes safety at Safety is observed Doesn't care about
25% Safety
at all times some time. only when told. safety.
Time asks for additional

10% Submit ahead of time Submit on time Late submission
Management time extension
Actively engage and Engage and Shows little interest Distracts the group
Working with
5% cooperates in an cooperates in a while conducting in conducting the
others
effective manner. reasonable manner. the experiment experiment
REFERENCES:
Tpub (n.d.). Using a Center Punch. Integrated Publishing, Inc.

http://constructionmanuals.tpub.com/14256/css/Using-a-Center-Punch-180.htm
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Hacksaw and Hacksawing (Activity No. 9) ………………….
I. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………
1. Understand the construction and application of hacksaw in the
workshop.
2. Know the different applications of the different types of hacksaw.
II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………
Introduction
Hacksaws
Hand Hacksaw
A hand hacksaw mainly serves to separate materials and also to produce grooves and slits. By
moving the saw in the direction of cut (cutting motion) with simultaneous pressure on the
saw (cutting pressure), the teeth penetrate into the material and remove chips (sawing).
Parts of a Hacksaw:
Following are the main two parts of a hacksaw:
Figure 9.1
Parts of Hacksaw
1. Hacksaw frame
2. Hacksaw blade
3. Adjustable screw
4. Adjustable wingnut
5. Stud
6. Handle
1. Hacksaw Frame
In shape, it looks like the English letter “C”. On one end of these arms, a handle is fixed and
on the other end, a pin is fixed. A pin each is the fixed handle and sliding screw itself in
which hacksaw blade is fitted. A hacksaw blade is fitted on these pins and then it is tightened
according to need with fly nut or wing nut. Mainly hacksaw frames are of two types.
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Types of Hacksaw Frame
Following are the main two types of hacksaw frame:

1. Fixed Hacksaw Frame
2. Adjustable Hacksaw
1. Fixed Hacksaw Frame

For making this type of hacksaw frame, one-piece flat iron strip or pipe is bent at a
right angle. In these types of hacksaw frame, only hacksaw blades of a specific size can be
fixed, not of the short size or long size.
Two types of handles are used:
1. Straight handle
2. Pistol type handle
Figure 9.2
Straight Hacksaw Frame
Figure 9.3
Piston Type Hacksaw
2. Adjustable Hacksaw
In these types of hacksaw frame, Its structure is a bit different from a fixed
frame. The frame is made in two parts. These parts can be adjusted at different
distances. Therefore in this adjustable hacksaw, big and small hacksaw blades of the
different standard can be used.
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There is adequate provision of pin and grooves to pull, adjust and set them. These
types of handles are used. in this hacksaw:
1. Straight handle
2. Pistol type handle
3. Tubular type handle
4. Flexible Blade
Figure 9.4
Straight Handle Adjustable Frame
Figure 9.5
Piston Type Adjustable Frame
Figure 9.6
Tubular Type Adjustable Frame
These frames are generally made of flat strip or thin pipes and their handle are made of wood
or aluminium.
2. Hacksaw Blade
On the basis of metal of the job, different types of hacksaw blades are used in a hacksaw.
These are made of tungsten steel, high-speed steel and they are hardened and tempered. Their
classification depends on three points:
1. Size of the blade.

2. The number of dents cut on the blade per inch.
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3. Nature of the blade.
Figure 9.7
Hacksaw Blade Parts
Length of hacksaw blade is generally 8″, 10″ or 12″. Dents of four different grades are cut on
them.
Types of Hacksaw Blades
Following are the main types of hacksaw blades:

1. Course Grade Hacksaw Blade
2. Medium Grade Hacksaw Blade
3. Fine Grade Hacksaw Blade
4. Superfine Grade Hacksaw Blade
5. Ail Hard Blade
1. Course Grade Hacksaw Blade

Hacksaw blade of this grade is used for cutting thickness of mild steel, copper, aluminium
and brass etc. It contains 14 to 18 teeth per inch.
2. Medium Grade Hacksaw Blade

Hacksaw blade of this type is used for cutting all kinds of metals such as cast iron, tool steel,
aluminium, brass, high carbon steel etc. From 20 to 24 teeth per inch are cut in this hacksaw
blade.
3. Fine Grade Hacksaw Blade
This type of hacksaw blade is mainly used to cut thin pipes, sheets, tubes etc. It has 24 to 30
dents per inch.
4. Superfine Grade Hacksaw Blade

For cutting extraordinary solid metals and thin metal sheets, thin type of hacksaw blade is
used. There are 30 to 32 dents per inch in this type of hacksaw blade.
In all the hacksaw blades of various grades mentioned above, teeth are cut on one or both the
edges. These blades are hardened in two different processes and on these depend their nature.
5. Ail Hard Blade

Blades of this nature are hardened and tempered only except the ends having holes. These are
used for cutting articles cast iron or mould iron etc.
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6. Flexible Blade
In blades of this nature only the cutting teeth and nearby part it hardened and tempered. But
this process they become elastic and there is less risk of their being broken in the event of a
shock. These blades are used for cutting thin sheets, pipes, curves etc.
III. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS…………………….
1. Tools
1.1 Hand Hacksaw
1.2 Bench Vise
1.3 Steel Rule
2. Materials
2.1 Sample work piece
3. Equipment
3.1 Working table
IMPORTANT
1. Keep working area and tools clean.

2. Always check tools before and after using.
3. Place tools in a safe place when not in use.
IV. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….…….
Setting of Teeth
Teeth of hacksaw blade are also bent to left or right side as in the case of ordinary saw
used for cutting wood. Bending of teeth is known as the setting of teeth. With this setting of
teeth the hacksaw blade cuts a slot in the metal of slightly more thickness than that of the
blade.
Therefore, because of this slot, the blade does not get stuck while operating it. If the setting is
not done, there is a great risk that the blade would get stuck in the metal and get broken. The
setting of teeth in a blade is done in three ways.
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1. Regular or Single Setting

In this type of setting, one tooth is bent to the left and the next tooth to the right and every
fifth tooth is kept straight. This tooth helps in cleaning the metal particles from the slot. This
type of setting has been shown in fig.
2. Double Alternate Setting

In this type of setting, two teeth are turned to the right and two to the left and one dent
between them is left straight, which performs the function of clearing the metal particles from
the slot.
3. Zig-Zag or Wave Setting

In this type of setting a few teeth are bent to the right and a few to the left. Thus it looks like a
wave. This type of setting is done on blades of fine grade and superfine grades. It has been
shown in fig.
Methods of Using Hacksaw

For the efficient cutting the following points should be borne in mind:
1. Selection of hacksaw blade should be done according to the metal for which it is to be
used.
2. While fixing the blade on the frame it should be ensured that its teeth should cut the metal
when they are driven forward.
3. The job should be held in the vice in such a way that its cutting lines are clearly visible.
4. Before starting a cut with a hacksaw blade, the blade should be kept on the marking line,
the left-hand thumb should be placed with its support as shown in fig. It would ensure that
the blade would move only on the line there would be no risk of its slip.
5. After marking with the support of thumb we should hold the handle with right-hand palm
and fingers and with the left-hand palm and fingers, we should hold the other end of the
hacksaw frame as shown in fig.
6. You should stand on the left hand of the vice and keep your right foot backwards and the
left foot a little ahead of the right.
7. Contact between the blade and the job should be in such a way that at least two teeth
should remain in contact with the surface of the job.
8. The speed of operating hacksaw should be 40 to 50 strokes per minute.
9. Pressure should be exerted on the forward stroke and it should be withdrawn on backward
stroke.
10. Before finishing cutting with a hacksaw the cutting speed should be slowed down.
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Precautions of Using Hacksaw

Following are the precautions of using hacksaw:
1. Hacksaw blade should be fitted on the frame very carefully. It should not be very tight nor
very loose.
2. The job which is to be cut should not be held in a vice much high otherwise there would
be vibrations in it.
3. While cutting thin metal sheet, packing of wood, plastic or any other appropriate material
should be used in its front and back.
4. Hacksaw blade should not be allowed to become slanting while using a hacksaw. If it
becomes slating, there are chances that it may break.
5. If the blade starts cutting in a slanting manner we should start a fresh cut. Operating a
hacksaw in an old cut may break it.
6. If a blade gets broken while working, then we should replace it with a blade which has
been used almost for the same period rather than using a brand new blade. The new blade
can break if it is operated in that old slot.
7. If necessary, water should be used as a coolant.
8. After using a hacksaw either its blade should be taken out or it must be made loose.
V. TEST/ REVIEW/ EXERCISES…………………….…….…….…….

A. What are the different parts of a hacksaw and discuss briefly each part. Draw
each part.
B. Discuss the different hacksaw blade types.
C. Discuss briefly on how to use a hacksaw.
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VI. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS…………………….
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Hacksawing
9
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
to:
1. Hacksaw and Hacksawing
1.1 Familiarize the different parts of a hacksaw.
1.2 Know how to use a hacksaw.
1.3 Use the correct hacksaw blade types.
FACTORS RATING
A. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

B. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Criticality)
C. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
D. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
26
RUBRICS
Few measurement
done incorrectly.
25% Safety

Working with
others
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File and Filing (Activity No. 10) ………………….
1. Understand the construction and application of different types of file in
the workshop.
2. Know the different applications of the different types of file.
File
Introduction
A file is used to cut, trim or finish a job of metal or wood, in order to give them a shape
according to our needs such as making the job round, square or angular. File is made from
high carbon steel.
The file is a hard steel instrument with numerous cutting points. Metal is cut in small or tiny
particles with the help of a file. Therefore, mostly a file is used for giving final finishing
touches to a job of metal or wood.
After chipping a job of metal generally becomes rough and a file is used to make it smooth.
In case of a machine, the part is larger in size than the required size, a file is used to make it
suitable.
In addition, a file is used to where other cutting tools cannot be used. Files are also used for
sharpening the edge of some other cutting tools.
Parts of a File
It has the following main parts of a file:
Figure 10.1
Parts of a File
1. Handle
2. Tang
3. Heel
4. Face
5. Edge
6. Tip or Point
28
A wooden handle is fitted on its tang. Teeth are cut on its face and edge so that it can perform
the job of cutting. The part having no teeth is called as heel. Thick side of file is called edge
and its lower end is known as tip or point.
Types of File Tools
While making a selection of file for a specific job, some important points should be
considered. In other words, we can say that files can be classified into the following
categories:
1. On the basis of length

2. On the basis of shape
1. Flat file
2. Round file
3. Half-round file
4. Triangular file
5. Square file
6. Hand file
7. Knife file
3. In the basis of grades
1. Rough File
2. Bastard File
3. Second cut File
4. Smooth File
5. Dead Smooth File
4. On the basis of cut
1. Single Cut File
2. Double Cut File
3. Curved Cut File
4. Spiral Cut File
5. Rasp Cut File
1. Classification According to Length

A file is measured according to its length. This length includes whole file except its tang
portion i.e. length from heel to tip is the measurement of the file. In fitter trade, file of 100
mm to 450 mm length are used.
2. Classification According to Shape

