Me 313b Fluid Machineries Module Week 10 13 PDF Free

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

Capt. Sabi St., City of Talisay, Negros Occidental
College of Engineering
Office of the Program Coordinator
LEARNING MODULE
ME 313B:
FLUID MACHINERIES
DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
COMPILED BY:
ENGR. DENNIS G. QUIVIS
2020
This module is a property of Technological University of the Philippines Visayas and intended
for EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES ONLY and is NOT FOR SALE NORFOR REPRODUCTION.
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VISION
The Technological University of the Philippines shall be the premier state university
with recognized excellence in engineering and technology at par with leading universities in
the ASEAN region.
MISSION
The University shall provide higher and advanced vocational, technical, industrial,
technological and professional education and training in industries and technology, and in
practical arts leading to certificates, diplomas and degrees.
It shall provide progressive leadership in applied research, developmental studies in
technical, industrial, and technological fields and production using indigenous materials;
effect technology transfer in the countryside; and assist in the development of small-and-
medium scale industries in identified growth center. (Reference: P.D. No. 1518, Section 2)
QUALITY POLICY
The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

higher and advanced technological education; conduct relevant research and extension
projects; continually improve its value to customers through enhancement of personnel
competence and effective quality management system compliant to statutory and regulatory
requirements; and adhere to its core values.
CORE VALUES
T - Transparent and participatory governance

U - Unity in the pursuit of TUP mission, goals, and objectives
P - Professionalism in the discharge of quality service
I - Integrity and commitment to maintain the good name of the University
A - Accountability for individual and organizational quality performance
N - Nationalism through tangible contribution to the rapid economic growth of the
country
S - Shared responsibility, hard work, and resourcefulness in compliance to the
mandates of the university
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page Numbers
TUP Vision, Mission, Quality Policy, and Core Values………………………. 1
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………... 2
Course Description……………………………………………………….. 2
Learning Outcomes………………………………………………………. 2
General Guidelines/Class Rules………………………………………….. 3
Grading System…………………………………………………………... 3
Learning Guide (Week No. 10) …………………………………………… 4
Topic/s……………………………………………………………. 4
Expected Competencies…………………………………………… 4
Content/Technical Information……………………………………. 4-15
Progress Check……………………………………………………. 16-17
References………………………………………………………… 17
Learning Guide (Week No. 11) …………………………………………… 18
Topic/s……………………………………………………………. 18
Expected Competencies………………………………………….. 18
Content/Technical Information …………………………………. 18-41
Progress Check…… …………………………………………….. 41-42
References……………………………………………………….. 42
Learning Guide (Week No. 12 & 13) ……………………………………...43
Topic/s……………………………………………………………. 43
Expected Competencies………………………………………….. 43
Content/Technical Information …………………………………. 43-57
Progress Check…… …………………………………………….. 57-58
References……………………………………………………….. 58
List of References………………………………………………...................... 59
About the Author/s…………………………………………………………… 59
COURSE DESCRIPTION
The course is a comprehensive study of the principles and theories in the proper
operation, selection and application of the most commonly used fluid machineries such as
pumps, fans, blowers, compressors and turbines.
COURSE OUTCOMES
1. Understand the relationship between speed, quantity of fluid flow, head and power in
the fluid machinery.
2. Select appropriate fluid machineries in relation to industrial applications.
3. Understand the safe and proper operations if fluid machineries.
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GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES
1. Make-up exams and quizzes will be given only with prior approval of the instructor and
under exceptional circumstances. For excused absences during the exam, the university
policy will be followed.
2. Students are not allowed to leave the classroom once the class has started, unless extremely
necessary. Students who leave the classroom without any valid reason will be marked absent.
3. Students are expected to comply strictly with the university rule on dress code, classroom
tardiness and attendance.
4. Cell phones or any 3-gadgets must be switched off or put in a silent mode during class
hours, except when allowed by the instructor for activities that require use of such gadgets.
5. Homework’s or projects submitted later that the two-week allowance or more on
exceptional cases will not anymore be accepted. Students are expected to maintain complete
honesty and integrity in their academic work. Acts of academic dishonesty, such as cheating,
plagiarism, or inappropriately using the work of others to satisfy course requirements, will
not be tolerated and may result in failure of the affected assignment and/or failure of this
class.
Students with Special Needs:

Students with special medical needs should inform the instructor/professor ahead to as how
they could be best assisted.
GRADING SYSTEM
The student will be graded according to the following:
Average of examinations - 50%

Average of assessments - 50%
Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
Midterm Grade : [(Midterm Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
End term Grade : [(Final Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]
Final Grade : (Prelim Grade x 0.30) + (Mid-term Grade x 0.30) + (End term Grade x 0.40)]
The passing grade for this course is 5.0.
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LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __10__
TOPIC/S:
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
EXPECTED COMPETENCIES:
1. Define displacement and reciprocating pumps;
2. Enumerate the different types of reciprocating pumps;
3. Differentiate direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps;
4. Specify the sizes of direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps; and
5. Analyze and solve problems involving reciprocating pumps.
CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION:
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals mainly with one of the positive displacement pumps-the reciprocating
pumps. It presents and defines the different types of reciprocating pumps specifically the
steam or direct-acting reciprocating pumps and the indirect-acting reciprocating pumps.
The discussion also includes sample problems that apply the necessary equation in the
analysis and design computations involving these two types of pumps.
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

A reciprocating pump is a machine in which the pumping action is accomplished by
the forward and backward movement of a piston inside a cylinder, usually provided
with valves. It is classified as a positive displacement pump.
In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first direct-acting reciprocating steam
pump used for feeding water into boilers.
A displacement pump is a pump in which energy is periodically added by application
of force to one or more movable boundaries of any desired number of enclosed, fluid-
containing volumes. These results in a direct increase in pressure, up to the value
required to move the fluid through valve or port into the discharge line.
TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS
To recapitulate, the types of reciprocating pumps are as follows:
A. Piston and plunger type reciprocating pumps

1. Steam or Direct-acting, double-acting pumps
a) Simplex pumps
b) Duplex pumps
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2. Power or indirect-acting pumps

a. Single-acting pumps
i. Simplex pumps
ii. Duplex pumps
iii. Triplex pumps
iv. Multiplex pumps
b. Double-acting pumps
i. Simplex pumps
ii. Duplex pumps
iii. Triplex pumps
iv. Multiplex pumps
B. Diaphragm-type reciprocating pumps

1. Simplex-type pumps
a. Fluid operated type
b. Mechanically operated type
2. Multiplex-type pumps
a. Fluid operated type
b. Mechanically operated type
CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS IN TERMS OF THE METHOD

OF DRIVING THE WATER PISTON OR FLUNGER
1. Direct-acting reciprocating pump is a pump that is motivated by the force of steam on

the steam piston. The steam and water pistons are connected by a piston rod. Any
force applied on the steam piston is transmitted to the water piston. Steam and water
pistons are normally double-acting, which means that every stoke of the water piston
is a delivery stroke.
Reciprocating pumps may be of either the piston type or the plunger type.
Figure 10.1
Direct-acting Reciprocating Pumps
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Cylinder and Piston Dimensions
Example:
203 x 254 x 305 mm

Length of stroke (common to both cylinders)
Diameter or Bore of water cylinder
Diameter of steam cylinder
2. Indirect-acting reciprocating pump is a pump in which water is driven by an electric

motor, internal combustion engine, steam turbine, gas turbine, or steam engine. It is
also called power pump. It has high efficiency and constant speed because of the type
of drive. It is capable of delivering constant quantity of fluid against a variable head.
It is either single-acting or double-acting.
The design of power pumps may be horizontal or vertical.
Figure 10.2
Indirect-acting Reciprocating Pumps
Cylinder and Piston Dimensions
Example:
203 x 305 mm
Length of stroke (common to both cylinders)
Diameter or Bore of water cylinder
CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER

OF WATER CYLINDERS
1. Simplex pump—a reciprocating pump with one cylinder

2. Duplex pump—a reciprocating pump with two cylinders
3. Multiplex—a reciprocating pump with three cylinders
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FORMULAS
1. Direct-acting pumps
a) Approximate commercial speed of piston
V = 1.38√L Ft
Where,
V = piston speed, m/min
L = length of stroke, mm
Ft = temperature correction factor
= 1.00 for cold water
= 0.85 for 32.2C water
= 0.71 for 65 ˚C water
= 0.55 for 204.4 ˚C water
b) Piston Displacement
𝜋 2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐷 𝑉𝑛
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Where,
VD = piston displacement, m3/min
D = diameter of water piston, m
V = piston speed, m/min
n = number of water cylinders
= 1 for simplex pump
= 2 for duplex pump
= 3 for triplex pump
c) Pump Duty –the work done in the water cylinders expressed in N-m/million joules
9.807mw (Hd − Hs )
Pump duty = × 106
1000ms (hs − he )
Where,
mw= water pumped, kg/s
ms = steam used, kg/s
Hd = discharge head of pump, m
Hs = suction head of pump, m
hs = enthalpy of supply steam, kJ/kg
he = enthalpy of exhaust steam, kJ/kg
d) Pump duty in terms of N-m per 1 000 kg dry steam
9.807mw (Hd − Hs )
Pump duty = × 106
1000ms (hs − he )
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Where,
pump duty is in N-m per 1 000 kg dry steam
ms = mass flow rate of dry steam used, kg/s
Hd = discharge head of pump, m
Hd = suction head of pump, m
2. Indirect-acting Pump
a) Rotative speed of directly coupled motor or the crank shaft
Ft
Nm = 907
√L
Where,
Nm = motor or crank shaft speed, rpm
L = length of stroke, mm
Ft = temperature correction factor
b) Piston displacement (rod neglected)

π 2
VD = D Vn
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Where,
VD= piston displacement, m3/min
L = length of stroke, m
D= bore or piston diameter, m
N= number of delivery strokes per minute
= Nm, for single-acting pump
= 2Nm, for double-acting pump
n = number of cylinders
c) Volumetric efficiency ( for both direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps)
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄

Ƞ𝑣 = 3
(100%) (100%)
𝑉𝐷 , 𝑚 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐷
d) Slip ( for both direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps)
Slip =1 - Ƞv
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT-ACTING RECIPROCATING

PUMPS OVER CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
Advantages
The design is simpler and pumping action is readily understood by an average
mechanic.
The operation is more flexible.
The operation is fairly quiet and can be set on a simple light foundation.
It is not likely to become misaligned.
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It has a comparatively low initial cost and a capacity of up to several hundred liters
per minute.
Disadvantages
Oily exhaust steam
Low thermal efficiency
More inspection and maintenance required
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
1. Select the suitable dimensions for a duplex, direct-acting steam pump for the
following boiler services: 265 lpm against 0.863 Mpaa boiler pressures water is at
93°C; boiler water level is 5.5 m above pump; pump is 2.0 m below source of water;
water cylinder, D = L; and volumetric efficiency is 90%. Neglect velocity head and
pipe friction. Find the water power.
Given: The figure shown:
D=L
Q = 265 lpm
Ƞv = 90%
Required:
a) Suitable dimensions of duplex, direct-acting pump
b) Water power
Solution:
a) Determination of suitable dimensions
• Solving for the piston displacement,
𝑄 (0.265 𝑚3⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑃𝐷 = = = 0.294 𝑚3⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 294 × 106 𝑚𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
Ƞ𝑣 0.90
•From the equation of PD,

