Unit II

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Flow of incompressible fluids through circular pipe

 The shear stress distribution is linear with shear stress

at centre of the pipe equal to zero and maximum at the
wall and act in the opposite direction to the flow.
 For laminar flow, through a circular pipe it has been
found that velocity varies along the radial direction and
flow under steady state condition flow is found to be
exhibit parabolic profile for laminar flow.
 The important relations for flow of real fluid under
laminar flow conditions are
 = (p1-p2/x)r/2
where
= Shear stress any point along radial direction
p1-p2 = pressure difference across the differential element

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Flow of incompressible fluids through
circular pipe
x = length of the differential element
r = radial position in the circular conduit
Further above expression shows, shear stress varies
linearly along radial direction in a circular pipe.

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Flow of incompressible fluids through circular pipe

 Further, velocity at any point in circular conduit for flow of a

Newtonian fluid can be estimated using the theoretical
relation
 u = 1/4 (p1-p2 /x) (R2-r2)
where
 u = velocity at any point ‘r’ perpendicular to direction of flow
 The above relation shows velocity profile represents
parabolic profile with maximum velocity at the centre and
zero velocity near the wall.

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Flow of incompressible fluids through circular pipe
Further, it can proved that,
 umax = 1/4 (p1-p2 /x)R2
 Q= /8 (p1-p2 /x)R4
 uav = 1/8 (p1-p2 /x)R2 and
 umax/uav= 2.0
 Further, pressure drop across a given length of pipe can
be estimated by famous Hagen-Poiseulli’s equation
 P= p1-p2 = 32  uav L/D2

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Flow of incompressible fluids through circular pipe
where
P = Pressure drop across the pipe (N/m2)
= viscosity of the flowing fluid
uav= average velocity of the fluid in the pipe (m/s)
L= Length of the pipe (m)
D= Diameter of the pipe (m)

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Problems
 5-10:A crude oil of viscosity 0.97 poise and relative density
0.9 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe of diameter
100 mm and of length 10 m. Calculate the difference of
pressure at the two ends of the pipe, if 100 kg of the oil is
collected in a tank in 30 sec. Assume laminar flow.
 5-11:An oil of viscosity 0.1 N.s/m2 and relative density 0.9 is
flowing through a circular pipe of diameter 50 mm and length
300 m. The rate of flow of fluid through the pipe is 3.5
liters/sec. Find the pressure drop and shear stress at the
wall. and velocity at 20mm from the wall

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Flow of incompressible fluids between two parallel
plates
 Flow of incompressible fluids between two parallel
plates also generate shear stress distribution and
velocity profile.
 It has been found that, shear stress distribution
  = (p1-p2 /x) y
where
= Shear stress any point along radial direction
p1-p2 = pressure difference across the differential
element

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Flow of incompressible fluids between two parallel
plates
x = length of the differential element
y = half of the thickness of fluid element.
Further above expression shows, shear stress varies
linearly from the centre of the plate to the wall the
plate.
 Further, velocity at any point in between plates for flow
of a Newtonian fluid can be estimated using the
theoretical relation
u = (p1-p2 /  x) (Y2/8 -y2/2)

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Flow of incompressible fluids between two parallel
plates
where
 u = velocity at any point ‘r’ perpendicular to direction of
flow
The above relation shows velocity profile represents
parabolic profile with maximum velocity at the centre
and zero velocity near the wall
Further, it can proved that,
 umax= (p1-p2 /  x)Y2/8
 Q= 2z/ (p1-p2 /x)
 uav = 1/12 (p1-p2 /x)Y2 and
 umax/uav= 1.5

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Flow of incompressible fluids between two parallel
plates
 Further, pressure drop across a given length of pipe can
be estimated by famous Hagen-Poiseulli’s equation
 P= 12  uav L/Y2

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Problems
 5-12: Water at 150C flows between two large parallel
plates at a distance of 1.6mm apart. Determine (a) the
maximum velocity (b) the pressure drop per unit length
and © the shear stress at the walls of the plates if the
average velocity is 0.2 m/s. The viscosity of water at
150C is given as 0.01 Poise.