Following are the different types of file tools according to its shape:
1. Flat File
Figure 10.2
Flat File
29
This file is of rectangular cross-section in shape. It is made slightly tapered both in width and
thickness. Double cut teeth are cut on the face and simple-cut teeth are cut on the edge. These
are used to reduce flat surface by filing of finishing.
2. Round File
File 10.3
Round File
This type of file has a round section. It is used for rubbing or finishing keyhole of small
diameter.
3. Half-round File
Figure 10.4
Half-round file
It is a file which is on the side and curved on the other side. Double cut dents are cut on it and
like a round file, it is also tapered. With this file, the damaged hole can be set in order again.
4. Triangular File
Figure 10.5
Triangular file
It is triangular in shape. Its angles are of 60°. Filing of “V” slots job, square and rectangular
jobs of above 60° and below 90° angle are done with this file. It is also known as three square
files.
5. Square File
Figure 10.6
Square file
30
It is square in shape and is somewhat tapered. Filing of rectangular, square groove, slots and
key-way is done with this file.
6. Hand File
Figure 10.7
Square file
This file is almost similar to the flat file. It is used for filing of internal right angle side of a
job. It is also called safe edge file.
7. Knife Edge File

Figure 10.8
Knife-Edge File
Its shape is like the edge of a knife. Its thin edge is about 10° angle. It is used for filing of
small grooves and slots whose angle is less than 60°. It is generally used in lock industry for
making keys.
3. Classification According to Grade
Following are the different types of file tools according to the basis of the number of teeth:
1. Rough File
Figure 10.9
In this type of file, teeth are of big size and less in number. It is used for cutting soft materials
because its cutting is rough. Because of rough cutting, it cannot be used for hard metal.
2. Bastard File
Figure 10.9
31
Teeth of this file are comparatively smaller than those of the rough file. It is used initially to
shed metal (through filing) in large quantity.
3. Second-cut File
Figure 10.10
This is a file of medium grade. In the filler trade, this file is mostly used to bring the job in
the proper size. As compared to the bastard file, filing done with this file makes the surface
plain.
4. Smooth File
Figure 10.11
This file makes the surface quite plain, in addition to making a job of accurate size through
filing.
5. Dead Smooth File

Its teeth are very close to each other and it rubs off the metal in very little quantity. It is used
for bringing shinning on the job after finishing has been done.
4. Classification of Files On The Basis of Cut
32
Following are the different types of file tools according to the cut:
1. Single-cut File
Figure 10.12
This is file has parallel lines of teeth running diagonally across its face in one direction only.
Metal surface is rubbed in little quantity and thus the surface becomes smooth. Therefore it is
used for hard metal and for finishing.
2. Double-cut File
This file has two rows of teeth crossing each other at an angle of 40° to 45° and the
other row has angles of 70° to 80°.
Figure 10.12
Because of double teeth, this file cuts metal quickly but it cannot make the surface very
smooth. That is why it is generally used for normal filing as shown in fig (B).
Figure 10.13
It is also called a coarse type file. In 30° to 35° and the other row is of 80° to 87° angles as
shown in fig (C).
3. Curved-cut File
It is also known as Vixen file. The curved-cut file is used for filing of the wide surfaces of
soft metal like aluminium, zinc, copper and brass. It has circular teeth.
4. Spiral-cut File
Figure 10.14
These types of teeth are cut in round or semi-round files. The shape of their teeth is like that
of threads.
33
5. Rasp-cut File
Figure 10.12
This is a file of special thick teeth. These teeth are of triangle shape and are in bulging state.
It is used for jobs of woods, plastic, fibre, hard rubber and job of horns and hoof of animals.
1. Tools
1.1 File
1.2 Bench Vise
2. Materials
3. Equipment
3.1 Working table
IMPORTANT

7.
Methods of Filing
In order to get the proper surface through filing, the following points need consideration:
34
1. Choose the right type of file, according to the job.

2. There should be handle fitted on the tang of the file. In small files, a small handle should
be fitted and a larger handle in a larger file. Otherwise, proper and power would be
unnecessarily wasted.
3. Hold the handle of the file with the right hand and keep the file end balanced with the left
hand.
4. At the time of filing, the left leg should be kept ahead and the right leg a little behind as
shown in fig.
5. Pressure on the file should be exerted while moving it ahead, not while driving it back.
6. Only your hands should move with the file and not your whole body. As far as possible,
keep rest of your body still.
7. Speed of moving the file should be at the rate of 30 to 35 strokes per minute.
Precautions of Using Files
Following are the precautions of using files:

1. Select the file according to the job.
2. Do not use a file without a handle. According to the size, the complete handle should be
fixed on the file.
3. First, a new file should be used on soft metal and then it can use on solid metal.
4. If substantial material is to be cut then first chipping should be done and then filing.
5. For filing of sheet metal jobs, the job should be fixed in a vice by using wood on both its
sides. It should also be ensured that the sheet should not be higher than vice.
6. While filing a sheet, we should cut it in length.
7. We should make use of chalk in order to save the job from pinning. If there are metal
particles on the file there should be cleaned with a brush.
8. Keep and file away from other tools. They should not be heaped together.
9. The file should not be heated.
10. Do not apply oil or grease on the file.
35
Applications of Files
Following are the applications of files:

1. A file is used for giving final finishing touches to a job of metal or wood.
2. After chipping a job of metal generally becomes rough and a file is used to make it
smooth.
3. In case of a machine, the part is larger in size than the required size, a file is used to make
it suitable.
4. In addition, a file is used to where other cutting tools cannot be used.
5. Files are also used for sharpening the edge of some other cutting tools.

A. What is a file? Draw and identify the different parts of a file.
B. What are the different types of file tools?
C. How file is classified? Discuss it briefly.
36
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Filing
10
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
to:
1. Know and familiarize different parts of a file.
2. Identify different types and classification of a different file tools.
FACTORS RATING
I. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

J. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Criticality)
K. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
L. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
37
RUBRICS
Few measurement
done incorrectly.
25% Safety

Working with
others
38
Drilling (Activity No. 11) ………………….
1. Understand the construction and application of drills in the workshop.
2. Know the different types of drilling machine and its operation.
II.THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………
Introduction
DRILLING
Drilling is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal from the rotating
edge of a cutting tool called the drill.
The drilling is one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Before drilling the centre of
the hole is located on the workpiece by drawing two lines at right angles to each other and
then a centre punch is used to produce an indentation at the centre.
Figure 11.1
The drill point is pressed at this centre point to produce the required hole. Drilling does not
produce an accurate hole in a workpiece and the hole location is not perfect.
The internal surface of the hole so generated by drilling becomes rough and the hole is
always slightly oversize than the drill used due to the vibration of the spindle and the drill. A
12mm drill may produce a hole as much as 0-125mm oversize and a 22mm drill may produce
one as much as 0-5mm oversize.
A. Drill Press
A drill press is a machine used for drilling operations available in a wide variety of types and
sizes to suit different types and sizes of workpieces. The most common machine type found
in a metal shop is the floor−type drill press.
39
Figure 11.2
B. Drill Press Parts

Although drill presses are manufactured in a wide variety of sizes, all drilling machines
contain certain basic parts.
Base:
The base, usually made of cast iron, provides stability for the machine and rigid mounting for
the column. The base is usually provided with holes so that it may be bolted to a table or
bench to keep it rigid. The slots or ribs in the base allow the work−holding device for the
workpiece to be clamped to the base.
Column:
The column is an accurate, vertical, cylindrical post that fits into the base. The table, which is
fitted on the column, may be adjusted to any point between the base and head. The head of
the drill press is mounted near the top of the column.
Table:
The table, either round or rectangular in shape, is used to support the workpiece to be
machined. The table, whose surface is at 90 degree to the column, may be raised, lowered,
and swiveled around the column. On some models it is possible to tilt and lock the table in
either direction for drilling holes on an angle. Slots are provided in most tables to allow jigs,
fixtures, or large workpieces to be clamped directly to the table.
Drilling Head:
The head, mounted close to the top of the column, contains the mechanism to revolve the
cutting tool and advance into the workpiece. The spindle, which is a round shaft that holds
and drives the cutting tool, is housed in the spindle sleeve. The spindle sleeve does not
resolve, but is moved up and down by the hand feed lever that is connected to the pinion on
the rack of the spindle sleeve. The end of the spindle may have a tapered hole to hold taper
shank tools, or it may be threaded or tapered for attaching a drill chuck.
40
The hand feed lever is used to control the vertical movement of the spindle sleeve and the
cutting tool. A depth stop, attached to the spindle sleeve, can be set to control the depth that
a cutting tool enters the workpiece.
Drill Chuck:
Drill chucks are the most common devices used on a drill press for holding straight−shank
cutting tools. Most drill chucks contain three jaws that move all at the time when the outer
collar is turned. The three jaws hold the straight shank of a cutting tool securely and cause it
to run accurately.
Drill Sleeves and Sockets:

The size of the tapered hole in the drill press spindle is generally in proportion to the size of
the machine: The larger the machine, the larger the spindle hole. A drill sleeve is used to
adapt the cutting tool shank to the machine spindle if the taper on the cutting tool is smaller
than the tapered hole in the spindle.
Before a taper shank tool is mounted in a drill press spindle, be sure that the external taper of
the tool shank and the internal taper of the spindle are thoroughly cleaned. Align the tang of
the tool with the slot in the spindle hole and, with a sharp upward snap, force the tool into the
spindle.
C. Remove a taper shank tool:

A drift, a wedge−shaped tool, is used to remove a taper−shank tool from the drill press
spindle. Place a piece of wood under the tool. Insert the drift and sharply strike the end of it
with hammer to remove the tool from the drill press spindle.
D. Twist drill
A twist drill is a cutting−tool used to produce a hole in a piece of metal or other material. The
most common drill manufactured has two cutting edges (lips) and two straight or helical
flutes.
The flutes provide the cutting edges with cutting fluid and allow the chips to escape during
the drilling operation.
Types of Drilling Machine

Following are the 8 different types of drilling machine:
1. Portable drilling machine
2. Sensitive drilling machine
1. Bench mounting sensitive drilling machine
2. Floor column upright drilling machine
3. Upright drilling machine
1. Round column upright drilling machine
2. Box column upright drilling machine
4. Radial drilling machine
1. Plain drilling machine
2. Universal drilling machine
3. Semi-universal drilling machine
5. Gang drilling machine
6. Multiple spindle machine
7. Automatic drilling machine
8. Deep hole drilling machine
1. Vertical deep hole drilling machine
41
2. Horizontal deep hole drilling machine
1. Portable Drilling Machine
Figure 11.3
These types of a drilling machine are commonly used in all the workshops. Used to drill
small sized holes. It is operated by holding in a hand. The workpiece where the hole is to be
drilled is held in a vice.
2. Sensitive Drilling Machine

This types of drilling machine used to drill small holes at high speeds in lighter jobs or
workpieces. The machine may be mounted on the bench or floor & the drilling work is
started with the drill fed into the workpiece by purely hand control.
Figure 11.4
Hand-feed permits the operator to sense the progress of the drill into the workpiece, so that if
there is any drill worn out or jams it may be released immediately to prevent the drill bit from
breaking.
42
Since the operator senses the cutting action at any instant it is called as the sensitive drilling
machine. These machines are capable of drilling small holes of diameter as small as 0.35 mm
to 15 mm. These machines run at a higher speed as high as 2000 rpm.
3. Upright Drilling Machine
Figure 11.5
It is larger in size and stronger than sensitive drilling machine. It is used for drilling medium
and large-sized holes. Based on the type of column used it is classified as a round column and
box column upright drilling machines.
4. Radial Drilling Machine