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 = ( ) 𝐷2 𝑉𝑛 ( ) 𝐷2 (1.38√𝐿 𝐹𝑡 ) = ( ) 𝐷2 (1380√𝐿 𝐹𝑡 )𝑛, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑉 = 1380 √𝐿 𝐹𝑡
4 4 4
Where,
V =1.38√𝐿𝐹𝑡 →m/min
V = 1380 √𝐿𝐹𝑡 →mm/min
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Then,
𝜋 𝜋 5
𝑃𝐷 = ( ) 𝐷2 (1380√𝐿𝐹𝑡 )𝑛 = ( ) (√𝐷) (1380)Ft n
4 4
•Solving for D, where Ft = 0.6783 (interpolated)
2 2
4𝑃𝐷 5 4(294)106 5
𝐷=[ ] [ ] = 131.94 ≈ 132𝑚𝑚
𝜋(1380)𝐹𝑡 𝑛 𝜋(1380)(0.6783)(2)
Therefore, the suitable size is D x L = 132 x 132 mm. ANSWER
b) For the water power or pump theoretical work
•Solving for the TDH of the pump, HA + TDH = HB + HLAB
𝑝𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑝𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑧𝐴 + 𝑇𝐷𝐻 = + + 𝑧𝐵
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
Where,
𝑉𝐴 = 0; 𝑉𝐵 = 0; &𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵 = 0
• Solving for the TDH, where, at 93°C, p = 963.2 kg/m3
𝑝𝐵 − 𝑝𝐴 (863000 − 101325)
𝑇𝐷𝐻 = + (𝑧𝐵 − 𝑧𝐴 ) = + (5.5 − 2) = 84.11𝑚
𝜌𝑔 963.2(9.81)
• Solving for the water power,
𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝑇𝐷𝐻) (963.2)(9.81)(0.265/60)(84.11)
𝑊𝑃 = = = 3.51𝑘𝑊
1000 1000
2. Results of a test on a `254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump are as

following: Test time, 60 minutes; speed, 38 strokes per minute per cylinder; TDH is
76 m; 82.2°C water; water pumped is 22 680 kg. Determine: a) volumetric
efficiency; b) water power; and c) slip.
Given: A 254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump
Time = 60 minutes
Speed = 38 strokes per minute per cylinder
Water temperature = 82.2°C
Mass of water pumped = 22 680 kg
n =2
TDH =76 m
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Required:
a) Volumetric efficiency, ɛv
b) Water power, WP
c) Slip
Solution:
• For the piston speed,
V = (0.305 m/stroke) (38 strokes per min per cylinder) = 11.59 m/min
•For the piston displacement,
𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 = ( ) 𝐷2 𝑉𝑛 = ( ) (0.152)2 (11.59)(2) = 0.4206 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 4
•For the pump capacity, at 82,2°C, p = 970.3 kg/m3
22680 𝑘𝑔
𝑄= = 0.39 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
(60 𝑚𝑖𝑛)(970.3𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )
a. Solving for the volumetric efficiency
𝑄 0.39
𝜀𝑣 = (100%) = ( ) (100%) = 92.72%
𝑃𝐷 0.4206
b. Solving for the water power
𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝑇𝐷𝐻) (970.3)(9.81)(0.39⁄60)(76)
𝑊𝑃 = = = 4.7𝑘𝑊
1000 1000
c. Solving for the slip
Slip = 1- ɛv = (1 – 0.9272) 100% = 7.28% ANSWER
3. Results of a test on a 254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump are as follows:
Test time, 60 minutes; steam used 567 kg at 1.38 Mpaa saturated staem; exhaust at
0.101 Mpaa; speed, 38 strokes per minute per cylinder; water pumped, 22 680 kg;
TDH, 76 m at 82°C water. Determine: a) volumetric efficiency; b) water power; and
c) pump duty.
Given: a 254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump
Time = 60 minutes
Mass of steam used = 567 kg
Pressure of saturated steam = 1.38 Mpaa
Pressure of exhaust steam = 0.101 Mpaa
Speed = 38 strokes per min per cylinder
Mass of water pumped = 22 680 kg
Total dynamic head, TDH = 76 m
Number of cylinders = 2 cylinders
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Temperature of water = 82°C
Required:
a) Volumetric efficiency, ɛv
b) Water power, WP
c) Pump duty
Solution:
•For the piston speed,
V = (0.305 m/stoke) (38 strokes per min per cylinder) = 11.59 m/min
•For the piston displacement,

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 = ( ) 𝐷2 𝑉𝑛 = ( ) (0.152)2 (11.59)(2) = 0.4206 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 4
•For the actual volume flow rate, at 82°C, vf = 1.0305 x 103m3/kg, r = 970.40 kg/m3
22680𝑘𝑔
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑤 (𝑣𝑓 ) = ( ) (1.0305 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 ) = 0.3895 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
60𝑚𝑖𝑛
a) Solving for the volumetric efficiency
𝑄 0.3895
𝜀𝑣 = ( ) (100%) = ( ) (100%) = 92.61% 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝑃𝐷 0.4206
b) Solving for the water power of the pump
𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝑇𝐷𝐻) (970.40)(9.81)(0.3895⁄60)(76)
𝑊𝑃 = = = 4.7𝑘𝑊
1000 1000
c) Solving for the pump duty
9,807𝑚𝑤 (𝐻𝑑 − 𝐻𝑠 )
Pump duty = × 106
( )(
1000 𝑚𝑠 ℎ𝑠 − ℎ𝑒 )
Where,
Hd – Hs = TDH = 76 m
hs= enthalpy of supply steam at 1.38 Mpaa and saturated = 2 789.6 kJ/kg
he= enthalpy of exhaust saturated water at 0.101 Mpaa = hf = 417.46 kJ/kg
Therefore,
9.807(22680)(76)106 𝑁•𝑚
Pump duty = = 0.0126
1000(567)(2789.6 − 417.46) 𝑀𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
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4. What size of 1 750-rpm motor should be used to drive a 100 x 200mm single-acting
triplex power pump? Pump efficiency = 88%; mechanical efficiency = 90%. What V-
belt pulley diameter should be used? Water temperature = 110°C. TDH = 24.6 kg/cm2
= 258.69 m.
Given: Single-acting, triplex pump
Nm = 1 750 rpm hp = 88% TDH = 258.69 m

Dw = 100 mm hm = 90% t =110°C
L = 200 mm ɛv = 95%
Required:
a) Size of the driving motor
b) Size of the V-belt pulley
Solution:
From steam tables, at 110°C, vf = 1.0516 x 10-3 m3 /kg, r = 950.932 kg/m3
(24.6𝑘𝑔⁄𝑐𝑚2 )(10000𝑐𝑚2 ⁄𝑚2 )

For the TDH, 𝑇𝐷𝐻 = = 258.69 𝑚
(950.932𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 )
907𝐹𝑡 (907)(0.6587)
For the crankshaft rpm, 𝑁 = = = 42.25 𝑟𝑝𝑚
√𝐿 √200
Where,
Ft=0.6587 (interpolated)
For the piston displacement,

𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝐷 = ( ) 𝐷2 𝐿𝑁𝑚 = ( ) (0.10)2 (0.20)(42.25)(3) = 0.199 m3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 2
For the actual volume flow rate,
Q = (PD) (ev) = 0.199 (0.95) = 0.189 m3/min
a) Solving for the brake power of the driving motor
Pump brake power,
𝑊𝑃 𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝑇𝐷𝐻) (950.932)(9.81)(0.189⁄60)(258.69)
𝐵𝑃 = = = = 8.64𝑘𝑊
Ƞ𝑝 1000Ƞ𝑝 1000(0.88)
Then, motor brake power BPM,
𝐵𝑃 8.64
𝐵𝑃𝑀 = = = 9.60𝑘𝑊
Ƞ𝑚 0.90
Therefore, use, say, a 10-kW motor.
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b) Solving for the V-belt pulley size
From machine design textbooks, the type of V-belt to be

used for a 9.6-kW drive power is section “B” at 1800 rpm.
Recommended range of small pitch diameter is from
137 to 188 mm. If the small pitch diameter is 137 mm,
the crankshaft pulley diameter, for single reduction is
137 x 41.42 = 5 675 mm or 5.675 m, which is unrealistic.
Multiple reduction by belt drive is not recommended.
(Note: 41.42 is the speed ratio).
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER:

A reciprocating pump, also known as a piston pump, is a pump in which motion and
pressure are applied to the fluid by a reciprocating piston in a cylinder.
A piston rod is a rod that is connected to the piston, and either moves or is moved by
the piston.
Piston speed is the distance traveled by a piston in a given time usually expressed in
fpm or m/s.
The volume that the piston in a cylinder displaces in a single stroke is known as
volume displacement. It is equal to the product of the product of the distance the
piston travels (stroke) and the internal cross section of the cylinder.
A direct-acting pump is a displacement-reciprocating pump in which the steam or
power piston is connected to the pump piston by means of a rod, without crank
motion or flywheel.
A displacement pump is a pump that develops its action through the alternate filling
and emptying of an enclosed volume in a piston-cylinder system.
A positive displacement pump is a pump in which a measured quantity of liquid is
entrapped in a space, its pressure raised, and is delivered like a reciprocating piston
cylinder, rotary vane, gear, or lobe pumps.
A gear pump is a rotary pump in which two meshing gear wheels rotate in opposite
directions so that the liquid is entrained on one side and discharged on the other side.
Rotary pumps are displacement pumps that deliver a steady flow by the action of two
members in rotational contact.
A screw-type pump is a displacement pump that raises liquid by means of helical
impellers in the pump casing.
A duplex pump is a reciprocating pump with two parallel cylinders.
A submersible pump is one in which the pump itself and its electric driving motor are
together in a protective housing that permits the unit to operate underwater.
Submersible pumps are either rotary, centrifugal, or reciprocating pumps.
A regenerative pump, also known as a turbine pump, has a rotating-vane device that
uses a combination of mechanical impulse and centrifugal force to produce high
liquid heads at low discharge.
A vertical turbine pump, also known as a deep-well pump, is a multi-stage centrifugal
pump used for lifting water from deep and small-diameter wells. A surface electric
motor operates the shaft.
A hydraulic machine is powered by a motor activated by the confined flow of a
stream of liquid, such as oil or water under pressure.
A hydraulic motor is activated by water or other liquid under pressure.
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A jet pump is a pump in which an accelerating jet entrains a second fluid to deliver it
at elevated pressure.
The rotative speed (N) in rpm, of an indirect-acting reciprocating pump for cold water
is given by the equation, N = 907 (L -0.5), where L is the stroke in mm.
A hydraulic pump, also known as a hydraulic ram, is used to force running water to a
higher level by using kinetic energy of flow. The flow of water in the supply pipeline
is periodically stopped so that a small portion of water is lifted by the velocity head of
a larger portion.
The science and technology concerning the mechanics of fluids, especially liquids, is
known as hydraulics.
Steady flow is a flow of fluids in which all the conditions at any one point in a pipe
line are constant with respect to time.
Triplex pumps are three-cylindered pumps used to produce overlapping deliveries and
minimize pulsation.
The discharge capacity of a reciprocating pump is given by the equation, Q = ƞ v VD,
where VD is the volume displacement in m3/s, ƞv is the volumetric efficiency, and Q is
the discharge capacity of the pump in m3/s.
A direct-acting, steam-driven reciprocating pump is one in which the steam piston
connects directly to the liquid piston or plunger.
In 1840, Henry R. Worthington invented the first reciprocating steam pump for
feeding water into a boiler.
There are two general types of direct-acting steam pumps: the simplex and the duplex.
The simplex type has one steam and one water cylinder, while the duplex type has
two duplicate steam and two water cylinders.
A plunger-type pump is a reciprocating pump where the packing is on the stationary
casing instead of on the moving piston.
A diaphragm pump is a reciprocating pump used as a diaphragm to isolate the
operating parts from pumped liquid in a mechanically actuated diaphragm.
Diaphragm pumps, another design of reciprocating pumps, are used for handling thick
pulps, sewage sludge, acids or alkaline solutions, mixture of water and gritty solids
that wear out metal pumps, as well as liquid solutions or pulps where a constant flow
volume is required.
The diaphragm in a diaphragm pump is made of special rubber that resist corrosion,
abrasion, and in special cases, oil and high temperature.
Sludge pumps are primarily designed for pumping sludge or substances too heavy to
be handled successfully by centrifugal pumps.
16
Progress Check:
I. Solve the following problems. Provide diagrams.