Figure 11.6
The schematic diagram of the radial drilling machine is shown in the figure. It consists of the
base, column radial arm, drill head, spindle speed and feed mechanism.
5. Gang Drilling Machine
This machine consists of the number of drill heads placed side by side so that more than one
hole of same or different sizes can be drilled at a time on the same job or on different jobs.
43
Figure 11.7
The space between drill spindles is varied to suit the gap between the holes. This type of
machine tool is used to drill a large number of holes in the same job at a faster rate.
The main advantage of this type of machine tool is that the series of operation can be
performed with different spindle mounted with different tool bits on the same workpiece by
moving it from one position to another position.
6. Multi Spindle Drilling Machine
Figure 11.8
44
This machine tool is similar to a gang drilling machine in construction. It is used to drill the
number of hole in the same workpiece simultaneously and to reproduce the same work in a
number of similar jobs.
All the spindle are driven by a single motor and fed continuously. During the feeding table
with the workpiece is raised or lowered and the drill head position is not varied.
7. Automatic Drilling Machine
Figure 11.9
This types of drilling machine can perform a series of machining operations at successive
units and transfer the work from one unit to the other automatically.
Once the work is loaded at the first machine, the work will move from one machine to the
other where different operations can be performed and the finished work comes out from the
last unit without any manual handling.
This type of machine is intended purely for production purposes and may be used for milling,
honing and similar operations in addition to drilling and tapping.
8. Deep Hole Drilling Machine

Figure 11.10
45
This may be the either horizontal or vertical type of machine. In this drilling machine, the
part to be drilled is rotated and the drill bit that makes the hole is kept stationary. Deep hole
drilling is done in components like rifle barrels, crankshafts, long shafts etc.
Drilling Machine Tools
Drill: A drill is a fluted cutting tool used to originated or enlarge a hole in a solid material.
Drills are manufactured in a wide variety of types and sizes.
Following are the different types of tools used in drilling machine:

1. Flat or spade drill tool
2. Straight fluted drill tool
3. Two-lip twist drill tool
1. Parallel shank (short series or ‘’ jobbers’’ twist drill)
2. A Parallel shank (stub series) twist drill
3. Parallel shank (long series) twist drill
4. A Parallel shank twist drill
4. Taper shank core drill (Three or four fluted)
5. Oil tube drill
6. Centre drill
1. Flat or Spade Drill

A flat drill is sometimes used when the same sized twist drill is not available. It is usually
made from a piece of round tool steel which is forged to shape and ground to size, then
hardened and tempered.
Figure 11.11
The cutting angle varies from 90 to 120 and the relief or clearance at the cutting edge is 3to 8.
The disadvantage of this type of drill is that each time the drill id ground the diameter is
reduced. Further, it cannot be relied upon to drill a true straight hole, since the point of the
drill has a tendency to run out of a centre.
Another difficulty of using this type of drill is that the chips do not come out from the hole
automatically, but tends to pack more or less tightly, if deep holes are to be drilled.
2. Straight Fluted Drill

A straight-fluted drill has grooves or flutes running parallel to the drill axis. A straight-fluted
drill may be considered as a cutting tool having zero rakes. This type of drill is inconvenient
in standard practice as the chips do not come out from the hole automatically. It is mainly
used in drilling brass, copper or other softer materials.
46
Figure 11.12
In drilling brass, the twist drill tends to advance faster than the rated feed and the drill digs
into the metal. No such difficulty occurs in the use of a straight fluted drill. When drilling
sheet metal, the straight fluted drill does not tend to lift the sheet as does the twist drill.
3. Twist Drill
This is the most common type of drill used today is the twist drill. It was originally
manufactured by twisting a flat piece of tool steel longitudinally for several revolutions, then
grinding the diameter and the point.
Figure 11.13
The present-day twist drills are made by machining two spiral flutes or grooves that run
lengthwise around the body of the drill.
The twist drill is an end cutting tool. Different types of twist drills are classified by Indian
standard Institution according to the type of the shank, length of the flute and overall length
of the drill.
3.1 Parallel Shank (short series or ‘’jobbers’’ twist drill)
Figure 11.14
The drill has two helical flutes with a parallel shank of approximately the same
diameter as the cutting end. The diameter of the drill ranges from 02 to 16 mm
increasing by 02 to 03 mm in lower series to 025 mm in higher series. Fig 11.14
illustrates the drill.
47
3.2 Parallel Shank (stub series) twist drill
Figure 11.15
The drill is a shortened form of the parallel shank twist drill, the shortening being on
the flute length. The diameter of the drill ranges from 05 to 40 mm increasing by 03
mm in lower series to 025 to 05 mm in higher series. Fig. 11.15 illustrates the drill.
3.3 Parallel Shank (long series) Twist Drill
Figure 11.16
The drill has two helical flutes with a parallel shank of approximately the shank
diameter as the cutting end, which however does not exceed the diameter at the drill
point.
The overall length of the drill is the same as that of a taper shank twist drill of the
corresponding diameter. The diameter varies from 1-5 to 26mm increasing by 0-3mm in
lower series to 0-25mm in higher series.
3.4 Taper Shank Twist Drill

The drills have two helical flutes with a tapered shank for holding and driving the
drill. The shank for these drills conforms to Morse tapers.
The diameter ranges from 3 to 100mm. The diameter increases by 0-3mm in lowest
series having Morse taper shank No. 1, by 0-25mm in lowest series shank number 2
48
and 3, by 0-5mm in Morse taper shank No. 4, and by 1mm in Morse taper shank
number 5 and 6.
The use of Morse taper shank below 6mm size is not preferred. A drill gauge enables
any drill to be readily selected by gauge.
4. Taper Shank Core Drill (three or four fluted)

These drills are intended for enlarging cored, punched or drilled holes. These drills cannot
originate a hole in a solid material because the cutting edges do not extend to the centre of the
drill.
Figure 11.17
The metal is removed by a chamfered edge at the end of each flute. Cored drills produce
better-finished holes than those cut by ordinary two fluted drills.
The cutting action of a core drill is similar to that of a rose reamer and it is often used as a
roughing reamer. In some cases, a two fluted twist drill is chosen to originate a hole half the
required size and the rest is finished by a three or four fluted drills.
5. Oil Tube Drill

The oil tube drills are used for drilling deep holes. Oil tubes run lengthwise spirally through
the body to carry oil directly to the cutting edges.
Cutting fluid or compressed air is forced through the hoes to the cutting point of the drill to
remove the chips, cool the cutting edge and lubricate the machined surface.
6. Centre Drill
Figure 11.18
The centre drills are a straight shank, two fluted twist drills used when centre holes are drilled
on the ends of a shaft. They are made in finer sizes.
49
E. Drill bit materials:

High−speed steels drills are the most commonly used drills, since they can be operated at
good speeds and the cutting edges can withstand heat and wear.
Cemented−carbide drills, which can be operated much faster than high−speed steel drills, are
used to drill hard materials. They can be operated at high speeds and they can withstand
higher heat.
F. Twist drill parts and cutting angles

A twist drill may be divided into three main sections:
• Shank: The shank is the part of the drill that fits into a holding device. It may be either
straight or tapered.
• Body: The body contains the flutes, margin, and body clearance of the drill.
• Point: Shape and condition of the point are very important to the cutting action of the drill.
Figure 11.19
50
G. Drill Sizes
Metric drills:
Metric drills are available in various set ranges.
Miniature set: Sizes from 0.04 to 0.99 mm in steps of 0.01 mm
Straight shank: Sizes from 0.5 to 20 mm in steps of 0.02 to 1 mm (depending on the size)
Taper shank: Sizes from 8 to approx. 100 mm
Inch drills:
The most common system for inch drills is the fractional system. Drills are available in sizes
from 1/64 to 3 ½ in. in diameter, varying in steps of 1/64 in. from one size to the next. Drills
larger than 3 ½ in. in diameter must be ordered specially from the manufacturer.
H. Setting the Spindle Speed

To find the right number of revolutions per minute at which a drill press spindle will be set,
the following information must be known:
• The recommended cutting speed (CS) of the material to be drilled
• The type of drill bit, most likely HSS
• The diameter of the drill
I. Other important factors might affect the setting of the spindle speed:
• The type and the condition of the machine
• The accuracy and finish of the hole required
• The rigidity of work setup
• The use of cutting fluid
J. Calculating the spindle speed for Metric drills:

CS = cutting speed of the material in meter per minute
D = diameter of the drill in mm
π= 3.1416
r/min= revolution per minute
Example:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill 12 mm hole in a piece of mild
steel.
r/min = (CS × 1000) / (3,1416 × 12)
r/min = 30000 / 37.69
r/min = 796
Cutting speed for high−speed steel (HSS) drills
51
CS = cutting speed
of the material in
meter per minute
D = diameter of the
drill in mm
π= 3.1416
r/min= revolution
per minute
Exercise 1:
Calculate the r/min.
at which a drill
press should be set
to drill a 10 mm
hole in a piece of
aluminum.
Exercise 2:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 22.5 mm hole in a piece of
mild steel.
Exercise 3:
Calculate the r/min. at which a drill press should be set to drill a 5.8 mm hole in a piece of
mild steel.
K. Different Drill Press Operations
Counterbore ToolCountersink Tool
1. Tools
1.1 Drill Press
1.2 Bench Vise
2. Materials
52
3. Equipment
3.1 Working table
IMPORTANT

LAYING-OUT AND MOUNTING WORK

LAYING OUT WORK
Laying out work for drilling consists of locating and marking the exact centers of the
holes to be drilled. The accuracy of the finished workpiece depends, in most part, on the
accuracy of the layout. If the work does not require extreme accuracy, then laying out
may be a simple operation, such as scribing two intersecting lines and center punching for
drilling (Figure 11.20). For a precise layout, to within a few thousandths of an inch,
precision layout procedures must be followed. Precision tools, such as a surface plate,
surface gage, calipers, and sharp scribes must be used. The workpiece should be cleaned
and deburred applying layout dye.
LAYING OUT HOLE CENTERS
The position of the center of the hole to be drilled is marked by scribing two or more
lines which intersect at the hole center. This intersecting point is then marked lightly with
a prick punch and hammer. Check to see that the punch mark is exactly at the center of
the intersection; use a magnifying glass if necessary. Use a pair of dividers, set to the
radius of the hole to be drilled, to scribe a circle on the workpiece. The prick punch is
then used to mark small indentations, known as "witness marks," on the circumference
(Figure 11.20). This completes marking the circle. If a check is needed, have another
circle scribed outside of the original circle, which can be checked for alignment after
drilling (Figure 11.20).
Center-Punching the Layout
When all scribing is finished, enlarge the prick punch mark with a center punch to aid
the center drilling process. Enlarging the mark with a center punch allows the center drill
point to enter the workpiece easier and cut smoother.
Layout of Multiple Holes
When more than one hole must be drilled, lay out the holes along a common reference
line, then put in the intersecting lines and scribe the circles. Throughout the layout
process, avoid making the layout lines too heavy. Use lines as thin as possible, and avoid
any scratches or other marks on the surface to be drilled.
53
MOUNTING WORKPIECES
Before attempting to use a drilling machine, some provision must be made for
holding the workpiece rigidly and securely in place. The workpiece should always be
firmly fastened to the table or base to produce holes that are located accurately. Use
work holding devices to hold the workpiec. The two best methods to mount
workplaces are explained below.
Vise Mounting
Most hand-feed drilling machines have no means of clamping or boltingworkplaces

to the table or base. The workpiece must be secured tightly in a machin table vise and
swung around so that the tail of the vise contacts the column of the rill press. The hole
must be centered by hand so that the center drill point is directly over the center
punched mark. Other larger drilling machines have slotted tables ad bases so that the
work and work holding devices can be bolted or clamped firmly. ll work should be
securely clamped or set against a stop for all drilling to avoid lettin the drill grab and
damage the workpiece or injure the machine operator
Table or Base Mounting
When a workpiece is table or base mounted (Figure 11.21), the strap clamps must
be as parallel to the table or base as possible. All bolts and strap clamps should be
asshort as possible for rigidity and to provide for drilling clearance (Figure 11.22)
Figure 11.20
Use of “witnesses marks”
54
Figure 11.21
Mounting the work
Parallel bars should be set close together to keep from bending the work.
Washerand nuts should be in excellent condition. The slots and ways of the table,
base, r vise must be free of all dirt and chips. All work holding devices should be free
of brrs and wiped clean of oil and grease. Work holding devices should be the right
sizefor the job. Devices that are too big or too small for the job are dangerous and
must be avoided.
Figure 11.22
Correct and Incorrect clamp applications
55
GENERAL DRILLING OPERATIONS
THE DRILLING PROCESS
After a workpiece is laid out and properly mounted, the drilling process can
begin.The drilling process, or complete operation, involves selecting the proper twist
drill or cutter for the job, properly installing the drill into the machine spindle, setting
the speed and feed, starting the hole on center, and drilling the hole to specifications
within the prescribed tolerance. Tolerance is the allowable deviation from standard
size. The drilling process must have some provisions for tolerance because of the
oversizing that naturally occurs in drilling. Drilled holes are always slightly oversized,
or slightly larger than the diameter of the drill's original designation. For instance, a
l/4-inch twist drill will produce a hole that may be several thousandths of an inch
larger than l/4-inch.
Oversizing is due to several factors that affect the drilling process: the actual size of
the twist drill, the accuracy of the drill point, the accuracy of the machine chuck and
sleeve, the accuracy and rigidity of the drilling machine spindle, the rigidity of the
entire drilling machine, and the rigidity of the workpiece and setup. Field and
maintenance shop drilling operations allow for some tolerance, but oversizing must be
kept to the minimum by the machine operator.
Selecting the Drill
Selecting the proper twist drill means getting the right tool for the job. The material
to be drilled, the size of that material, and the size of the drilled hole must all be
considered when selecting the drill. Also, the drill must have the proper lip angles and
lip clearances for the job. The drill must be clean and free of any burrs or chips. The
shank of the drill must also be clean and free of burrs to fit into the chuck. Most drills
wear on the outer edges and on the chisel point, so these areas must be checked, and
resharpened if needed, before drilling can begin. If the twist drill appears to be
excessively worn, replace it.
Installing the Drill
Before installing the drill into the drilling machine spindle, clean the spindle socket
and drill shank of all dirt, chips, and burrs. Use a small tile inside the socket to
remove any tough burrs. Slip the tang of the drill or geared drill chuck into the sleeve
and align the tang into the keyway slot (Figure 11.23).
Tap the end of the drill lightly with a soft hammer to seat firmly. Another method
used to seat the drill into the sleeve is to place a block of wood on the machine table
and force the drill down onto the block.
56
Figure 11.23
Installing a taper shank drill
Selecting Drill Speed
Speed refers to the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the drilling machine spindle.
For drilling, the spindle should rotate at a set speed that is selected for the material
being drilled. Correct speeds are essential for satisfactory drilling. The speed at which
a drill turns and cuts is called the peripheral speed. Peripheral speed is the speed of a
drill at its circumference expressed in surface feet per minute (SFPM). This speed is
related to the distance a drill would travel if rolled on its side. For example, a
peripheral speed of 30 feet per minute means the drill would roll 30 feet in 1 minute if
rolled on its side.
It has been determined through experience and experiment that various metals
machine best at certain speeds; this best speed for any given metal is what is known as
its cutting speed. If the cutting speed of a material is known, then a simple formula
can be used to find the recommended RPM of the twist drill.
The slower of the two recommended speeds is used for the following formulas due
to the varying conditions that may exist, such as the rigidity of the setup, the size of
the drilling machine, and the quality of finish.
RPM = CSx4
Where RPM = drill speed in revolutions per minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface feet per minute.
4 = A constant in all calculations for RPM
(except metric).
57
D = The diameter of the drill itself.
For example, if a 1/2-inch (0.500-inch) twist drill is to cut aluminum, the formula
would be setup as follows:
RPM = 200 X 4 = 800 = 1600 RPM
.500 .500
Thus, the drilling machine would be set up to drill as close to 1,600 RPM as possible. It
is best to use the machine speed that is closest to the recommended RPM. When using the
metric system of measurement, a different formula must be used to find RPM:
RPM = CS (m) x 320
D (mm)
Where RPM = Drill speed in revolutions per
minute.
CS = Recommended cutting speed in surface meters per

minute.
320 = A constant for all metric RPM calculations.
D = Diameter of the twist drill in millimeters.
For example, if a 15-mm twist drill is to cut medium-carbon steel, with a recommended
cutting speed of 21.4 meters per minute, the formula would be set up as follows:
RPM= 21.4 x320 = 6848
15 15
RPM = 21.4 x320 = 6848 = 456.533 RPM
5 15 or 457 RPM
Round this RPM up or down to the nearest machine speed.
The speeds on these tables are just recommendations and can be adjusted lower if
needed, or to higher speeds if conditions permit.
SELECTING DRILL FEED
Feed is the distance a drill travels into the workpiece during each revolution of the
spindle. It is expressed in thousandths of an inch or in millimeters. Hand-feed drilling
58
machines have the feed regulated by the hand pressure of the operator; thus, the skill of
the operator will determine the best feeds for drilling. Power feed drilling machines have
the ability to feed the drill into the work at a preset depth of cut per spindle revolution, so
the best feeding rate can be determined.
The selection of the best feed depends upon the size of the drill, the material to be
drilled, and the condition of the drilling machine. Feed should increase as the size of the
drill increases. After starting the drill into the workpiece by hand, a lever on the power-
feed drilling machine can be activated, which will then feed the drill into the work until
stopped or disengaged. Too much feed will cause the drill to split; too little feed will
cause chatter, dull the drill, and possibly harden the workpiece so it becomes more
difficult to drill. Drills 1/2 inch or smaller can generally be hand-fed, while the larger
drills require more downward torque and should be power-fed.
ALIGNING AND STARTING HOLES
To start a twist drill into the workpiece, the point of the drill must be aligned with the
center-punched mark on the workpiece. Some drilling operations may not require a
precise alignment of the drill to the work, so alignment can be done by lining up the drill
by hand and eye alone. If a greater precision in centering alignment is required, than more
preparation is needed before starting to drill.
STARTING HOLES WITH CENTER DRILL
The best method to align and start a hole is to use the combination countersink and
drill, known as the center drill. Set the drilling machine speed for the diameter of the tip
of the center drill, start the machine, and gently lower the center drill into contact with the
work, using hand and eye coordination. The revolving center drill will find the center
punched mark on the workpiece and properly align the hole for drilling. The depth of the
center-drilled hole should be no deeper than two third the length of the tapered portion of
the center drill.
DRAWING A DRILL BACK ON CENTER
Often, the drill will not be on center, sometimes due to a poorly made center-punched
mark or a hard spot on the metal. To draw the twist drill back to the position desired
(Figure 11.24), a sharp chisel is used to make one or more nicks or grooves on the side
toward which the drill is to be drawn. The chisel marks will draw the drill over because of
the tendency of the drill to follow the line of least resistance. After the chisel mark is
made, the drill is again hand-fed into the work and checked for being on center. This
operation must be completed before the drill point has enlarged the hole to full diameter
or the surface of the workpiece will be marred by a double hole impression.
59
Figure 11.24
Drawing a drill back on center
DRILLING
After the drill has been aligned and the hole started, then insert the proper size drill and
continue drilling into the workpiece, while applying cutting fluid. The cutting fluid to use
will depend on what material is being machined Use the cutting fluids freely.
Figure 11.25
Drilling the center drilled hole
60
Figure 11.26
Drilling a workpiece
Drilling Deep Holes
If the depth of the hole being drilled is greater than four times the diameter of the
drill, remove the drill from the workpiece at frequent intervals to clean the chips from
the flutes of the drill and the hole being drilled. A slight increasing speed and decrease
in feed is often used to give the chips a greater freedom of movement. In deep hole
drilling, the flutes of the smaller drills will clog up very quickly and cause the drill to
drag in the hole, causing the diameter of the hole to become larger than the drill
diameter. The larger drills have larger flutes which carry away chips easier.
When the depth of the hole being drilled is four times the diameter of the drill itself,
remove the drill at frequent intervals and clean the chips from the flutes of thedrill and
from the hole being drilled.
Drilling a Pilot Hole
As the drill size increases, both the size of the web and the width of the chisel edge
increase (Figure 6-34). The chisel edge of drill does not have a sharp cutting action,
scraping rather than cutting occurs. In larger drills, this creates a considerable strain on
the machine. To eliminate this strain when drilling a large hole, a pilot hole is drilled first
(Figure 11.24) and then followed with the larger drill. A drill whose diameter is wider
than the web thickness of the large drill is used for the pilot hole. This hole should be
drilled accurately as the larger drill will follow the small hole.
Figure 11.24
Using a pilot drill
61
A pilot drill can also be used when average-sized holes are to be drilled on small
drilling machines. The small" machine may not have enough power to drive the larger
drill through the metal. Avoid making the pilot drilled hole much wider than the web of
the larger drill. Too wide of a pilot drilled hole may cause the larger drill cutting lips to
grab and snag which may cause excessive chatter or an out-of-round hole.
Drilling Thin Material
When drilling thin workpieces, such as sheet metal, place another piece of metal or
wood under the workpiece to provide support and prevent bending the workpiece or
ruining the hole due to the upthrust created when the drill breaks through.
If thin metal must be drilled and a support cannot be rigged under the thin metal, then a
drill designed for thin metal, such as a low helix drill with zero rake angle, commonly
called a sheet metal drill, must be used.
Using a Depth Stop
The depth stop mechanism on the drilling machine (Figure 11.28) should be used
whenever drilling to a desired depth, and to prevent the twist drill from traveling too far
after cutting through the workpiece. The depth stop is designed to be used whenever a
number of holes of the same depth are to be drilled, or when drilling holes deep into the
workpiece (blind holes). Make sure that drills are chucked tightly to avoid slipping and
changing the depth setting. Most depth stops have away to measure the distance that the
drill travels. Some may have a fractional gage on the depth stop rod, and some may have
a micrometer dial located on the depth stop for very precise measurements.
Figure 11.28
Depth stop mechanism
Checking the Depth of Drilled Holes
To accurately check the depth of a drilled hole, the length of the sides of the hole must
be measured. Do not measure from the bottom point of the hole (Figure 6-36). A thin
depth gage is inserted into the hole, along the side, and the measurement taken. If the hole
62
is too small for the gage to fit down into it then a twist drill of the same size as the hole
can be inserted into the hole upside down, then removed and measured with a rule. Clean
all chips and coolant from the holes before attempting any depth measurement.
Figure 11.29
Checking the depth of drilled holes
Drilling Round Stock
When drilling shafts, rods, pipes, dowels, or other round stock, it is important to have
the center punch mark aligned with the drill point (Figure 6-37). Use V-blocks to hold the
round stock for center punching and drilling. Align the center of the round stock with a
square or by lining the workpiece up with the twist drill point. Another method to drill
round stock is to use a V-block drill jig that automatically centers the work for drilling.
Operational Checks
After the hole is drilled to specifications, always back the drill out of the hole and shut
off the machine. Allowing a drill to run on in the hole will cause the hole to be oversized.
At any time during the drilling process, a problem could occur. If so, it should be fixed as
soon as possible to avoid any damage or injury. Operators must observe the drilling
machine for any excessive vibration or wobble, overheating of the electric motor, and
unusual noises coming from the machine. A high pitched squeal coming from the drill
itself may indicate a dull drill. A groaning or rumbling sound may indicate that the drill is
overloaded and the feed needs to be reduced. A chattering sound may indicate an off-
center drill or a poorly sharpened drill. These or other noises could also be caused by
internal parts of the machine. Consult the operator's manual and correct all problems
before attempting to continue drilling.
63
Figure 11.30
Centering for drilling round stock
. Drill Press Safety
Safety Rules
• Never wear loose clothing around machinery
• A hair net or a cap must protect long hair to prevent it from becoming caught in the
revolving parts of the drill press.
• Never wear rings, watches, bracelets or necklaces while working in a machine shop.
• Always wear safety glasses when operating any machine.
• Never set the speed, adjust or measure the work until the machine is completely stopped.
• Keep the work area and floor clean and free of oil and grease.
• Never clamp taper shank drills, end mills, or non−standard tools in a drill chuck.
• Never leave a chuck key in a drill chuck at any time.
• Always use the brush to remove chips.
• Always clamp workpiece when drilling holes larger than ½ in. (12.7 mm) in diameter.
• When drilling sheet metal, it is necessary to clamp the sheet on a piece of wood.
• Reduce drilling pressure as the drill breaks through the workpiece.
• Always remove the burrs from a hole that has been drilled.
A. What is a drilling operation? Discuss briefly.
B. What are the different parts of a drill press? Discuss briefly.
C. what is a drill? Enumerate the different types of drill tools.
64
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Drilling
11
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
to:
1. Hacksaw and Hacksawing
1.1 Familiarize the different parts of a drill and drill press.
1.2 Know how to use and operate different types of drill press and drill tools.
1.3 Use the correct drill and drill tools.
FACTORS RATING
E. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

F. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Criticality)
G. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
H. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
65
RUBRICS
Few measurement
done incorrectly.
25% Safety

Working with
others
66
Threads and Threading (Activity No. 12) ………………….

M. EXPECTED COMPETENCIES…………………………………
1. Understand the construction and application of threads and threading in
the workshop.
2. Know the different applications of the different types of threads and
threading machines.
III. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………
Threads and Its Types
Thread plays a very important role in the engineering line for manufacturing various items of
daily use. In this engineering and scientific age, machines are used every moment at every
stage. Without threads, most of the machines cannot be used.
Definition of Threads
Spiral grooves of equal measurement or shapes made on a round cylindrical article or pipe
are known as threads. In other words, spiral grooves of equal pitch and equal depth made on
the parallel round cylindrical surface or conical round surface are called threads.
Figure 12.1
For example, if we take a round stick and wind a piece of wire in angular indication, the
wires twist would move ahead on the round stick. The path on which the wire moves ahead is
called Helix. Like this helix, the thread is inclined in an angle on a round surface. Threads
may be internal or external.
As already mentioned above, the shape or size of threads depends upon their utility.
Thread cutting tools are also made accordingly. According to their shapes.
Types of Threads
Following are the 13 different types of threads:

1. Right-hand threads
2. Left-hand threads
3. taper threads
4. “V” shape threads
5. Metric or International Threads
6. British Standard Threads
67
7. Seller Threads
8. Square Threads
9. Acme Threads
10. buttress Threads
11. Knuckle Threads
12. Worm Threads
13. Single and Multi-Threads
Right Hand Threads

These threads are inclined towards the right-hand side. These are tightened in a clockwise
movement. These are known as right-hand threads.
Figure 12.2
Left Hand Threads

These threads are inclined towards the left hand. These are tightened in anticlockwise
movement. For example, on a screw with left-hand threads, threads are so cut that the bolt,
screw, or nut has to be turned in a counter-clockwise motion to engage or tighten it. Their use
is comparatively less.
Taper Threads
Threads cut on around but taper surface is called taper threads. These are sued for shafts like
buffing spindles. These threads can be right hand or left hand.
Figure 12.3
The above threads are used for the following purpose:

1. To join two parts of a machine like nut-bolt and stud.
2. To get mechanical livers for lifting weights, such as chain pulleys, jacks etc.
3. For accuracy in precision instruments like micrometres.
4. In jobs of power transfer.
68
5. To control or reduce speed.

“V” Shape Threads
Figure 12.4
This type of threads is in the shape of the English alphabet “V”. It is most widely used. This
types of threads can be cut or made by tap, die, lathe machine and milling etc. These threads
are made of different standards. The following types are mostly used.
Metric or International Threads

This types of the thread were originally adopted in 1898 to 1908 in central France. With the
passage of time, other international countries also started using it. The Indian standards
institute has also adopted this thread.
Figure 12.5
These threads are made on jobs of 0°25 mm to 300 mm in diameter. Its angle is at 60°. Its
screw is flat and the root is round. According to I.S. 1330-1958, these are written prior to the
letter M and figure written after “M” indicates pitch such as -M20 X 2.5. It means the number
of threads is 20 per inch and its pitch is 2.5 mm.
Thread Angle = 60°
Crest and root = 0. 125 X pitch
Pitch =1/T.P.I. ( in mm)
British Standard Whitworth Threads

This type of threads is originated from great Britain. sir joseph Whitworth, a citizen of Great
Britain invented this thread in 1841. This thread was to provide the facility of
interchangeability. It is used in ordinary nut-bolts and other jobs. Its angle is 55°. Its crest, as
well as root, are in round shape. It’s known as B.S.W. Thread.
69
Figure 12.6
Thread angle= 55 °
Pitch = 1/T.P.I
Depth = Pitch X 0.6403
Radius = Pitch X 0.1373
Core dia = D- (1.28 X Pitch)
(D= outer dia of bolt)
British Standard Fine Thread
Figure 12.7
In shape, this thread is similar to B.S.W. thread. The angle of this thread is also 55° but the
number of thread per inch is more i.e the thickness of threads is less. This makes the grip
more strong. Nut bolts having this thread are used where is more vibration.
British Association Threads

This type of thread is of every think make-up. It is used in small and tiny electrical and
mechanical instruments like radio, television, electrical goods, meters and watches. The angle
of these threads is 47 1/2°. These can be used for 1/2″ or 6 mm nut bolts.
Figure 12.8
70
These are recognised through numbers, which range between 0 to 12. Number 0 = 0. 236″ or
6 mm. Number 12 = 0.0511″ or 1.3 mm.
Thread Angle = 47 1/2″
Depth of thread = 0.6 X Pitch
Pitch = 1/T.P.I
D = 1.36 X Pitch
British Standard Pipe Threads

Its angle is at 55° which cut at 3/4 taper per foot. It is used in sanitary pipe fittings, steam
pipes, gas pipelines. Because of taper, it does not leak.
Seller Threads
These threads are known by the name of American national thread. IT has been recognised by
the American standards institute. It is a “V” shape thread. Its angle is at 60°. ITs roots and
crest are flat. The same standard Insititute has invented national fine thread, This thread is
thin. IT is used in motor vehicles and aeroplanes etc.
Figure 12.9
Thread Angle = 60°

Depth of thread = 0.649519 X Pitch
Dia = 0.866025 X Pitch
Crest = D/ 8
Root = 0.125 X Pitch
Square Threads
This thread has a very powerful root. Its make up is square. These threads are used for lifting
heavy loads, transfer of power, to exert pressure, screw jack, lead screw of machines, press
machines and vice spindle instruments. Their specific measurement and number per inch are
not fixed.
Figure 12.10
Thread Angle = 90°

Depth of Thread = 0.5 X Pitch
Crest and Root = 0.5 X 5
71
Acme Threads
These threads are more or less like square threads but their shape is in taper i.e. flat from
bottom and thin from the top. It is comparatively easier to cut it on a job than the square
threads. IT is also considered stronger. AS these threads have slanting ends, it is easier to fix
or unscrew the split nut on it. There is no backlash in it. This thread is made at 29° angle.
Figure 12.11
Thread Angle = 29°

Depth of Thread = 0.5 X Pitch + .01″
Crest = 0.3707 X Pitch
Root = 0.33707 X Pitch – 0.0052″
Buttress Threads
It is a screw thread which is triangular in section but which has one face at right angles to the
axis of the screw, the second face only being sloped. IT has more pulling power than square
thread. This is why it is used in cases where the excessive pull is on one side and it must be
absorbed as in a ratchet.
Figure 12.12
Root and crest = 0.125 X Pitch

Thread Angle = 45°
Depth = 0.75 X Pitch
Knuckle Threads
This thread is also very strong. It is used in heavy and light jobs of rough nature. This is half
round at both root and crest. It can be cast in a mold.
72
Figure 12.13
Depth of Thread= 0.5 X Pitch

Root and crest Radius = 0.25 X Pitch
These threads are specially used for coupling of rali-coaches.
Worm Threads
Their shape is almost similar to Acme Threads but these are deeper than Acme threads. Their
angle is also at 29 °. This thread is used in worm wheel of motor vehicles for the transfer of
power at 90°. As three teeth of worm wheel fit into the shaft with worm threads, they fit well.
Figure 12.14
Thread Angle = 29°

Depth of Thread = 0.6866 X Pitch
Root = 0.32 X Pitch
Crest = 0.335 X Pitch.
Single and Multi-Threads

In a piece of work, it is possible to have some separate and independent threads running
along with it. Thus, there are a single-threaded screw and multiple or multi-start threaded
screw. The independent threads are called starts, and we may have single-start, two-start,
three-start, etc.
Figure 12.15
73
For one complete turn round the screw or bolt then there is a movement of one thread the
screw is called a single-threaded screw. And when there is a movement of more than one
thread, the screw is called multiple or multi-start threaded screws.
In the case of a three-start thread, for one complete turn, the thread advances three times as
far if it were a single thread. Multi-start threads are used in those cases where fast movement
or motion is needed Fountain where they are widely used.
B. CUTTING THREADS WITH TAP & DIES (THREADING)

Whenever possible, threads should be cut with machines where they can be accurately
controlled and the thread cut will be of high quality. Sometimes it may be necessary, due to
the size and shape of the workpiece, or because only a few parts are required, to cut the
thread with hand tools. Done with care, fairly accurate internal threads can be cut with a tap;
external threads can be cut with a die.
A. Main Parts of a Screw Thread

B. Hand Tapping
Hand Tap – A tap is a cutting tool used to cut internal threads. Normally its made of
high−speed steel (HSS).
Hand taps are usually made in sets of three, because it is better to distribute all the cutting
work during the thread−process to three taps.
No. 1 (taper) tap: 1 ring onshank
No. 2 (plug) tap: 2 rings on shank
No. 3 (bottoming) tap: without ring
1. Taper Tap – The tap is tapered off for a length of 8 to 10 threads and is the first tap tobe
used in a hole to start the thread form.
2. Second Tap – The tap is tapered off for a length of 4 to 5
threads to facilitate picking up the threads cut by the taper
tap.
3. Plug Tap – This is fully threaded throughout its length
and is called a 'bottoming' tap. This tap used to cut the
bottom of a blind hole.
The most common taps have two or three flutes in order to
form the cutting edges, transport the chips out ofthe hole
and give way for the lubricant. The end of the tap is square
so that a tap wrench can be used to turnit into a hole.
Tapping a Hole
Before a tap is used, a hole must be drilled in the workpiece to the correct tap drill size. The
tap drill size(T.D.S.) is the size of the drill that should be used to leave the proper amount of
material in the hole for a tap to cut threads. Then countersinkboth sides of the hole.If there is
no tap drill size chart available, the tap drill size can be easily found by applying simple
formulas:
74
1. Tools
1.1 Threading Dies
1.2 Bench Vise
2. Materials
3. Equipment
3.1 Working table
IMPORTANT