1. The volumetric efficiency of an 96 × 128 × 154 mm duplex, direct-acting pump is
90%. Determine a) the commercial piston speed; and b) the pump discharge rate.
2. A duplex, 226 × 134 × 256 mm, steam broiler feed pump is operating at normal
speed. If the temperature of feed water is 93℃ and the volumetric efficiency is 90%,
determine the a) piston speed; b) pump discharge rate; and c) pump speed in strokes
per min per cylinder.
3. The following are the test result for a 254 × 152 × 306 mm duplex, direct acting
pump:
Time of test = 1 hr
Steam used at 1.4 Mpaa, Saturated = 568 kg
Steam exhaust pressure = 0.10 Mpaa
Piston speed = 38 strokes per cylinder
Water pumped = 22 700 kg
Pump TDH = 76 m
Water temperature = 82℃
Determine the a) pump discharge rate; b) pump volumetric efficiency; c) pump
waterpower; and d) pump duty.
4. A 110 × 210 mm single acting, triplex, indirect-acting pump is driven by a 1760 rpm
electric motor. The temperature of water is 110℃ and the pump TDH is 230 m. If the
pump efficiency is 88%, the volumetric efficiency is 95%, and the mechanical
efficiency is 90%, specify the size of the driving motor.
5. Select the suitable dimensions of a duplex, direct-acting, pump for the following
boiler service:
Pump discharge = 260 lpm
Boiler pressure = 860 kPaa
Feed water temperature = 94℃
Boiler water level above pump centerline = 5.5 m
Pump dimension = 𝐷𝑤 = 𝐿
Volumetric efficiency = 90%
Neglecting the velocity head and pipe friction, determine the water power.
6. A 254 × 152.4 mm duplex direct-acting pump with 38.1 mm piston rods makes 35
double strokes per cylinder per minute and delivers 511 lpm of 38℃ against a total
head of 140 m. The steam is supplied to the steam cylinder at a pressure of 1.2 MPaa
and exhaust to the atmosphere. Amount of steam supplied is 0.5 kg/s at 98% quality.
Assume that the piston makes a full stroke. Determine the a) piston displacement,
m3/s; b) pump slip; c) water power delivered; and d) thermal efficiency of the pump.
7. Determine the discharge rate, in lps, of a 254 × 152.5 × 305 mm duplex pump
operating at 35 strokes per minute if the slip is 7% and the water is at66℃.
8. Determine the actual displacement of a 152.4 × 101.6 × 254 mm simplex, direct-
acting pump in lpm when the inlet pressure is 103.675 kPag and the outlet pressure is
1378.675 kPag. Water enters at 110℃, slip is 12%, and the speed is 40 strokes per
min.
9. Select a duplex pump for boiler feed service. Suction pressure is 83 kPaa, water
temperature is 88℃, and discharges pressure is 1136.675 kPag. Assume 70%
volumetric efficiency, 567.81 lpm, and 64.675 kPag to 55.675 kPag.
10. The following data were taken during the rest of a pump: 38 550 kg/hr; 4-inch
schedule 40 inlet pipe; 3-inch schedule 40 discharge pipe; gauge in suction line
17
located 86.36 cm below the pump centerline reads 1 206.25 kPa, water temperature is
49℃, input to pump 24 Hp. Find the developed head and the pump efficiency.
II. Research Activity.

1. What is a rotary pump and its operational principle?
2. What are the different types of rotary pumps? Discuss each type and draw necessary
figures/diagrams.
REFERENCE/S
Textbook/s :
Francisco, Jose (2007). Guidebook in Fluid Machinery, C&E Publishing

Inc.
18
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __11__
TOPIC/S:
HYDRAULIC TURBINES
1. Define hydraulic turbine;
2. Enumerate the different classification of hydraulic turbines;
3. Differentiate impulse turbine from reaction turbine;
4. Draw the schematic diagrams of the systems for reaction turbine and impulse turbine;
5. Determine and calculate the effective head of reaction and impulse turbines from the
schematic diagram;
6. Calculate the friction loss in the penstock;
7. Calculate specific speed and determine the types of hydraulic turbines in terms of
specific speed; and
8. Analyze and solve problems involving reaction and impulse turbines.
HYDRAULIC TURBINES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the hydraulic turbines, specifically the impulse turbine and the
reaction turbine. It enumerates the different classifications of hydraulic turbines; presents the
schematic diagrams of impulse and reaction turbines and explains the specific speed of
hydraulic turbines. Again, the discussion includes sample problems that illustrate or analyze
the system and design computations.

Hydraulic turbines are water wheels in which the motion of water relative to its
bucket is essential to its action.
Hydraulic turbines are machines that convert the energy of an elevated water supply
into mechanical energy through a rotating shaft.
Hydraulic loss is the loss in fluid power due to flow friction within the system.
Hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is produced by
hydroelectric generators. In this facility:
Water is the main source of energy.
Kinetic energy and potential energy are converted to mechanical work.
Hydraulic turbine is the prime mover.
Input power is the water horsepower.
Output power is the turbine horsepower.
19
CLASSIFICATION OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES
1. According to the action of water

a. Impulse turbine
b. Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of water flow

a. Radial outward
b. Radial inward
c. Axial or parallel
d. Mixed radial
3. According to the position of shaft

a. Vertical turbine
b. Horizontal turbine
IMPULSE TURBINE
Impulse turbine is a hydraulic turbine or a prime mover in which fluid under pressure
enters a stationary nozzle where its pressure (potential) energy is converted to velocity
(kinetic) energy and absorbed by the rotor.
It is also known as tangential wheel or Pelton wheel.

The name Pelton is to acknowledge and honor its inventor Lester A. Pelton of
California.
The wheel passage is not completely filled with water.
The water acting on wheel is always atmospheric.
It utilizes kinetic energy of high velocity jet.
It is used for high head above 200 ft but most commonly applied to heads above 700
ft.
The range of head from 200 to 700 ft is used for small units.
Heads of 5 000 ft have been used in European installations.
Impulse turbine’s efficiencies vary from about 82% to 90%.
The net effective head is measured at the bottom of the pitch circle of the runner with
no consideration given to the water level at the tailrace (because there is no draft
tube).
Working Principle
The potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy by passing it
through a nozzle. Once we have high speed water jet, we can use its impact to rotate a
turbine.
Or we can say, it works on Newton’s second law of motion, that it depends on two main
factors, mass of water flowing in-to turbine, and change in the velocity of the flow coming in-
to turbine to that of going out of turbine after impact. As the mass of water entering into the
turbine is same as the water going out of turbine after impact, but with a considerable
decrement in its velocity. And the intensity of impact depends upon the time taken by
velocity to change from maximum (jet velocity) to minimum. Thus impulse turbine only
uses the kinetic energy of water to get its power.
20
Components of Impulse Turbine
Figure 11.1
Main Parts of Impulse Turbine
1. Runner
It is a solid circular-disc with cylindrical shaft in the center. The shaft and the runner both
are made from high strength stainless steel where load on the turbine is considerably high.
Runners are also made from cast iron where available water head is a bit low, thus force on
turbine is not that high.
2. Buckets
Buckets are cup type hollow hemispherical structures, bolted on the periphery of the
runner. Jet strikes these buckets to rotate the runner. Their design plays a vital role in
deciding the efficiency of a turbine. . These are made either from stainless-steel or cast iron.
3. Nozzle and Spear

Nozzle directs the flow of water to the buckets, with an increased velocity coming
from a high head. Spear is a conical structure which is moved in and out of nozzle to regulate
the flow of water striking the buckets.
4. Casing
Casing of an impulse turbine is a preventive shielding over the turbine, usually made
of cast iron. It also prevents the water from splashing, and also guides it to the spill way.
Types of Impulse Turbine
1. Pelton Wheel Turbine

Pelton wheel turbine is the most efficient turbine in the family of impulse
turbines. It is at its best when the available water head is high. The buckets of pelton
wheel have two hemispherical cups attached to each other, in such a way that their
attachment point is a common edge (sharp) called splitter. Splitter splits the water jet
into two parts, thus making it to flow along the curved path of both the buckets, and
21
transfer the momentum of water to the runner. Pelton wheel turbine also has a
breaking jet and a deflector mechanism.
2. Turgo Water Turbine

Turgo is another efficient turbine, it is almost similar to pelton wheel turbine
the only difference is that it has one hemispherical bucket instead of two. So water
jets strikes this bucket at its center and thus transfer the momentum of water to the
turbine. Turgo turbine is efficient for both medium and high water head.
3. Cross-flow Turbine
This impulse turbine has cylindrical runner with guide blades at its periphery.
These blades are shaped like an arc of a circle and extend along the length of a runner.
Water flows transversely through the runner. As water runs through the runner, it
passes over the blades twice, thus increasing the turbines efficiency. Cross-flow is
most efficient where the water head is low, but with good flow velocity. It has got 2
nozzles to distribute the flow of water evenly along the length of the runner.
Working of Impulse Turbine
Water stored at a height is passed through a nozzle, situated almost at ground level or
ever below ground level. Thus converting the energy of stored water into high speed jet. This
high speed water jet strikes the buckets or blades attached to the runner, forcing runner to
rotate at its own axis. Thus converting the energy of high speed-jet into rotational energy.
This rotational movement of turbine shaft is used to produce electricity through generator.
Spear is moved in and out of nozzle to regulate the flow of water, according to the load on
turbine. To get maximum power output from a turbine the velocity of jet striking the buckets
should be as much as twice the speed of rotating buckets. So velocity of water-jet is regulated
according to the load or rpm of turbine in such a way that we can keep turbine running in its
most efficient range.
Moreover, practically we use 3 to 4 nozzles instead of one. This is done to deal with
the high loads on turbine and to increase the power output capability of a turbine. Power is
also regulated by closing few nozzles when load on the turbine is low.
When the load on the turbine decreases suddenly, and spear could not act fast enough to
regulate the flow of water-jet, the rpm of turbine will keep on increasing and could damage
the turbine. To prevent this from happening we use deflector which deflects the flow of water
jet away from the turbine buckets. Thus keeping turbine under safe limits.
Applications
It is used worldwide to produce electrical energy in a number of hydro-power plants.

Turbochargers in automobiles uses the pressure energy of exhaust gases through impulse
turbine. Where hot and pressurized gases coming out of exhaust are converted into high
velocity jet by passing them through nozzle.
It is also used in reverse osmosis plant, where waste water jet velocity is used to run turbine,
thus acts as an energy recovery system.
22
REACTION TURBINE
Reaction turbine is a hydraulic turbine or a power-generation prime mover utilizing
the steady flow principle of fluid acceleration, in which nozzles are mounted on the moving
element.
It is also known as the Francis type after James B. Francis, an American who
developed this type of turbine runner.
It develops power from the combined action of pressure and velocity of the water.
It is a revised form of a centrifugal pump.
The wheel passages are completely filled with water.
The water acting on wheel under pressure is always greater than the atmospheric
pressure.
Energy used are both kinetic and pressure energy.
It is used for medium heads, usually employed for heads of 70 to 900 ft, and at times,
up to 1 100 ft.
Francis type may have either a horizontal or vertical shaft.
Efficiencies range from 90% to 94%.
Working Principle
The working of the reaction turbine can be well understand by taking a rotor having moving
nozzles and water of high pressure is coming out of the nozzle. As the water leaves the
nozzle, a reaction force is experienced by the nozzle. This reaction force rotates the rotor at
very high speed.
In the same way in reaction turbine, a reaction force is generated by the fluid moving on the
runner blades. The reaction force produced on the runner blades makes the runner to rotate.
Fluid after moving over the runner blades enters into draft tube and finally to the trail race.
Main Components
Figure 11.2
Main Parts of Reaction Turbine
23
1. Spiral casing
It is a spiral casing, with uniformly decreasing cross- section area, along the
circumference. Its decreasing cross-section area makes sure that we have a uniform velocity
of the water striking the runner blades, as we have openings for water flow in-to the runner
blades from the very starting of the casing, so pressure would decrease as it travels along the
casing. So we reduce its cross-section area along its circumference to make pressure uniform,
thus uniform momentum or velocity striking the runner blades.
2. Guide vanes
Guide vanes are installed in the spiral casing, their most important function is to make
sure that water striking the runner blades must have a direction along length of the axis of
turbine otherwise the flow would be highly swirling as it moves through spiral casing,
making it in-efficient to rotate runner blades. The angle of these guide vanes is adjustable in
modern turbines, and we can adjust the water flow rate by varying the angle of these guide
vanes according to the load on the turbine.
3. Runner blades
Runner blades are said to be heart of a reaction turbine. It is the shape of the runner
blades which uses the pressure energy of water to run turbine. Their design plays a major role
in deciding the efficiency of a turbine. In modern turbines these blades can pitch about their
axis, thus can vary the pressure force acting on them according to the load and available
pressure.
4. Draft tube
Draft tube connects the runner exit to the tail race. Its cross-section area increases
along its length, as the water coming out of runner blades is at considerably low pressure, so
its expanding cross-section area help it to recover the pressure as it flows towards tail race.
Working of Reaction Turbine
Low head and high velocity water enters the spiral casing. And as it enters the casing
it starts flowing through guide vanes into the runner blades. Guide vanes guides the flow of
water to strike the runner blades at proper angle, to produce maximum power output. The
24
water flowing through spiral casing is able to keep its pressure energy consistent throughout
the circumference of spiral casing due to its uniformly decreasing cross-section area. These
guide vanes can change their angle to increase or decrease the flow rate of water into turbine.
And the runner blades are also made adjustable, as when the flow of water is fast and energy
demand is less then they would pitch themselves to incline at a smaller angle with the axis of
turbine. And when the load on the turbine is more and flow of water is less, they would adjust
themselves at a greater angle with the axis of turbine. Two factors which determines the
efficiency of a reaction turbine are the angle of attack of water when it strike runner blades,
and the profile of runner blade over which water glides. Due to the adjustability of both the
guide vanes and runner blades, we are now able to use this turbine over a wide range of water
potential and load demands.
Water coming out after striking the runner blades, is at a really low pressure, so it is
passed through a draft tube with uniformly increasing cross-section area to recover its
pressure as it reaches the tail race. But unfortunately the pressure difference is too high to be
recovered by a draft tube, so this results in the problem of cavitation and corrosion.
Applications
Reaction turbine is used in wind power mills to generate electricity
It is most widely used turbine in hydro-power plants, to generate electricity.
It is the only turbine to get maximum power output from a low available water head and high
velocity other than cross-flow turbine which not that efficient.
TYPES OF WATER TURBINE RUNNER

1. Propeller or axial turbine or Kaplan turbine is a special type of propeller turbine
featuring variable –angle blades that can be changed with water flow to maintain high
efficiency.
2. Francis or radial- and mixed-flow turbine is used for an intermediate range of heads.
3. Pelton or impulse turbine is used in the highest heads.
SPECIFIC SPEED
The specific speed of a hydraulic turbine is the speed in rpm in which a geometrically
similar or homologous turbine would operate to deliver one (1) brake horsepower under a
head of one foot.
𝑁√𝐵𝑃
𝑁𝑠 = 5
𝐻4
Where,
NS =specific speed, rpm
N = rpm at a given head
BP = brake power, Hp
RANGES OF SPECIFIC SPEED
Types of hydraulic turbines are classified in terms of the following specific speed ranges:
1. Impulse or Pelton wheel —used for highest heads, NS = 3.5 to 4.3 rpm
2. Francis runners — used for intermediate heads, NS = 18 TO 85 rpm
3. Mixed-flow runners — used for medium to low heads, NS 100 to 125 rpm
4. Propeller runners — used for lowest heads, NS =110 to 150 rpm
25
5. Kaplan runners — with pivoted blades that can be angled for best efficiency at
any load, NS = 80 to 150 rpm
HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

A hydroelectric power plant is a facility where electric energy is produced by
hydroelectric generators.
Definition of Terms for a Hydroelectric Power Plant
Gross Head is the total difference in elevation between the water surface in the stream
at the diversion and the water surface in the stream at the point where the water is
returned after having been used for power.
Net or Effective head is the head available for energy production after deducting
losses in friction.
Hydraulic efficiency is equal to the ratio of net head to gross head.
Overall efficiency is equal to the hydraulic efficiency multiplied by the efficiency of
the turbines and generators. The overall efficiency of hydroelectric plants operating at
optimum conditions is usually somewhere between 60% to 70%.
Capacity is the maximum power that can be developed by the generator at a normal
head with full flow.
Firm or Primary power is the power which a plant is expected to deliver 100% of the
time. For a single hydroelectric power, it corresponds to the power developed when
available water, including that derived from storage, is at a minimum.
Surplus or Secondary power is all power available in excess of firm power.
TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
1. Storage-type plant or high-head hydroelectric plant is one with a reservoir of

sufficient size to permit carry-over storage from the wet season to dry season, and
thus develops a firm flow, substantially more than the minimum natural flow.
Figure 11.3
Storage –Type Plant
26
2. A run-of-river plant is one that has very limited storage capacity, and uses water only
as it comes. Some plants have enough storage, called pondage, to permit storing water
during the off-peak-hour for use during peak-hour of the day. Run-of-river plants are
suitable only for streams that have a sustained flow during the dry season or where
other reservoirs upstream provide the necessary storage.
Figure 11.4
Run-of-River Plant
3. Pumped-storage plant or Hydraulic accumulator is one that generates power for peak
loads. At an off-peak-hour period, water is pumped from the tailwater pool to the
headwater pool for future use. The pumps are powered with secondary power from
some other plants in the system. For heads from 50 to 300 ft, reversible pump-turbines
have been devised to operate at relatively high efficiency as either a pump or a
turbine. The same electric unit serves as generator and motor by reversing poles. Such
a machine may reduce the cost of a pumped-storage project by eliminating the extra
pumping equipment and pump house. The reversible pump-turbine is a compromise in
design between Francis turbine and a centrifugal pump. Its function is reversed by
changing the direction of rotation.
Figure 11.4
Pumped-Storage Hydroelectric Plant
27
Reservoir is the chamber that stores water coming from the Upper River or waterfalls.
Headwater is the water stored in the reservoir.
Spillway is a passage in the reservoir which discharges excess water to maintain the
head of the plant.
Dam is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.
Slit Sluice is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the mud is
discharged.
Trash rack is the screen that prevents leaves, branches, and other contaminants to
enter into the penstock.
Valve is the reservoir component that opens or closes the entrance of the water into
the penstock.
Surge chamber is a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and attached to the
penstock so that the water will be at atmospheric pressure.
Penstock is the channel that directs water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Tailwater is the water that is discharged from the turbine.
DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE HEAD FOR IMPULSE TURBINE
•To determine the effective head for an impulse turbine, consider the following schematic
diagram:
Figure 11.5
Effective Head-Impulse Turbine
Consider the following parameters in Figure 11.5.

Hg = gross head, m
Heff = effective head, m
hf = friction head loss in the penstock, m
Z1 = turbine setting, m
P = pressure at the base of the nozzle, Paa
ρ = density of water
f = friction factor
V = velocity of water in the penstock
g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.8066 m/s2
28
GROSS HEAD
Hg = headwater elevation – tailwater elevation
EFFECTIVE HEAD
•Consider points A and B in Figure 6.4 and apply Bernoulli’s equation.
𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + H𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝐻𝑔 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + + + (ℎ𝑓 + 𝑍𝑓 )
Where,
PA =0 gauge
PB =0 gauge
VA =0
VB =0
Then Hg = Heff + hf + Z1
Heff = Hg - hf - Z1 = effective head
•Then, consider points C to B and apply Bernoulli’s equation.
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 𝐻𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐶𝐵
𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + + + 𝑍1
Where,
PB = 0 gauge;
VB = 0
VC = velocity of water at the nozzle, m/s
Then,
𝑃𝑐 𝑉𝐶2
+ + 𝑍1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 𝑍1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2 𝑃 𝑉𝐶2
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + = +
29
FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN THE PENSTOCK
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
PENSTOCK EFFICIENCY
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
Ƞ𝑝 = (100%)
𝐻𝑔 − 𝑍1
DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE HEAD FOR REACTION TURBINE
To determine the effective head for a reaction turbine, consider the following figure:
Figure 11.6
Effective Head-Reaction Turbine
As shown in Figure 11.6, consider the following parameters:
Hg = Gross head, m
Heff =effective head, m
hf == friction head loss in the penstock, m
Z1 = turbine setting, m
P = pressure at the base of the nozzle, Paa
ρ = density of water
f = friction factor
V = velocity of water in the penstock
g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.8066 m/s2
GROSS HEAD
Hg = headwater elevation – tailwater elevation
EFFECTIVE HEAD
Consider points A and B in Figure 6.5 and apply Bernoulli’s equation.
𝐻𝐴 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 𝐻𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐴𝐵
30
𝑃𝐴 𝑉𝐴2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝐻𝑔 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + + + ℎ𝑓
Where,
PA =0 gauge
PB =0 gauge
VA =0
VB =0
Then,
Hg = Heff + hf
Heff = Hg - hf = effective head
Then, consider points C to B and apply Bernoulli’s equation.
𝐻𝐶 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + 𝐻𝐵 + 𝐻𝐿𝐶𝐵
𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2 𝑃𝐵 𝑉𝐵2
+ + 𝑍1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 + +
Where,
PB = 0 gauge
VB = 0
HLCB = 0
VC = velocity of water at the penstock, m/s
Then,
𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2
+ + 𝑍1 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑃𝐶 𝑉𝐶2 𝑃 𝑉𝐶2
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = + + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍1 = effective head
FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN THE PENSTOCK
𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
PENSTOCK EFFICIENCY
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
Ƞ𝑝 = (100%)
𝐻𝑔
31
DESIGN EQUATIONS
The following equations are applied for both the reaction and impulse turbines:
1. Volume flow rate of water Q

𝜋 2
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐷 𝑉
4
Where,
Q = volume flow rate of water, m3/s
V = velocity of water, m/s
D = inside diameter of the penstock, m
2. Water power or hydraulic power or turbine theoretical power
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
𝑊𝑃 =
1000
Where,
WP = water power, kW
Q = volume flow rate of water, m3/s
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
= 9.8066 m/s2
3. Turbine output or turbine brake power
𝐵𝑃 = 𝑊𝑃Ƞ𝑡
Where,
BP = turbine brake power, kW
WP= turbine theoretical power, kW
ht = turbine efficiency
4. Generator output
BP = WPƞt
GP = BPƞe =WPƞt ƞe
Where,
ƞe =generator efficiency
5. Generator speed, N, rpm
120𝑓
𝑁=
𝑃
Where N = generator speed, rpm