Working Steps for Hand Tapping Table of Drill sizes

Step 1: Select the correct size and type of tap for the job (blind hole or through hole).
75
Step 2: Select the correct tap wrench for the size being used.
Step 3: Use a suitable cutting fluid (No cutting fluid for brass or cast iron).
Step 4: Place the tap in the hole as near to vertical as possible.
Step 5: Apply equal down−pressure on both handles, and turn the tap clockwise (for
right−hand thread) for about two turns.
Step 6: Remove the tap wrench and check the tap for squareness. Check at two positions 90
degree to each other.
Step 7: If the tap has not entered squarely, remove it from the hole and restart it by applying
slight pressure in the direction from which the tap leans. Be careful not to exert too much
pressure in the straightening process, otherwise the tap may be broken.
Step 8: Turn the tap clockwise one−half turn and then turn it backward about one−quarter of
a turn to break the chip. This must be done with a steady motion to avoid breaking the tap.
Precautions & operation in tapping

a. The size of the hole is important and the correct drill size should be determined
from the handbook, standard table in the workshop or the recommendation on the
shank of the tap.
b. Use taper tap first ensuring that it is kept square with top surface of work.
C . Always use the correct size of wrench for the tap in use.`
d. Lubricant oil should be used except when cutting cast iron and brass.
e. Use both hands to hold the wrench to maintain even torque.
f. About every half turn reverse action slightly to break the swarf and clear the
threads.
g. When the tap reaches the bottom of the blind hole, care must be taken not to force
as tap may break in the hole.
Turn clockwise with light pressure. Check the 90−degree Angle
Threading Dies
A threading die is used to cut external threads on round workpieces. The most
common threading dies are theadjustable and solid types. The round adjustable die
is split on one side and can be adjusted to cut slightlyover or under−sized threads.
It is mounted in a die stock, which has two handles for turning the dies onto
thework.The solid die, cannot be adjusted and generally used for re−cutting
damaged or oversized threads. Solid diesare turned onto the thread with a special
die−stock, or adjustable wrench.
76
Thread with a Hand Die − Working Steps

The threading process requires the machinist to work carefully to produce usable parts
and avoid damage.The following describes the procedure to be used.
Step 1: Chamfer the end of the workpiece with a file or on the grinder. Consider that a
3/4” threadrequires a bolt with an outside diameter of 3/4”.
Step 2: Fasten the workpiece securely in a vise. Hold small diameter work short to
prevent it frombending.
Step 3: Select the proper die and die stock.
Step 4: Lubricate the tapered end of the die with a suitable cutting lubricant.
Step 5: Place the tapered end of the die squarely on the workpiece.
Step 6: Apply down−pressure on both die−stock handles and turn clockwise
several turns.
Step 7: Check the die to see if it has started squarely with the work.
Step 8: If it is not square, remove the die from the workpiece and restart it
squarely, applying slight pressure while the die is being turned.
Step 9: Turn the die forward one turn, and then reverse it approximately one−half
of a turn to break the chip.
Step 10: Apply cutting fluid frequently during the threading process.
Precautions and Operation of Die

a. The diameter of the blank rod must not larger than the outside diameter
of thread to be cut.
b. Ensure that the die is set perpendicular to the rod.
c. Lubricant oil should be used except when cutting cast iron and brass.
d. About every half-turn reverse frequently to break the swarf otherwise
the thread will tear.

A. What is a thread? Enumerate its different types and discuss each briefly.
B. Discuss briefly threading operation by a hand die.
77
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Threading
12
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
to:
1. Threads and Threading
1.1 Understand and familiarize threads and its uses.
1.2 Know how to perform threading by hand die.
FACTORS RATING
N. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

O. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Criticality)
P. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
Q. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
78
RUBRICS
Few measurement
done incorrectly.
25% Safety

Working with
others
79
Grinding (Activity No. 13) ………………….
1. To know and understand grinding operation.
2. To know and familiarize different grinding tools and to use it.
Basics of Grinding
The Grinding Process

Grinding is a material removal and surface generation process used to shape and
finish components made of metals and other materials. The precision and surface finish
obtained through grinding can be up to ten times better than with either turning or milling.
Grinding employs an abrasive product, usually a rotating wheel brought into controlled
contact with a work surface. The grinding wheel is composed of abrasive grains held together
in a binder. These abrasive grains act as cutting tools, removing tiny chips of material from
the work. As these abrasive grains wear and become dull, the added resistance leads to
fracture of the grains or weakening of their bond. The dull pieces break away, revealing sharp
new grains that continue cutting.
The requirements for efficient grinding include:

• abrasive components which are harder than the work
• shock- and heat-resistant abrasive wheels
• abrasives that are friable. That is, they are capable of controlled fracturing
Most abrasives used in industry are synthetic. Aluminum oxide is used in three quarters of all
grinding operations, and is primarily used to grind ferrous metals. Next is silicon carbide,
which is used for grinding softer, non-ferrous metals and high density materials, such as
cemented carbide or ceramics.
Superabrasives, namely cubic boron nitride or "CBN" and diamond, are used in about five
percent of grinding. Hard ferrous materials are ground with "CBN", while non-ferrous
materials and non-metals are best ground with diamond.
The grain size of abrasive materials is important to the process. Large, coarse grains remove
material faster, while smaller grains produce a finer finish.
The binders that hold these abrasive grains together include:

• vitrified bonds, a glass-like bond formed of fused clay or feldspar
• organic bonds, from synthetic resins, rubber, or shellac
• metal or single-layer bond systems for superabrasives
Wheels are graded according their strength and wear resistance. A "hard" wheel is one that
resists the separation of its individual grains. One that is too hard will wear slowly and
present dulled grains to the work and overheat, affecting the final finish. If too soft a wheel is
used, it will deteriorate quickly, requiring frequent replacement.
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Grinding Machine
A grinder is commonly used to precisely shape and finish the given materials with
low surface roughness and high surface quality. Grinding machine is a type of machine used
to grind the workpieces. It basically uses emery or an abrasive wheel as the cutting tool.
The grinding process is truly a chip producing machining process. The rough surface of the
abrasive wheel spreads into small portions of the workpiece as required. It is also known as a
grinder.
The grinding process is capable of producing very accurate sizes, equally accurate
geometry like flatness or circle and extremely good surface finish. It is capable of machining
hardness high-speed steel, which cannot be done by other machining processes.
Abrasives wheels are the impure form of aluminium oxide. A grinding wheel or bonded
abrasive is made up of thousands of tiny abrasive particles insert in matric calls as ‘bond’.
In bonded abrasives, porosity is essential to provide clearance for the chips being produced
and to provide cooling, otherwise chips would interfere with the griding process.
Hardness Comparison of Abrasive Material

An abrasive is a second hardest material, compared to diamond.
 Aluminium oxide (hardness of 2000-3000)
 Silicon carbide (hardness of 2100-3000). These are the perfect examples of
conventional abrasives.
 The cubic boron nitrite (hardness of 4000-5000)
 Diamond (hardness of 7000-8000) comes under the category of super abrasives.
In addition to hardness, an important characteristic called friability. Friability is the ability of

abrasive grains to fracture (break) into small pieces. High friability indicates low strength or
low fracture resistance of the abrasive.
For example, aluminium oxide has a lower friability than silicon carbide and has fewer
tendencies to a piece. Bonded abrasive are marked with a standardization system of letters
and numbers, indicating the type of abrasive, grain size, grade, structure, and bond type.
Selection of Abrasives in Grinding

 Emery and corundum are no longer used in modern grinding wheels.
 instead, artificially manufactured abrasives are used due to their high purity. And they
include silicon carbide and aluminium oxide.
1. Silicon carbide
 Silicon carbide is greenish-black in colour.
 It is harder and more brittle than alumina. For this reason, it is used for grinding materials
of low grinding resistance like cast iron, brass, and copper.
 The code for silicon carbide is C.
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2. Aluminium oxide
 It is reddish-brown in colour.
 Aluminium oxide abrasive is more suitable for grinding most steels because of its greater
toughness to cope with increased grinding resistance offered.
 Aluminium oxide wheels it is A.
The abrasive, the performance of grinding wheels also depends on many other factors. It is
important that a suitable grinding wheel is selected for particular applications.
Selection of Grinding Wheels

It means choosing the most appropriate wheel for a particular grinding machine
operation. Wheel selection would depend on what abrasive is required, and characteristic of
the wheels and also on operating conditions like a wheel and work speed, type and conditions
of machines used.
Thumb rule is to use a hard wheel for soft material and soft wheel for hard material. A hard
wheel retains the abrasives as they do not get dulled easily on soft materials.
Bond and Types of bond

Bond refers to the substance of which the matrix of the grinding wheel is made. The
following bonds are generally used in the manufacture of grinding wheels. The bond hardness
or grade is usually represented by the letters of the English alphabet.
A represents the very soft grade, while Z is very hard M and N represent medium grade
hardness.
1. Vitrified Bond
2. Silicated Bond
3. Shellac Bond
4. Rubber Bond
5. Resinoid Bond
1. Vitrified Bond
 It is denoted by letter V.
 About 80% of the wheels used in the industry are of this bond.
 It is also called as ceramic bond.
 They are strong, stiff, porous, and resistant to oils, acids, and water. They are brittle and
lack resistance to mechanical and thermal shock.
2. Silicate Bond
 It is denoted by letter S.
 Silicate of soda (commonly known as water glass) is the main component of this bond.
3. Shellac Bond
 It is denoted by letter E.
 Shellac (a naturally available material) is the main component of the bond.
4. Rubber Bond
 It is denoted by letter R.
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 This process consists of mixing crude rubber, sulfur, and the abrasive grains together,
rolling the mixture into sheets, cutting out circles and heating them under pressure to
vulcanize the rubber.
 The wheels can be made like this and can be used as saws for cutting-off operations.
5. Resinoid Bond
 It is denoted by letter B.
 Resoniod bonding materials are thermosetting resins, and the bond is an organic
compound, so the wheels with resinoid bonds are also called as organic wheels.
 Some of these wheels are made from bakelite and other resinous material.
Wheel Grit, Grade and Structure
1. Grit
Grit indicates the size of the abrasive grain. It is indicated by a number. Higher the
number, smaller the size of grains. Abrasives finer than 200, are called “flours” designated as
F, FF, and FFF.
The finer abrasive used as jewellers. For the fine finish of ground surface,
 smaller grit size abrasive wheels are used. But their metal cutting capacity is limited.
 Large size abrasive wheels, finish is rough but metal removal rate is higher.
2. Grade
The degree of hardness possessed by the bond is called the grade of the wheel and
indicates the strength of the grip with which the abrasive grains are held in the bond.
It indicates the type and the amount of bond in the wheel. It is also referred to as the hardness
of a bonded abrasive. A hard wheel has a stronger bond and a larger amount of bonding
material between the grains than a soft wheel.
3. Structure
Structure of a bonded abrasive is a measure of the porosity (spacing between the
grains). The structure of the bond material in a wheel varies from about 10% to 30% of its
total volume. Structure of the bond depends upon this percentage.
If the abrasive grains are too strictly packed, the percentage of bond material will be on the
lower side this is called a closed structure. If the abrasive grains are less strictly packed in the
same volume, the wheels are called an open structure.
The structure is indicated by a number varying from 1 (very closed structure) to 15 (very
open structure. On every grinding machine wheel, the manufactures are limit to give the
following information. in specified sequence about the,
 Abrasive used (A or C)
 Grit number (ex: 46)
 Grade ( A to Z)
 Structure (1 to 5)
 Bond type (by letters)
In addition, the manufacturer is free to supply some additional information with the above
information.
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Balancing, Dressing, and Truing of Grinding wheels
1. Balancing
A grinding wheel is a fragile tool which is to be used to get perfect service. proper mounting
and balancing of the wheel are very important.
Balancing is needed as wheels revolve at higher speed (many thousand r.p.m.) and any
unbalanced centrifugal forces may crack the wheel or spoil and bearing.
2. Dressing
The dressing is the process of producing sharp edges on grains, conditioning worn grains on
the surface of a grinding wheel. It is required when the wheel is dull or tired.
3. Truing
The Truing is like a dressing operation by which wheel comes back to its original shape, thus
around the wheel is dressed to make its circumference a true circle.
Truing is done during fitting fresh wheel and also it is necessary after the wheel has been in
use for some time, to correct the non-uniform wear on its face.
For softer wheels, truing and dressing are done separately and for harder wheels, both are
done at the same time. The truing or dressing up of grinding wheels are normally done by a
diamond tool. Being harder, it is able to cut through, the abrasive grains and the bond
material.
Grinding Machine Operation