F = frequency (usually 60 Hz)
32
P = number of poles (even number)
6. Utilized head, Hw
𝐻𝑤 = 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 (Ƞℎ )
Where
Hw = utilized head, m
Ƞh = hydraulic efficiency
7. Peripheral coefficient, Φ
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜋𝐷𝑟 𝑁

𝛷= =
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑗𝑒𝑡 60√2𝑔𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
Where,
Dr = diameter of turbine runner, m
N = runner speed, rpm
Heff = turbine effective or net head, m
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
= 9.8066 m/s2
8. Specific speed of hydraulic turbine
𝑁√𝐵𝑃
𝑁𝑠 = 5
4
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
Where,
N = turbine rpm
NS = turbine specific speed, rpm
BP = turbine brake power, Hp
Heff = turbine effective head or shaft head, ft
In metric units,
𝑁√𝐵𝑃
𝑁𝑠 0.2623 = 5
4
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓
Where,
N = turbine rpm
NS = turbine specific speed, rpm
BP = turbine brake power, kW
Heff = turbine effective head or shaft head, m
33
9. Turbine total efficiency, or simply turbine efficiency
ƞ𝑡 = ƞℎ ƞ𝑚 ƞ𝑣
where,
hm = mechanical efficiency
hv = volumetric efficiency
10. Turbine Type Selection Based on Head
Figure 11.7
Turbine Type Selection Based on Head
HYDRAULIC TURBINE EFFECIENCIES
1. Volumetric efficiency refers to the possible loss of flow through leakage around the
outside of the rotor or rotating element.
𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿
Ƞ𝑣 = (100%)
𝑄
Where,
ƞv = volumetric efficiency
Q = volume flow rate of water through the penstock, m3/s
QL = loss of flow through leakage, m3/s
2. Hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of the power transferred from the water to the rotor
and the available power in the fluid that effectively flows through the rotor; or the
ratio of the utilized head and the net or effective head of the turbine.
𝜌 (𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻𝑤 𝐻𝑤 𝐻𝑤
Ƞℎ = (100%) (100%) (100%)
𝜌(𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓
34
Where,
Hw = utilized head, m
Heff = net head or effective head, m
hf = friction head loss, m
ƞ h = hydraulic efficiency
3. Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of the power available at the shaft to the power
exerted by the water or the rotor.
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑃
Ƞ𝑚 = 100% = 100%
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃
4. Turbine total efficiency or simply turbine efficiency is the ratio of the brake power to
that of the turbine theoretical or waterpower.
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐵𝑃
Ƞ𝑡 100% = Ƞ𝑣 Ƞ𝑚 Ƞℎ
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑊𝑃
5. Over-all efficiency or turbine-generator efficiency is the ratio of the generator output

and the water power or turbine theoretical power.
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐺𝑃

Ƞk 100%
𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑊𝑃
6. Generator efficiency is the ratio of the generator output power and the turbine brake
power.
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐺𝑃

Ƞ𝑘 = 100%
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝐵𝑃
1. In a certain hydroelectric power plant, the elevation of tailwater level is 1 575 ft. The
net head or effective head is 90 ft and the head loss is 3.8% of the gross head.
Determine the headwater elevation and the penstock efficiency.
Given: A certain hydroelectric power plant
TW elevation = 1575 ft Heff = 90 ft hf = 0.038 Hg
35
Required:
The headwater elevation and penstock efficiency
Solution:
Solving for the gross head,
Hg =Heff + hf = 90 +0.038Hg; (1-0.038)Hg = 90
90
𝐻𝑔 = = 93.56𝑓𝑡
(1 − 0.038)
Solving for the headwater elevation,
HW elev = Hg + TW elev = 93.56 + 1 575 = 1 668.56 ft ANSWER
Solving for the penstock,
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 90
Ƞ𝑝 = (100%) = ( ) (100%) = 96.19%
𝐻𝑔 93.56
2. In a hydroelectric plant, the available flow rate of water is 25 000 lps at 30-m
effective head. If the turbine efficiency is 85% and the generator efficiency is 90%,
determine the maximum power generated by the plant.
Given: A hydroelectric plant

𝑄 = 25 000 𝑙𝑝𝑠 = 25 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 30𝑚
Ƞ𝑡 = 85% Ƞ𝑔 = 90%
Required:
The generator output power
Solution:
Solving for the generator output power,
36
𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 )Ƞ𝑡 Ƞ𝑔 1000(9.8066)(25)(30)(0.85)(0.90)

𝐺𝑃 = 𝑊𝑃 (Ƞ𝑡 )(Ƞ𝑔 ) = =
1 000 1 000
𝐺𝑃 = 5626.34 kW ANSWER
3. The tailwater and headwater elevations of a hydroelectric plant are 80 m and 115 m,
respectively. The available volume flow rate is 15 m3/s and the head loss is 4% of
water gross head. Determine the turbine BP if the turbine is 86%.

HW elevation = 115 m TW elevation =80 m
Q=15 m3/s ℎ𝑓 = 0.04𝐻𝑔
Required:
The BP of the turbine if ƞt = 86%
Solution:
Solving for the turbine gross head,
𝐻𝑔 =HW elevation –TW elevation = 115 -80 = 35 m
Solving the turbine effective or available head,
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 = 0.04(35) = 33.6 m
Solving for the turbine brake power,
𝜌𝑔𝑄(𝐻e𝑓𝑓 )Ƞ𝑡 1 000(9.8066)(15)(33.6)(0.86)

𝐺𝑃 = 𝑊𝑃 (Ƞ𝑡 ) = =
1 000 1 000
𝐵𝑃 = 4 250.6 𝑘𝑊 ANSWER
4. In a hydroelectric plant, the difference in elevation between the surface of the water
at intake and at the tailrace is 183 m. When the water flow is 2.25 m3/s, the friction
loss in the penstock is 18 m, and the head utilized by the turbine is 140 m. The
mechanical friction in the turbine is 75 kW and the leakage loss is 85 lps.
Determine the following:
a) Hydraulic efficiency
b) Volumetric efficiency
c) Power delivered to the shaft
d) Turbine brake power
e) Mechanical efficiency
𝐻𝑔 = 183 𝑚 ℎ𝑓 = 18 𝑚
𝑄 = 2.25 𝑚 𝑠 𝑄𝐿 = 0.085 𝑚3 ⁄𝑠
3⁄
𝐻𝑤 = 140 𝑚 𝐹𝑃 = 75 𝑘𝑊
Required:
37
a) Hydraulic efficiency
b) Volumetric efficiency
c) Power delivered to the shaft
d) Turbine brake power
e) Mechanical efficiency
Solution:
a) Solving for the hydraulic efficiency
𝜌(𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻𝑤 𝐻𝑤 𝐻𝑤 140

Ƞℎ = 100% = 100% 100% = 100%
𝜌(𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 )𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 183 − 18
b) Solving for the volumetric efficiency
𝑄 − 𝑄𝐿 2.25 − 0.085
Ƞ𝑣 = 100% = (100%) = 96.22% ANSWER
𝑄 2.25
c) Solving for the Power delivered to the shaft
IP = BP + FP = power delivered to the shaft

𝐵𝑃
From turbine efficiency, Ƞ𝑡 = 𝑊𝑃 (100%) = Ƞ𝑣 Ƞℎ Ƞ𝑚
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
Where Ƞ𝑡 = (100%) = (100%)
𝐼𝑃 𝐵𝑃+𝐹𝑃
𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃
Ƞ𝑡 = 𝑊𝑃 (100%) = Ƞ𝑣 Ƞℎ (𝐵𝑃+𝐹𝑃)
Therefore, 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃 = Ƞ𝑉 Ƞ𝐻 𝑊𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃
𝜌𝑔𝑄′𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 1 000(9.8066)(2.25 − 0.085)(140)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑊𝑃 = = = 2972.38𝑘𝑊
1 000 1 000
Then,
Power delivered to the shaft, 𝐼𝑃 = Ƞ𝑣 Ƞℎ 𝑊𝑃
𝐼𝑃 = (0.9622)(0.8485)(2 972.38) = 2 426.73𝑘𝑊
d) Solving for the Turbine brake power, BP
𝐼𝑃 = 𝐵𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐼𝑃 − 𝐹𝑃
𝐵𝑃 = 2 426.73 − 75 = 2 351.73 𝑘𝑊 ANSWER
e) Solving for the Mechanical efficiency

𝐵𝑃 𝐵𝑃 2 351.73
Ƞ𝑚 = (100%) = (100%) = (100%) = 96.91%
𝐼𝑃 𝐵𝑃+𝐹𝑃 2 426.73
38
Checking: Ƞ𝑡 = Ƞ𝑣 Ƞℎ Ƞ𝑚 = (96.22)(0.8485)(0.9691) = 79.12%

5. At a proposed hydroelectric plant site, the average elevation of headwater is 600 m,
The tailwater elevation is 480 m. The average annual water flow is determined to be
equal to the volume flowing through a rectangular channel 4m wide and 0.5 m deep
with an average velocity of 5.5 m/s. Assuming that the plant will operate 350 days in
a year, find the annual energy in kW-hr that the plant site can develop if the hydraulic
turbine that will be used has an efficiency of 80% and generator efficiency of 92%.
Consider a headwork loss of 4% of the available head. (ME Board Exam, Oct. 1986)
HW elevation = 600 m TW elevation = 480 m

V = 5.5 m/s Q = whV
H = 0.5 m w=4m
ℎ𝑓 − 0.04𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 Ƞ𝑡 = 80% Ƞ𝑔 = 92%
Required:
a) Generator power output
b) Annual energy in kW-hr that the plant site can develop
Figure:
Solution:
Solving for the turbine gross head,
𝐻𝑔 =HW elevation –TW elevation = 600 – 480 = 120 m
Solving for the turbine effective head,
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻𝑔 − ℎ𝑓 = 𝐻g − 0.04𝐻𝑔 = (0.96𝐻𝑔) = (0.96)(120) = 115.2 𝑚
Solving for the volume flow rate of water,
Q = AV = whV = 4(0.5)(5.5) = 11 m3/s
39
a) Solving for the generator power output,
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 1 000(9.8066)(11)(115.2)
𝐺𝑃 = 𝑊𝑃Ƞ𝑡 Ƞ𝑔 = Ƞ𝑡 Ƞ𝑔 = (0.8 × 0.92)
1 000 1 000
GP = 9 146.22 kW ANSWER
b) Solving for the annual energy developed,
Annual energy = 9 146.22 kW (350 days)(24 hes/day)
Annual energy = 76 828 248 kW-hr ANSWER
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS TO REMEMBER:

Water turbines convert the potential energy in water behind a dam into shaft work,
ordinarily used to drive an electric generator.
Kaplan turbine is a special type of propeller turbine featuring variable-angle blades
that can be changed with water flow to maintain high efficiency.
Francis or radial- and mixed-flow turbines are used for an intermediate range of
heads.
Propeller turbines are built with fixed blades and variable-pitch blades.
One disadvantage of most hydro plants is their dependence on the rate of water flow
in a river.
One method of storing water during low power-demand periods to supply energy
during high-load periods of hydro plants is to use the reversible pump turbine.
Pump turbines are usually physically larger than a turbine of the same capacity and
the motor generator is more costly than a standard generator.
The horsepower developed by a hydraulic turbine may be calculated by deriving an
equation based on the definition of a horsepower, such as: where P is
the turbine output, in Hp; Q is the water flow, cfs; H eff is the net effective head, ft; ρ is
the density of water, lb/ft 3; and E is the turbine hydraulic efficiency.
A net effective head is the difference in the total head for the water entering the
turbine casing and the total head leaving the draft tube.
Specific speed is the speed of a hypothetical model turbine having the same
configuration as the actual turbine, when the model would be of the proper size to
develop 1 Hp at a head of 1 ft.
Speed factor of a hydraulic turbine is given by the equation: where N s
is the specific speed, rpm; Bp is the brake power of the turbine, Hp; and H eff is the
effective head of the turbine, ft.
Lester A. Pelton is the inventor of the Pelton wheel of a hydraulic turbine.
Impulse turbine efficiencies vary from about 82% to 90%.
The effective head of an impulse turbine is measured at the bottom of the pitch circle
of the runner with no consideration given to the water level at the tailrace (because
there is no draft tube).
James B. Francis is the inventor of the reaction type of turbines.
Francis-type reaction turbines are usually employed for heads of 70 to 900 ft, and up
1100 ft.
40
Hydraulic turbines are water wheels in which the motion of water relative to its
bucket is essential to its action.
The two classifications of hydraulic turbines based on the position of the shaft are the
vertical turbine and the horizontal turbine.
The gross head tailwater for a hydroelectric plant is the difference between the
headwater elevation and tailwater elevation.
The net or effective turbine head is the difference of gross head and friction head
losses in the penstock.
The hydraulic efficiency is the ratio of net head and gross head.
The overall efficiency of the turbine is equal to the hydraulic efficiency multiplied by
the volumetric efficiency and turbine mechanical efficiency.
The overall efficiency of a hydroelectric plant operating at optimum conditions ranges
from 60% to 70%.
Firm or primary power is the power that a plant can be expected to deliver 100% of
the time.
Surplus secondary power is the power available in excess of firm power.
Hydroelectric plants are classified into run-of-river plant, storage-type plant, and
pumped-storage plant.
A storage-type plant is one with a reservoir of sufficient size to permit carry-over
storage from the wet season to the dry season and, thus, to develop a firm flow
substantially more than the minimum natural flow.
A run-of-river plant is one with a very limited storage capacity and can be used only
as water comes.
Run-of-river plant are suitable only for streams that have a sustained flow during the
dry season or where other reservoirs upstream provide the necessary storage.
A pumped-storage plant is one that generates power for peak load but at off-peak,
water is pumped from the tailwater pool to the headwater pool for future use.
Water tailrace is the channel into which the water is discharged after passing through
the turbine.
In impulse turbine, wheel passages are not completely filled with water.
Water acting on impulse turbine wheels is always atmospheric.
In reaction turbines, wheel passages are completely filled with water.
The energies used in reaction turbines are both kinetic and pressure engines.
Storage reservoir holds the water to run the plant.
A dam is a concrete structure that creates the required head of the hydraulic turbine.
A spillway discharges water during extreme flood flow so that water in the reservoir
does not overflow the dam.
An intake equipment consists of rocks and screens to keep trash from being carried
down to the wheels and head gate.
A penstock conducts water to the turbine.
Fore bay is a small equalizing reservoir from which the penstock sometimes draws
water.
Turbines are hydraulic prime movers driving electric generators.
Surge tank is a component that absorbs water hammer during load fluctuations and
serves as an auxiliary reservoir during high load demands.
Draft tube is a conduit at the outlet of the turbine that conducts water away from the
turbine.
41
Dump power is hydropower in excess of load requirement that is made available by

surplus water.
Firm power is a power intended to be always available even under emergency
conditions.
Prime mover power is a maximum potential power constantly available for
transformation into electric power.
Cold reserve is a reserve-generating capacity in service but not in operation.
Hot reserve is a reserve-generating capacity in operation but not in service.
Reserve equipment is the standby equipment or installed equipment in excess of that
required to carry peak loads.
System reserve is a reserve-generating capacity and ready to take load.
Generator of efficiency refers to the effectiveness of conversion of mechanical power
into electric power.
Specific speed of the turbine runner is the speed in rpm in which a geometrically
similar or homologous turbine operates to deliver one (1) brake power under a head of
one (1) foot.
A storage reservoir (dam) is used to hold enough water to operate the plant for some
duration of time.
The penstock is a hydroelectric generating station that utilizes the stream flow without
storage.
A dam is the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.
Slit sluice is a chamber that collects the mud and through which the mud is
discharged.
Trash rack is a screen that prevents the leaves, branches, and other water
contaminants to enter into the penstock.
Valve is a component that opens or closes the entrance of the water into the penstock.
Surge chamber is a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and attached to the
penstock so that the water will be at atmospheric pressure.
Penstock is the chamber that leads water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Turbine is the equipment that converts the energy of the water into mechanical
energy.
Pumped storage plant is a hydroelectric plant that involves the use of the off-peak
energy to store water and to use the stored water to generate extra energy to cope with
the peak load.
Propeller-type hydraulic turbine is a capable of operating with net head of up to 70 ft.
Peripheral coefficient is the ratio of the peripheral velocity of the runner and the
velocity of the jet.
Generator speed is determined using the equation: where N is the number of
generator poles.
Progress Check:
1. A hydroelectric plant has a 20 MW generator with an efficiency of 96%. The
generator is directly coupled to a vertical Francis-type hydraulic turbine having an
efficiency of 80%. The total gross head on the turbine is 150 m, while the loss of head
due to friction is 4% of the gross head. Check if the specific speed of the turbine. (ME
Board Exam Oct. 1989)
2. The flow of a river of 21.25 m3/s produces a total brake power of 5 400 kW. It is
proposed to install two turbines, one of which is twice the capacity of the other. The
42
efficiency and specific speed of both units are assumed to be 85% and 70 rpm,
respectively. Determine the a) head of the turbine; and b) speed and number of poles
on the generator for 60 Hz. (ME Board Exam, April 1986)
3. A Pelton wheel is to be designed to run at 300 rpm under an effective head of 150 m.
1
The ratio of the nozzle diameter of the pitch circle is 12. Assuming an efficiency of
84%, what is the size of the wheel in meters? Assume a speed ratio of 0.45. (ME
Board Exam, Oct 1995)
4. A Francis turbine is installed with a vertical draft tube. The total head to the center of
the spiral casing at the inlet is 38 m and the velocity of water at the inlet is 5 m/s. The
discharge is 2.1 m3/s. The hydraulic efficiency is 87%and overall efficiency is 84%.
The velocities at the inlet and exit of the draft tube are 1 m below the center line of
the spiral casing while the tailrace level is 3 m from the top of the draft tube.
Neglecting velocities of whirl and leakage losses, what is the total head on the
turbine? (ME Board Exam, Oct 1995)
5. From a height of 65 m, water flows at the rate of 0.85 m3/s and is driving a water
turbine connected to an electric generator revolving at 160 rpm. Calculate the power
developed by the turbine if the total resisting torque due to friction is 540 N-m and the
velocity of the water leaving the turbine blades is 4.75 m/s.(ME Board Exam, April
1989)
6. In the Maria Cristina Hydroelectric Project, the available head is 140 m; water flow is
one cubic meter per seconds; efficiency of the turbine is 95%; efficiency of the
generator is 95%, three-phase, 60 Hz, voltage delivered, 4 160 V. Determine the
estimated yearly output of the generator, kW-hr, and the estimated yearly income of
the plant if the cost of the generated electric energy is ₱0.60 per kW-hr. (ME Board
Exam, April 1992)
REFERENCES
Textbook/s :

Inc.
https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/01/impulse-turbine.html
https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/01/reaction-turbine.html
43
LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __12 & 13__
TOPIC/S:
GAS COMPRESSORS
1. Define compressor and enumerate the different types of gas compressors.
2. Draw the pV and Ts diagrams of the compression process for both the rotary and
centrifugal compressors, as well as for the reciprocating compressors.
3. Derive the compressor work and power with the application of the first law of
thermodynamics.
4. Appreciate the practical applications of gas compressors.
5. Analyze and solve problems about gas compressors.
GAS COMPRESSORS
DEFINITION
Gas compressor is a machine used to transport gas from one point to another point
with higher energy level.
PRACTICAL USES OF COMPRESSED AIR

1. Operation of small engines and pneumatic tools.
2. Operation of air hoists
3. Cleaning of air blast
4. Tire inflation
5. Paint spraying
6. Air lifting of liquids
7. Other specialized industrial application
8.
TYPES OF GAS COMPRESSORS
1. Reciprocating compressors
a) Single-stage reciprocating compressors
b) Multi-stage reciprocating compressors
2. Rotary compressors
a) Screw-type compressors
b) Gear-type compressors
c) Vane-type compressors
3. Centrifugal gas compressors
a) Single-stage centrifugal gas compressors
b) Multi-stage centrifugal gas compressors
44
ROTARY AND CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Centrifugal compressor is a compressor in which the compression of the gas is
accomplished through the action of centrifugal force.
Rotary compressor is a compressors action is accomplished by the use of rotating
elements in the form of screws, gears, or vanes.
Analysis of Rotary and Centrifugal Compressors

In the energy analysis of rotary and centrifugal compressors, the general energy
equation for the steady flow, open system is applied.
To apply the first law of thermodynamics, consider Figure 7.1.
Figure 12.1
Schematic & pV Diagrams of a Rotary or Centrifugal Compressors
From Figure 12.1 (pV diagram) and using the first law of thermodynamics for the
steady flow, open system:
𝑄 =△ 𝐻 +△ 𝑃 +△ 𝐾 + 𝑊
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∆𝑃 = 0,△ 𝐾 = 0, &𝑄 = 0 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

2
𝑇2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑊𝑐 = − △ 𝐻 = −𝑚 ∫ 𝑐𝑝 𝑑𝑇 = −𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = −𝑚𝑐𝑝 𝑇1 ( − 1)
1 𝑇1
𝑘𝑅 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇 𝑘 𝑇
𝑊𝑐 = −𝑚 (𝑘−1) 𝑇1 (𝑇2 − 1) = (1−𝑘 ) 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 (𝑇2 − 1) = (1−𝑘 ) 𝑝1 𝑉1 (𝑇2 − 1)
1 1 1
𝑘−1
𝑇2 𝑝2 𝑘
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, = ( )
𝑇1 𝑝1
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝2 ( 𝑘
)
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝 𝑉 [( ) − 1] → 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
1 − 𝑘 1 1 𝑝1
For polytropic Compression

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 ( 𝑛
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝1 𝑉2 [( ) − 1] → 𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘
1−𝑛 𝑝1
45
Where
Wc = compressor power input, kW, Hp
k = isentropic constant
n = polytropic constant
V1 = volume flow rate at intake conditions, m3/s
P1 = pressure at the compressor intake, kPaa, psia
P2 = pressure at the compressor discharge, kPaa, psia
T1 = compressor intake temperature, K
T2 = compressor discharge temperature, K
m = mass flow rate, kg/s, lb/min
cp = constant pressure specific heat, kJ/kg- K
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
In the reciprocating compressors, the compression of gas is accomplished through the
back-and-forth movement of the piston or plunger inside the cylinder.
These compressors could be single-stage or multi-stage machines.
Figure 12.2 illustrates a single-stage reciprocating compressor.
Figure 12.2
Schematic Diagram of a Single-Stage Reciprocating Compressor
46
Figure 12.3
pV and Ts Diagrams
Processes based on the pVand Ts diagrams shown above :

Process A, points 1 to 2: Gas is compressed isentropically. Then, at point 2, the
discharge valve opens.
Process B, points 2 to 3: Gas is discharged at constant pressure. At point 3, the piston
is at the top dead position and the valve closes.
Process C, points 3 to 4: Trapped gas expands isentropically. Then, at point 4, intake
valve opens.
Process D, point 4 then back to 1: Gas is drawn in through the intake valve at constant
pressure. At point 1, the valve closes.
Determination of Compressor Work
Compressor work may be obtained from the conventional pVdiagram (Figure 12.3)
2 3 3 1
𝑊𝑐 = ∮ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 + ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉
1 2 4 4
𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝1 𝑉2 𝑝4 𝑉4 − p3 𝑉3
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) + (𝑝3 𝑉3 − 𝑝2 𝑉2 ) + ( ) + (𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝4 𝑉4 )
1−𝑘 1−𝑘
1 − (1 − 𝑘 ) (1 − 𝑘 ) − 1 (1 − 𝑘 ) − 1 1 − (1 − 𝑘 )
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 [ ] + 𝑝3 𝑉3 [ ] + 𝑝1 𝑉1 [ ] + 𝑝4 𝑉4 [ ]
1−𝑘 1−𝑘 1−𝑘 1−𝑘
𝑘 𝑘 𝑘 𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 ( ) − 𝑝3 𝑉3 ( ) − 𝑝1 𝑉1 ( ) − 𝑝4 𝑉4 ( )
1−𝑘 1−𝑘 1−𝑘 1−𝑘
𝑘 𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) (𝑝2 𝑉2 − 𝑝3 𝑉3 ) − ( ) (𝑝1 𝑉1 − 𝑝4 𝑉4 )
1−𝑘 1−𝑘
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑝2 = 𝑝3 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑝1 = 𝑝4
𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) [𝑝2 (𝑉2 − 𝑉3 ) − 𝑝1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )]
1−𝑘
𝑘 1
𝑉2 𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑘
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐴, 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 1 𝑡𝑜 2, 𝑝1 𝑉1𝑘 = 𝑝2 𝑉2𝑘 ; ( ) = ; 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 ( )
𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑝2
47
𝑘 1
𝑉3 𝑝4 𝑝1 𝑝1 𝑘
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐶, 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 3 𝑡𝑜 4, 𝑝3 𝑉3𝑘 = 𝑝4 𝑉4𝑘 ; ( ) = = ; 𝑉3 = 𝑉4 ( )
𝑉4 𝑝3 𝑝2 𝑝2
Then, substituting the values of 𝑉2 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑉3 ,
1 1
1 𝑝1 𝑘 𝑝1 𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) {𝑝2 [𝑉1 ( ) = 𝑉4 ( ) ] − 𝑝1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )}
1−𝑘 𝑝2 𝑝2
1
𝑘 𝑝1 𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) [𝑝2 ( ) (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 ) = 𝑝1 (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )]
1−𝑘 𝑝2
1 1
𝑘 𝑝1 𝑘 𝑘 𝑝2 𝑝1 𝑘
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 ) [𝑝2 ( ) 𝑝1 ] = ( ) (𝑉1 − 𝑉4 )𝑝1 [( ) ( ) − 1]
1−𝑘 𝑝2 1−𝑘 𝑝1 𝑝2
1
𝑘 𝑝2 (𝑘)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ( )
) 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 𝑝1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑘 𝑝1
Where 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 = 𝑉′1
Then,
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝2 ( 𝑘
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝1 𝑉′1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑘 𝑝1
But 𝑝1 𝑉′1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
Also,
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝2 ( 𝑘
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑘 𝑝1
Where 𝑉′1 = volume of gas drawn in the compressor, m3/s

m = mass flow rate of gas passing through the compressor, kg/s
𝑊𝑐 = compressor power input, kW
For Polytropic Compression

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 ( 𝑛
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝1 𝑉′1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑛 𝑝1
𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 ( 𝑛
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑛 𝑝1
48
PREFERRED COMPRESSION CURVES

Consider the compression curves in the pVdiagram (Figure 12.4) below.
Figure 12.4
pV Diagram of Compression Processes
Compression curves with values of n between unity and k will fall within the shaded
area; the work necessary to drive the compressor decreases as the value of the
exponent n decreases.
Polytropic compression and values of n less than k are brought about by circulating
cooling water or air around the compressor cylinder to conduct away some of the heat
generated by the compression.
Specified values of n based on experience are as follows:
n = 1.35 or higher→ for inexpensive compressors of the type found automotive
service centers
n =1.3 or less → under favorable conditions
n =1.25 to 1.3→ represents the best results for water-jacketed compressors
In the isothermal compression, all the heat equivalent of the compression work is
carried away, (U1 = U2).
In the isentropic compression, no heat is carried away and the gas leaves with an
increase in internal energy equivalent to the compression work.
In the polytropic compression, there is some heat carried away and a certain increase
in internal energy and temperature.
The heat rejected during the polytropic process is expressed by
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝑐𝑛 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
Where m= mass flow rate of gas, kg/s
𝑘−𝑛
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣 ( )
1−𝑛
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
1. Actual volumetric efficiency is the volume drawn in at p o, To, (measured by an orifice

at intake), divided by the displacement volume.
V′1 𝑚 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑖𝑛, 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛

Ƞ𝑣 = (100%) = 𝑖𝑛 (100%) =
𝑉𝐷 𝑚𝐷 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜 , 𝑇𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑝𝑦 𝑉𝐷
49
The volume of gas intake is always less than the displacement volume of the piston;
the larger the clearance volume, the less gas is discharged.
2. Conventional Volume Displacement is the ratio between the volume drawn in and the
volume displaced, as obtained from the conventional pVdiagram.
Consider conventional pVdiagram shown in figure 12.5
Figure 12.5
Conventional pV diagram for Reciprocating Compressor
Determination of conventional volumetric efficiency
𝑉′1 (𝑉1 −𝑉4 )

Ƞ𝑣 = (100%) = (100%)
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑉
Where percent clearance, 𝑐 = 𝑉3 (100%); 𝑉3 = 𝑐𝑉𝐷
𝐷
Considering process C, points 3 to 4,

1
𝑝3 𝑉4 𝑘 𝑝3 𝑘
= ( ) ; 𝑉4 = 𝑉3 ( ) → 𝑝3 = 𝑝2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 p4 = 𝑝1
𝑝4 𝑉3 𝑝4
1 1
𝑝3 𝑘 𝑝2 𝑘 𝑉1
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑉4 = 𝑐𝑉𝐷 ( ) = 𝑐𝑉𝐷 ( ) = 𝑐𝑉𝐷 ( )
𝑝4 𝑝1 𝑉2
Also, total volume, 𝑉1 = 𝑉3 + 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑐𝑉𝐷 + 𝑉𝐷 = (𝑐 + 1)𝑉𝐷
Substituting the values to the equation of volumetric efficiency,

1
𝑝 𝑘
𝑉′1 𝑉1 − 𝑉4 (𝑐 + 1)𝑉𝐷 − 𝑐𝑉𝐷 (𝑝2 )
1
Ƞ𝑣 = ( ) 100% = ( ) 100% = 100%
𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
[ ]
1
𝑝2 𝑘 𝑉1
Ƞ𝑣 = [1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 ( ) ] 100% = [1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 ( )] 100%
𝑝1 𝑉2
50
Note:
If compression process is polytropoic, k = n
Actual volumetric efficiency is lower than the conventional volumetric efficiency
because of fluid friction of flow (the pressure in the cylinder is less than the pressure
of the free air) and because the cylinder walls, being relatively hot, heat the incoming
air (less mass of hot air can occupy a given space).
The volumetric efficiency decreases as the clearance increases.
As the volumetric efficiency of a compressor decreases, the capacity decreases.
DISPLACEMENT VOLUME OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
Displacement volume (corresponding to one diagram) is the volume swept by the

piston in one stroke.
𝜋 2
𝑉𝐷 = 𝐷 𝐿𝑁
4
Where,
VD = volume displacement, m3/min, ft3/min
D = diameter of piston or cylinder, m, ft
L =length of stroke, m, ft
N = no. of diagram per minute
N = nr→ for single-acting compressor
N =2nr→ for double-acting compressor
nr = rpm of the compressor
COMPRESSOR EFFICIENCY
Compressor efficiency is the ratio between the ideal compressor work and the actual
work.
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑊𝑐
Ƞ𝑐 = (100%)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑊′𝑐
For adiabatic compressor, compression efficiency is the ratio of the isentropic work to
the actual fluid work.
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑊𝑐 (ℎ − ℎ2 )
Ƞ𝑐 (100%) = 1 (100%)
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘, 𝑊′𝑐 (ℎ1 − ℎ2 )
Consider Figure 12.6 for the comparison of the ideal compression and actual
compression in the Ts diagram.
51
Figure 12.6
Ideal and Actual Compression Processes
1. A rotary compressor receives 6 m3/min of gas (R= 410 J/kg- K, cp = 103 J/kg-
K, k=1.67) at 105 kPaa, 27°C and delivers it at 630 kPaa. Changes of potential
and kinetic energies are negligible. Find the compressor work if the process is
a) isentropic; b) polytropic with n = 1.4; and c) isothermal.
Given: Rotary compressor

𝑉′1 = 6 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘 = 1.67
𝑝1 = 105 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑝2 = 630 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝑇1 = 300°𝐾 △𝑃 =0
𝑅 = 0.41 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾 △𝐾 = 0
𝐶𝑝 = 0.103 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 − 𝐾
Required:
Compressor work if the process is
a) Isentropic
b) Polytropic with n = 1.4
c) Isothermal
Figure:
Solution:
a. Considering the isentropic compression process
𝑘−1
𝑘 𝑝2 ( 𝑘
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝 𝑉′ [( ) − 1]
1 − 𝑘 1 1 𝑝1
52
0.67
1.67 630 (1.67)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) (105)(6) [( ) ] = −1652.07 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
−0.67 105
b. Considering the polytropic process

𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑝2 ( 𝑛
)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) 𝑝1 𝑉′1 [( ) − 1]
1−𝑛 𝑝1
0.4
1.4 630 (1.4)
𝑊𝑐 = ( ) (105)(6) [( ) − 1] = −1474.07 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
−0.4 105
c. Considering the isothermal compression process
Using the 3rd form of the general energy equation of steady flow, open system,
2
− ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑝 = 𝑊 +△ 𝑃 +△ 𝑘 = 𝑊𝑐
1
𝑝1 105
𝑊𝑐 = 𝑝1 𝑉′1 𝐼𝑛 ( ) = 105(6)𝐼𝑛 ( ) = −1128.81 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝑝2 630
2. A rotary-type compressor compresses air from 98 kPaa, 27°C, through a

compression ratio of 5 and a compression efficiency of 75%. What is the
discharge temperature? Determine the compressor work.
Given: Rotary compressor

𝑝1 = 98 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝑇1 = 300𝐾
𝑟𝑘 = 5
Ƞ2 = 75%
Required:
a) Discharge temperature
b) Compressor work
Figure:
53
Solution:
Determination of the discharge temperature
𝑊𝑐 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, Ƞ𝑐 = =
𝑊𝑐 𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑇2 − 𝑇1
𝑇2′ = ( ) + 𝑇1
Ƞ𝑐
𝑘−1
𝑝2 ( 𝑘
) 𝑉1 (𝑘−1)
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 𝑇1 ( ) = 𝑇1 (𝑟𝑘 )(𝑘−1) = (300)(5)0.4 = 571.1𝐾
𝑝1 𝑉2
571.1 − 300
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, 𝑇2′ = ( ) + 300 = 661.47 𝐾 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
0.75
Determination of the compressor work
𝑤′𝑐 = −𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = −1.0062(661.47 − 300) = −363.71 𝑘𝐽⁄𝑘𝑔 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
3. A compressor power of – 1 902.3 kW is required to handle air adiabatically

from 1 atmosphere, 26.2°C, to 304.06 kPaa. The initial air velocity is 21m/s;
the final velocity is 85 m/s. If the process is isentropic, find a) the volume of
air handled, m3/s, measured at inlet conditions. If the compression is an
irreversible adiabatic to temperature of 157.2°C, with the capacity found in
item a, find b) the power input in kW.
Given: Air compressor