The common grinding machine operation are surface, cylindrical, internal and centreless
grinding. Now let us discuss each one by one,
1. Surface Grinding
It involves grinding flat surfaces. Here the workpiece is fitted with a magnetic chuck attached
to a work table of the grinder. Non-magnetic are held by vices or fixtures. A straight wheel is
mounted on the horizontal spindle of the grinder.
Transverse grinding occurs as the table reciprocates longitudinally and feeds laterally after
each stroke.
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12. Cylindrical Grinding

In this, the operation is carried out on a cylindrical grinding machine which is made in two
varieties “plain” and the “universal” type. The fundamental design is the same in both cases,
but the universal machine can be adapted for internal grinding operation as well.
In cylindrical grinding machine operation, the work is mounted between two centres and is
rotated. A grinding wheel is mounted on a spindle and revolves at a higher speed than the
work. The depth of cut is very small, about 0.015 mm.
The work centres are mounted on a table which can transverse at various feeds so that the
entire length of the work passes to and fro in front of the wheel.
When the entire work has passed in front of the wheel, the wheel advances forward by
another 0.015mm at the end of the transverse and so the cycle of machining goes on until the
desired diameter of the workpiece is reached. The result is a long cylinder of the perfectly
circular profile with a very fine surface finish.
3. Internal Grinding
The Internal grinding operation means, grinding of internal holes or bores. Internal grinding
is designed to grind the surface of bores, whether plain or tapered with the help of a small
grinding wheel mounted on a long slender spindle which can enter in the bore.
It is capable of giving improved geometry of the hole as well as the surface finish. This
operation is performed on specially designed internal grinding machines. For internal
grinding, a softer wheel is generally preferred.
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4. Centreless Grinding
It is a high production process for continuously grinding cylindrical surfaces in which the
workpiece is supported not by centres or chucks, but by a blade. Parts with the diameter as
small as 0.1mm can be ground by this method.
The surface speed of the wheel is about 10000m/min using cubic boron nitride abrasive
wheels. Parts such as roller bearing, piston pins, engine valves, and camshafts are made by
centreless grinding.
The feed-in case of centreless grinding is given as,

S = ΠDN sinα
Where,
 S = Feed
 D = Diameter of regulating wheel
 N = Speed in r.p.m
 α = Angle of tilt.
Types of Centreless Grinding

The following are the three type of centreless grinding,
1. Through feed
2. Infeed
3. End feed
1. Through Feed
In this type of grinding the whole length of the bar or shaft is grinded which is placed on the
work rest. The amount of material removed is 0.02 to 0.3mm.
2. Infeed
This type of grinding is used to grind parts that require multiple profiles to be grinded at the
same time. The regulating wheel is moved backwards to place the workpiece on the work
rest. This type of grinding is mainly used for formed grinding stops are provided at both the
ends.
3. End Feed
In this type of grinding the tapered parts are grinded either the grinding wheel or the
regulating wheel will have a tapered form.
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Advantages of Centreless Grinding

1. A true floating condition exit so that little amount of material is removed.
2. There is no deflection of the work and small fragile workpiece can be grinded easily.
3. The process is continuous and used for production work.
4. No extra attachments such as centres, chucks are required.
5. The size of the work is easily controlled.
6. unskilled labour is required.
Disadvantages of Centreless Grinding

1. There is no concentricity when hollow workpieces are grinded.
2. The workpiece having multiple diameters cannot be grinded easily.
Grinding Machines and Types
Machines in which grinding wheels are fitted and grinding is done, such machines are
called grinding machines. On the basis of their function, they can be divided into two parts.
Ordinary grinding machines which are widely used. These are called rough or snagging
grinders. The following types of grinders are included in this category.
Types of Grinding Machines:

Following are the types of grinding machines:
1. Bench grinding machine

2. Hand grinding machine
3. Pedestal grinding machine
4. Portable grinding machine
5. Flexible grinding machine
6. Precision grinding machine
1. Cylindrical grinder
2. Plunge cut grinder
3. Form grinder
4. Internal grinder
5. Centreless grinder
6. Surface grinder
7. Universal grinder
8. Tools and cutting grinder
1. Bench Grinder
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This types of grinding machines are fixed on a workbench or table. Gear or pulley is
fitted in it. For rotating the big-size gears or pulley a handle is also fixed. It contains one or
two grinding wheels. Edges of cutting tools can be made with this grinder. Provision can be
made to operate these with power also.
2. Hand Grinder
This grinder is also fixed on the workbench or table. There is a provision of moving the
grinding wheels with a level as shown in the figure.
3. Pedestal Grinder
This types of grinding machines are operated with electric power. This is fitted on a
pedestal frame separately on the ground. A grinder wheel is fitted each on both sides of the
shaft of the electric motor.
Tools rests are also provided with them. These are the most widely used in the workshops.
Edges of all types of cutting tools are made with these grinders. Apart from this, molded
articles can also be cleaned with it.
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4. Portable Grinder
This is a small grinder operated with electric power. It can be easily carried anywhere.
Grinding can be done by holding it in hand. It is used for cleaning the heavy welding jobs.
On one end of the motor shaft, a grinding wheel is fitted and on the other end, a handle or
switch for operating the machine is fixed according to our convenience. It should be used
carefully since there is a possibility of getting an electric shock.
5. Flexible Grinder
This types of grinding machines are shown in the figure. The electric motor in this
grinder is fitted on such a basis that it can be moved in any direction. A flexible shaft is fitted
on the motor shaft with the help of a coupling. On one end of the shaft, a grinding wheel and
handle are provided. Large jobs can be easily grinded with this grinder.
6. Precision Grinder
In this type of grinder, a movable spindle is fitted in the grinding wheel. This spindle is
fitted on a table along with its motor. With this spindle, the grinding wheel can be turned in
forward, backward, left, or right direction in running condition. Jobs of excellent finish and
accuracy are grinded with it. These grinders are of the following types:
1. Cylindrical grinder
2. Plung cut grinder
3. Form grinder
4. Internal grinder
5. Centreless grinder
6. Surface grinder
7. Universal grinder
8. Tool and cutter grinder
1. Cylindrical Grinder
The surface which has been made plain by shaper or plainer are grinded with this
grinder. The cylindrical surface is grinded with a machine in which grinding wheel is fitted
on the shaft of a free electric motor.
In this type of grinders, the grinding wheel is fitted on the machine’s work table, which can
be given crossfeed and the entire surface of the job can be grinded. These are of the following
three kinds:
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1. Plain Cylindrical Grinder

In this type of grinders, the job is rotated in chuck or center and the entire cylindrical
surface of the job is grinded. With this grinder finishing of sleeves, pins, rods, taper
pins, etc.
2. Roll Grinder
This type of grinder is used in steel mills, printing presses, etc, for grinding heavy
rollers.
3. Piston Grinder
Pistons of I.C. engines are required to be grinded not in round shape but in oval and
taper shape so that when their size increases due to heat these may not get deposited
in the cylinder. This grinder is specifically made for grinding of these shapes.
2. Plunge Cut Grinder

These grinders are used to grind small shafts. The diameter of the grinder is much more than
that of the job. The crankshaft of motor vehicles is a grinder with this grinder.
These are also called crankshaft grinding machines. This type of grinder is also made in a
different form for camshaft grinding. In order to save the shaft from becoming flexible,
steady rests are used.
3. Form Grinder
Grinding wheels of different shapes are made under this type of grinders. These wheels are
given feed and accurate grinding is done as per the shape of the grinding wheel on the
moving cylindrical surface. Under this category, three types of grinders are included. These
are:
1. Ordinary Form Grinder
These grinders are used for grinding jobs of ordinary shape. The principle of an
ordinary form grinder is shown in the figure.
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2. Thread Grinder
This type of grinder is used to cut accurate threads. Grinding wheels of the size and
shape of the thread are used. Its principle has been shown in the figure.
2. Gear Grinder
3.
The principle of gear grinder is shown in the figure. Grinding wheels of different forms are
used in this grinder to cut dents of different sizes and shapes.
4. Internal Grinder
These grinders are used for grinding round and hollow jobs whether the internal
surface of these job is completely round, ditched round, or is in taper. Small grinding
wheels of 3 cm to 5 cm, are used in such grinders. Sometimes grinding wheels of
special shape 0.2 cm to 0.3 cm. These grinders can be divided into two parts.
1. Chucking Grinder
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In this type of grinder, job is held in the chuck. The grinding wheel makes the
job accurate through grinding of its hollow part.
2. Planetary Grinder
In this type of grinder, while the job remains stationary, grind wheel moves
like a planet in eccentric motion in the inner part and grinds the inner surface.
Special arrangements are made to move the grinding up and down. its
principle has been illustrated in the figure.
5. Centreless Grinder
In this type of grinder, for holding the job on the chuck is used. The job is moved
through the medium of a grinding wheel and a regulating wheel. There are four main parts of
this grinder: (1) Grinding wheel (2) Work rest (3) Regulating wheel (4) Guide. Their
principle has been explained through the figure.
Jobs keep on touching the work rest blade because of the pressure of the grinding
wheel. The regulating wheel forces the job to spin at an equal speed. In this way, the
regulating wheel and the grinding wheel start moving in one direction. The job gets an
automatic forward speed.
The rate of movement of the job depends upon the inclination and speed of the regulating
wheel. It can be adjusted according to the requirement. This type of grinder is used in modern
workshops for mass production. Jobs of glass, porcelain, wood, rubber, plastic, iron and steel
and alloy are polished and finished with this grinder. The job can be placed in their position.
92
6. Surface Grinder
Flat surfaces are accurately grinded with, this type of grinders. For this grinder, the job is
held directly by a magnetic chuck or work table. The race-protecting table of plainting
or shaping machines is also used in form of a table. Their classification is done in two ways:
1. According to the table, they are of two types

1. Rotary table
2. Reciprocating table
2. According to the spindle, they are of the following types:

1. Vertical spindle grinder
2. Horizontal spindle grinder
1. Rotary Table Surface Grinder
This type of grinder has been shown in the figure. The work table rotates on its axis and
arrangement is also made for feeding this table.
3. Reciprocating Table Surface Grinder

4.
This type of grinder has been shown in the figure. This work table reciprocates like
a planer or shaper machine.
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3. Vertical Spindle Surface Grinder

In this type of grinder, grinding wheel is fixed vertical to the machine table or job.
4. Horizontal Spindle Surface Grinder
A horizontal spindle surface grinder is shown in the figure. The spindle of the grinding wheel
is fitted in a horizontal direction. The wheel is moved ahead slowly. When one stroke is
complete, it is driven back and horizontal grinding is done.
7. Universal Grinder
This is a sort of plain cylindrical grinder. Its worktable, headstock, and grinding head are of
swivel type. That is why all types of grinding can be done easily with this type of grinders.
8. Tool and Cutter Grinder

This is a small grinding machine. Drill, reamer, tap, and the particularly milling cutter is
grinded with this grinding machine. The grinding wheels are of soft grade which is of the
shape of a straight, flaired cup or dish type.
Its wheel head can be turned at any angle. It can be set on the table for various jobs, Tailstock
is fitted in its “T” slot on its working table. This complete table can be adjusted anywhere.
Job is held in the centre between headstock and tailstock at both the ends.
IV. TOOLS, EQUIPMENT & MATERIALS…………………….
1. Tools
1.1 Pedestal Grinder
1.2 Plier
2. Materials
3. Equipment
3.1 Working table
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IMPORTANT

V. TASKS (STEPS) & KEY POINTS…………………….…….
Working Steps in Using a Bench Grinder
Method 1: Turning on the grinder
1. Perform a safety check before turning the grinder on.