𝑝1 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎 = 85 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑇1 = 299.2 𝐾 𝑝2 = 304.06 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝑉1 = 21 𝑚⁄𝑠
𝑊𝑐 = −1902.3 𝑘𝑊
Required:
a) Volume flow rate at inlet
b) Actual compressor work
Figure:
54
Solution:
a) Determination of the volume flow rate at the inlet conditions
Solving for the discharge temperature of an isentropic process,
𝑘−1 0.4
𝑃2 ( 𝑘
)
304.06 (1.4)
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 299.2 ( ) = 409.56
𝑃1 101.325
Solving for the mass flow rate,
𝑊𝑐 −1902.3
𝑚= = = 17.131 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑠
−𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) −1.0062(409.56 − 299.2)
Solving for the volume flow rate at the inlet conditions,
𝑚𝑅𝑇1 17.131(0.28708)(299.2)
𝑉 ′1 = = = 14.522𝑚3⁄𝑠 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝑝1 101.325
b) Determination of actual compressor work because of irreversibility
𝑊 ′ 𝑐 = −𝑚𝑐𝑝 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = −17.131(1.0062)(430.2 − 299.2) = −2258.07𝑘𝑊 A𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
4. A 355.6 x 381 mm, double acting, air compressor, whose clearance is 4%,
runs at 150 rpm. At state 1 (figure shown below) the air is at 97 kPaa and
27°C; discharge is at 386 kPaa; compression and re-expansion are isentropic.
The state of the surrounding air is at a pressure of 101.325 kPaa and a
temperature of 21°C. a) Estimate the amount of free air, using the
conventional volumetric efficiency. b) Compute the compressor power for an
efficiency of 75% based on shaft work.

𝑝1 = 97 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎 𝑝2 = 386 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝑇1 = 300𝐾
n = 150 rpm
𝑝𝑜 = 101.325 𝑘𝑃𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑜 = 294𝐾
Required:
a) Volume flow rate of free air
b) Actual compressor work if compressor efficiency is 75%
Figure:
55
Solution:
a) Determination of the volume flow rate of free air
For the volume displacement,

𝜋 2 𝜋 𝜋
𝑉𝐷 𝐷 𝐿𝑁 = 𝐷2 𝐿(2𝑛) = (0.3556)2 (0.381)(2)(150) = 11.352 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
4 4 4
For the volumetric efficiency,
1 1
𝑝2 𝑘 386 1.4
Ƞ𝑣 = [1 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 ( ) ] 100% = [1 + 0.04 − 0.04 ( ) ] 100%
𝑝1 97
Ƞ𝑣 = 93.27% 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
For the volume drawn in,
𝑉′1 = Ƞ𝑣 𝑉𝐷 = (0.9327)(11. .352) = 10.588 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
For the mass flow rate,
𝑝1 𝑉′1 97(10.588)
𝑚= = = 11.925 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝑇1 0.28708(300)
Solving for the volume flow rate of free air,
𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑜 11.925(0.28708)(294)
𝑉𝑜 = = 9.93 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑁𝑆𝑊𝐸𝑅
𝑝𝑜 101.325
b) Determination of compressor work
For the ideal compressor work,
k−1 0.4
k p2 ( k
) 1.4 386 (1.4)
Wc = ( ) p1 V′1 [( ) − 1] = ( ) (97)(10.588) [( ) ]
1−k p1 −0.4 97
Wc = −1739.1kJ⁄min
Solving for the actual compressor power input,
Wc −1739.10
W′c = = = − 2318.8kJ⁄min = −38.65kW ANSWER
Ƞc 0.75
5. Oxygen is compressed at 6.542 m3/min from 1 atmosphere, 26.7°C to 310.27

kPaa by a 35.56 x 35.56 cm sinlge-stage, double- acting compressor operating
at 100 rpm. Compression and re-expansion process are isentropic and changes
56
in potential and kinetic energies are negligible. Find the volumetric efficiency,
the work done on the oxygen, and the heat removed.

p1= 101.325 kPaa p2=310.27 kPaa
T1= 299.7 K
n = 100 rpm
V1= 6.542 m3/min
Required:
a) Volumetric efficiency
b) Compressor work
c) Heat removed
Figure:
Solution:
a. Determination of the volumetric efficiency
For oxygen, k = 1.395

R = 0.2599 kJ/kg-K
cp = 0.9198 kJ/kg-K
For the volume displacement,

π 2 π
VD = D L(2n) = (0.3556)2 (0.3556)(2)(100) = 7.063m3⁄min
4 4
Solving for the volumetric efficiency,
V′1 6.542
Ƞv = (100%) = ( ) 100% = 92.62%
VD 7.063
b. Solving for the compressor work,
0.395
1.395 6.542 310.27 (1.395)
Wc = ( ) (101.325) ( ) [( ) − 1] = −14.55kW
−0.395 60 101.325
57
c. Solving for the heat removed,
Q= 0→ adiabatic compression process
Progress Check:
1. A two-stage compressor receives 672 lpm at 140 kPaa and 27℃ and delivers it at 690
kPaa. The compression is polytropic with n = 1.5 and the intercooler is ideal. Find the
following:
a) Power required
b) Intercooler pressure maximum temperature
c) Maximum temperature
d) Heat transferred in the intercooler
e) Discharge temperature if the compressor is single stage
[Ans. a) -171.9kW; b)310.81kPaa; c)391.36 K; d)-71.67 kW; e)510.54 K]
2. At three-stage compressor receives 672 lps of air at 101 kPaa and27℃, and
discharges at 750 kPaa. Determine the following:
a) Power required
b) Pressure at each intercooler
d) Heat transferred in each intercooler
e) What is the discharge temperature of a single-stage compressor operating at the same
intake and discharge temperature?
[Ans. a) -149.94kW; b)192.05kPaa,384.43kPaa; c)363.12 K; d)-50.05 kW; e)531.99
K]
3. Make an expression, in terms of percent clearance, and inlet and discharges pressures,
for the mean effective pressure of an ideal single-stage compressor with isothermal
compression and expansion.
4. A compressor receives 189 lps of air at 101 kPaa and 27℃, and discharges it at 380
kPaa. The compressor is directly driven by a 38-kW electric motor. Determine the a)
overall adiabatic efficiency, and b) overall isothermal efficiency of the compressor.
[Ans. a) 80.92%, b) 88.56%]
5. A 20 x 25 cm reciprocating compressor has a 4% clearance and operates at 550 rpm.
The compressor receives air at 100 kPaa and27℃, and discharges at 1 850 kPaa. The
compression and expansion are polytropic with n =1.3. Find the following:
a) Volumetric efficiency
b) Volume flow rate of air at inlet conditions
c) Power required
d) Mass of air discharges
e) Mass of air left at top dead center
[Ans. a) 66.26%; b)47.7lps; c)19.86kW; d)0.0554 kg/s; e)0.00338 kg/s]
6. A two-stage compressor receives 0.20 kg/s of helium at 135 kPaa and27℃, and
delivers it at 7 000 kPaa. The compression is polytropic with n = 1.5. The intercooler
is ideal. Determine the following:
a) Power required
b) Intercooler pressure
d) Temperature for one stage of compression
e) Heat transferred in the intercooler
Note: For helium gas, R = 2.077 kJ/kg-K and k = 1.666.
58
[Ans. a) -696.17kW; b)972.11kPaa; c)579.32 K; d)1118.32 K; e)-290.25kW]

7. To handle air adiabatic from 101.325 kPaa and 300 K to 305 kPaa, the power required
for the compressor is 2 550 Hp. The inlet velocity is 21 m/s and the discharge velocity
of air is 85 m/s.
a) If the process is isentropic, find the volume of air handles, in lps, measured at inlet
conditions.
b) If the compression is irreversible adiabatic to temperature157.3℃, with the
capacity obtained in terms a. find the power input.
[Ans. a) 14 070 lps, b)-2229.76 kW]
REFERENCE/S
Textbook/s :

Inc.
59
LIST OF REFERENCES

Inc.
Henke, Russell (1966). Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, Addison Wesley

Publishing Company, Inc.
Cengel, Yunus, et. Al. (2017). Fluid Mechanics-Fundamentals and

Applications, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill Education
Gillesania, Diego (2015). Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics, 4 th Ed., Cebu

DGPrint, Inc.
https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/01/impulse-turbine.html
https://www.mechanicalbooster.com/2018/01/reaction-turbine.html
ABOUT THE COMPILER/S
Dennis Galvez Quivis
Is a part-time faculty instructor of Mechanical Engineering at the Technological

University of the Philippines- Visayas. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from
the Technological University of the Philippines- Visayas and currently taking his Master in
Technology degree in the same institute.

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TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES VISAYAS

DEPARTMENT: MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ENGR. DENNIS G. QUIVIS

The Technological University of the Philippines shall commit to provide quality

T - Transparent and participatory governance

GENERAL GUIDELINES/CLASS RULES

Students with Special Needs:

The student will be graded according to the following:

Average of examinations - 50%

Prelim Grade : [(Prelim Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

Midterm Grade : [(Midterm Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

End term Grade : [(Final Exam x 0.50) + (Assessment x 0.50)]

The passing grade for this course is 5.0.

Week No.: __10__

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

TYPES OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS

To recapitulate, the types of reciprocating pumps are as follows:

A. Piston and plunger type reciprocating pumps

2. Power or indirect-acting pumps

B. Diaphragm-type reciprocating pumps

CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS IN TERMS OF THE METHOD

1. Direct-acting reciprocating pump is a pump that is motivated by the force of steam on

Cylinder and Piston Dimensions

203 x 254 x 305 mm

Diameter or Bore of water cylinder

Diameter of steam cylinder

2. Indirect-acting reciprocating pump is a pump in which water is driven by an electric

The design of power pumps may be horizontal or vertical.

Cylinder and Piston Dimensions

Diameter or Bore of water cylinder

CLASSIFICATION OF RECIPROCATING PUMPS IN TERMS OF THE NUMBER

1. Simplex pump—a reciprocating pump with one cylinder

d) Pump duty in terms of N-m per 1 000 kg dry steam

a) Rotative speed of directly coupled motor or the crank shaft

b) Piston displacement (rod neglected)

c) Volumetric efficiency ( for both direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps)

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑚3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄

d) Slip ( for both direct-acting and indirect-acting pumps)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT-ACTING RECIPROCATING

Given: The figure shown:

• Solving for the piston displacement,

•From the equation of PD,

•Solving for D, where Ft = 0.6783 (interpolated)

Therefore, the suitable size is D x L = 132 x 132 mm. ANSWER

b) For the water power or pump theoretical work

•Solving for the TDH of the pump, HA + TDH = HB + HLAB

• Solving for the TDH, where, at 93°C, p = 963.2 kg/m3

• Solving for the water power,

2. Results of a test on a `254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump are as

Given: A 254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump

•For the pump capacity, at 82,2°C, p = 970.3 kg/m3

a. Solving for the volumetric efficiency

b. Solving for the water power

c. Solving for the slip

Slip = 1- ɛv = (1 – 0.9272) 100% = 7.28% ANSWER

Given: a 254 x 152 x 305 mm duplex, direct-acting pump

Temperature of water = 82°C

•For the piston speed,

•For the piston displacement,

a) Solving for the volumetric efficiency

b) Solving for the water power of the pump

c) Solving for the pump duty

Week No.: 10

Week No.: 11