 Make sure the grinder is tightly secured to the bench.
 Check that the tool rest is in place on the grinder. The tool rest is where the metal item
will rest as you grind it. The rest should be secured in place so there is a 1/8 inch (3
mm) space between it and the grinding wheel.
 Clear the area around the grinder of objects and debris. There should be enough space
to easily push the piece of metal you are working with back and forth on the grinder.
 Fill a pot or bucket with water and place it near the metal grinder so you can cool off
any metal that gets too hot while you grind it.
95
2. Protect yourself from flying metal sparks. Wear safety glasses, steeled toed shoes
(or at least no open-toe shoes), ear plugs or muffs and a face mask to protect
yourself from grinding dust.
96
3. Turn the bench grinder on. Stand to the side until the grinder reaches maximum
speed.
4. Work the piece of metal. Move so you are directly in front of the grinder. Holding
the metal tightly in both hands, place it on the tool rest and slowly push it towards the
grinder until it touches the edge only. Do not allow the metal to touch the sides of the
grinder at any time.
5. Dip the piece in the water pot to cool the metal. To cool the metal off after or
during grinding, dip it into a bucket or pot of water. Keep your face away from the pot
to avoid the steam created by the hot metal hitting the cooler water.
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Method 2: Grinding, Cutting, Shaping and Sharpening
1. Grind a piece off the metal. Move the metal back and forth across the grinder until
the chunk of metal is gone. Holding the metal against the grinder in one place for too
long will warm it up, and could damage the piece.
2. Cut through a metal piece.

 Hold the metal on the tool rest and turn it gently until the grinder comes in
contact with the spot you want the cut.
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 Keep turning the piece until it breaks in half. Make sure you hold each end.
Dip both hot ends in water when you are done.
3. Shape a metal piece.

 Touch a piece of metal to the grinder at the spot where you want it to bend.
Use a back and forth motion, as you would to grind a part off.
 When you see the metal turning orange, it is warm enough to be pulled away
from the grinder. Use both hands to bend the metal to the shape you want.
Dip it in water once it is the right shape.
4. Sharpen a metal blade.

 Rest the piece on the tool rest and hold it securely with both hands.
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 Slowly push the blade into the grinder, angling it slightly up or down so the
grinder cuts metal away to create a pointed, sharp edge. Use the same
forward-and-back motion, rubbing the blade across the bench grinder to
prevent cutting into the blade or warming it up too much.
Safety Precautions:
Safety steps for proper use of grinding wheels include, but are not limited to:
• When switching on the machine, stand beside, because a damaged wheel

might burstduring acceleration.
• Always use safety goggles when grinding
• The tool rest should never have more than 2−3 mm distance to the grinding
wheel
• Small workpiecesshould be held with clamps or other suitable devices
• Keep the metal cool by dipping it frequently in water
• Stand comfortable and don’t give too much force to the workpiece because in
the case ofslip off with the workpiece you will grind your fingers or hand
• While grinding, use only the face of the wheel
• Damaged wheels or even wheels suspected of being damaged should not be
used.
• Always having machine guards in place before turning on a grinding wheel.
• Running wheels for at least one minute before actual work begins.
• Always using eye protection.
• properly balancing and dressing wheels before use.
Wheel dressing and truing is done with special tools designed for that purpose. Although
wheel dressing is often done manually between work cycles, some grinding machines
perform the dressing task automatically.
The application of coolants to the grinding process is important. Coolants reduce grinding
machine power requirements, maintain work quality, stabilize part dimensions, and insure
longer wheel life. Coolants are either emulsions, synthetic lubricants or special grinding oils.
Coolants are applied by either flooding the work area or by high pressure jet streams.
9. TEST/ REVIEW/ EXERCISES…………………….…….…….…….

A. What is grinding? Discuss its operation.
B. What are the different types of grinding machine operation? Discuss each
briefly.
C. What are the different types of grinding machine? Enumerate them.
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10. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS…………………….
SUBJECT MODULE
ACTIVITY NO.
CODE: WSTP TITLE ACTIVITY / PROJECT: Grinding
13
112
METROLOGY AND
NAME OF STUDENT:
BENCHWORK
to:
1. Grinding and Grinding machine
1.1 Operate different types of grinding machine.
1.2 know and familiarize grinding operation.
FACTORS RATING
R. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

S. ACCURACY/CRITICALITY (Exactness of
Criticality)
T. SPEED (50% over estimated time / 50% time
U. METHOD (Economical; use of tools, materials,
FINAL GRADE
REMARKS:
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
Assessed by:
______________________________
Instructor
101
RUBRICS
Few measurement
done incorrectly.
25% Safety

Working with
others
102
LIST OF REFERENCES
https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-hacksaw-frame/
https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-file-tools/
https://www.theengineerspost.com/what-is-grinding/
https://manufacturing.stanford.edu/processes/Grinding/
https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-grinding-machine/
https://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/safety_haz/abrasive_wheels/safeuse2.html
https://smithy.com/machining-handbook/
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ABOUT THE COMPILERS
Engr. Judson Ray A.Quitco
The compiler is a full-time faculty member of the College of Engineering Mechanical

Engineering Department of Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas. He has been
teaching mechanical engineering subjects for more than 2 years. He is a registered mechanical
engineer and a 2007 graduate of Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engieering from Technological
University of the Philippines-VisayasTalisay City.
He worked at Central Azucarera De La Carlota from 2008 to 2010 as a technical staff and
Cadet Engineer under the Mills department. He had been a technical auditor under the Internal Audit
Group of Roxas Holdings Inc. from April to September 2010.
He taught at Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas as a part-time faculty under the

Mechanical Engineering Technology (now Manufacturing Engineering Technology) from 2010 to
2013. He had been a foreign teacher in Vietnam and Cambodia from 2013 to 2018.
At present, he is continuing his Graduate Studies in Masters of Technology at the
Technological University of the Philippines Manila.
Engr. Dennis G. Quivis
The compiler is a part-time faculty member of the College of Engineering under the
Mechanical Engineering Department of Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas. He
received his Bachelor of Science in Mechanical Engineering from Technological University of the
Philippines Visayas in 2010.
Currently, he is taking up his Master in Technology degree in the same institution and in
involved in several projects related to waste water and water filtration industry.
Engr. Raymond L. Sia
The compiler has completed his Bachelors of Science in Mechanical Engineering degree from
the Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas in 1996. He has more than eighteen years of
industrial experience in shipbuilding industry and was assigned in shipyards of Japan, Korea, China,
and the Philippines.
Previously, he worked as Site Team Hull Supervisor with several European ship owners in their new
shipbuilding projects of various ship types including Bulk Carriers and Container Carriers of various
sizes. Also, he worked as Marine Surveyor for Germanischer Lloyd, a member of International
Association of Classification Society and was sent to its Headquarters in Hamburg, Germany for a
two-month “Basic Surveyor’s” Training in 2007. After the training he started doing inspections and
issuing of certifications of new ship construction, its materials and components as well as certifying of
manufacturing companies supplying its parts and components.
Presently, he is a part-time faculty member of the Mechanical Engineering Department of the College
of Engineering of the Technological University of the Philippines-Visayas for almost two years.

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

WSTP 112: METROLOGY

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

. Engr. Judson Ray A. Quitco

Engr. Raymond L. Sia

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

T - Transparent and participatory governance

II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES……………………….……....……… 79

List of References………………………………………………………………… 102

Hands-on practice gives high familiarity and creativity of a basic concept.

To demonstrate the value of high quality or correctness of the work.

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Students with Special Needs:

The student will be graded according to the following:

Average of examinations - 30%

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __8__

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO BENCHWORK AND LAYOUT

Upon completing this Learning Module, you will be able to:

1. define the meaning of the word “bench work;

II. CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

WHY USE HAND TOOLS?

A. Measuring & Layout Tools and Accessories

1. Surface Plate or Marking Table – Is a plate or a table made of cast iron or of

4. Solid Square or Try−Square – Is used for laying out workpiece in combination

5. Divider – The divider is used to transfer length or circles to the workpiece.

7. Surface Gauge or Vernier Height Gauge – Is normally used in combination with

8. Angle Plate – An angle plate is a precision L−shaped tool usually made of

9. V−Blocks or Prism – It is an accurate fabricated layout device to hold cylindrical

1) Laying out with Try−Square and Steel Rule

1. Remove all burrs from the workpiece and clean it properly.

2. Start the layout from a square machined (or filed) surface.

3. Use a try−square and a steel rule.

2) Laying Out Circles and Straight Line with the Divider.

1. Lay out the center of the circle

2. Punch the center of the circle

3) Laying Out Horizontal Lines with Surface Gauge

3. Hold the surface gauge down on the surface plate.

4) Laying Out With Protractor

5) Center Punch Procedure

1. Mark the material to be punched with an "X" (1).

III. TEST/ REVIEW/ EXERCISES…………………….…….…….…….

3. Give four (4) laying out procedures discussed in this topic.

IV. PRODUCTIVITY TEST SHEET/RUBRICS…………………….

SATISFACTORY TASK PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENT

I. QUALITY / APPEARANCE (Symmetry,

Weight Criteria 10 - 9 8-7 6-5 4-0

Time asks for additional

Tpub (n.d.). Using a Center Punch. Integrated Publishing, Inc.

Hacksaw and Hacksawing (Activity No. 9) ………………….

II. THEORIES / PRINCIPLES…………………………………

Following are the main two parts of a hacksaw:

Types of Hacksaw Frame

Following are the main two types of hacksaw frame:

1. Fixed Hacksaw Frame

Two types of handles are used:

1. Size of the blade.

3. Nature of the blade.

Types of Hacksaw Blades

Following are the main types of hacksaw blades:

1. Course Grade Hacksaw Blade

2. Medium Grade Hacksaw Blade

4. Superfine Grade Hacksaw Blade

Week No.: 8