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Turbulent Flow
 Flow of fluids based on Reynold’s number >4000
Characteristics of Turbulent Flow
 Flow can be represented by eddies
 Velocity distribution is more uniform as Re increased
and is due to transfer of momentum
 The velocity is found to be more uniform with increase
in Reynolds number
 The uniformity in velocity is due to lumps of particles
in high velocity region coming to low velocity region
and trying to accelerate the flow, and low velocity lump
of particles moving to high velocity region and retard
the flow.
 The losses i.e., pressure losses vary as un where value of
n varies from 1.72 to 2.0.10/6/2018 SIT,Tumakuru 13
Turbulent Flow
 For same velocity, losses in turbulent flow are less
compared to laminar flow
 The motion of fluid particles are chaotic and irregular
 Velocity variation is logarithmic in nature.

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Turbulent Flow

Turbulent flow is characterized by an irregular and

chaotic motion of particles.
This leads to fluctuations in various quantities with
respect to time and space. Hence velocity of fluid in
turbulent flow are expressed in terms of instantaneous
velocity, fluctuating velocity and time average velocity.
Instantaneous velocity: In turbulent flow velocity goes
on changing with time. The velocity at any point at any
instant is called instantaneous velocity and is denoted by
u.

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Turbulent Flow

 Hence, instantaneous velocity =u = u + u’

 Temporal mean velocity component: Although
instantaneous velocity changes with time, it fluctuates
about some mean velocity. This mean velocity about
which the instantaneous velocity fluctuates is called
temporal mean velocity denoted by u.
 Fluctuating velocity component: It is the difference
between the instantaneous velocity and temporal mean
velocity at any point at any given instant and is denoted
by u’

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Turbulent Flow

 The fluctuating component may be positive or negative

or zero.
 The time average velocity (u) can be found by
integrating the instantaneous values over certain time
interval T.
 Thus, u= 1/T oT u dt
 Similarly v, w, and p.
 We can represent hence,
 U = u +u’ v= v+v’ w=w+w’ and p=p +p’
 It has been found that, time average of fluctuating
quantities u’, v’ and w’ and p’ is equal to zero.

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Turbulent Flow
 Since contribution from fluctuating components is
actually zero, intensity of turbulence is estimated by
root mean square value of fluctuating components.
 Thus
 Intensity of turbulence = (1/3(u’+v’+w’)/u
 Scale of Turbulence: Apart from intensity turbulence
other parameter to needed to characterize the
turbulence is Scale of turbulence
 Scale of turbulence depends on the size of the eddies.
 Scale of turbulence is obtained from the curve of
velocity fluctuations with time by multiplying the
average time interval at which curve crosses the mean
value with average value of the velocity.

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Turbulent Flow
 Shear Stress in Turbulent flow:
 The rapid variation of fluctuating velocity components
and mixing of component in all the three directions,
transfer of momentum is large.
 Hence additional shear stress exists in addition to
viscous shear stress. In turbulent due to complexity in
flow exact measurement of shear stress is not possible
hence semi-empirical approach is used to estimate
shear stress.
 In turbulent flow, total shear stress expressed as sum
of (i) viscous shear stress and (ii) turbulent shear
stress
 total = viscous + turbulent
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Turbulent Flow
 We know, viscous shear stress = =  du/dy
Turbulent Shear Stress
 With knowledge about Newton’s law of viscosity, Boussinesq
postulated an expression for turbulent shear stress which is
expressed as
 turbulent = du/dy
 = eddy viscosity.
 It is not property of the fluid alone.
 It is property of fluid and characteristics of the flow.
 It varies from zero for laminar flow to several times higher than
viscosity of fluid for highly turbulent flow

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Turbulent Flow
 The difficulty in estimation turbulent shear stress lies in
the determination of eddy viscosity.
 Viscous shear stress exists in a small region near to the
wall.
 Eddy shear stress occurs due to variation in fluctuating
velocity component and mixing of these components in
all three directions and exchange of momentum.
 In turbulent flow, usually contribution from viscous
shear stress is small and hence negligible. Similar to
kinematic viscosity, kinematic eddy viscosity is used in
turbulent flow.
 The turbulent eddy viscosity is determined by modeling
it in terms of average velocity and is called eddy
viscosity closing.

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Turbulent Flow
 One of the earlier methods of closing eddy viscosity is
was provided by Prandtl. His modeling was based on
mixing length model.
 The mixing length related to average velocity size of the
eddies that are responsible for mixing of fluid layers.
Hence, according to Prandtl mixing length, turbulent
shear stress is given by the relation

 turbulent =
 Where
  = density of fluid
 lm= mixing length
 u/y = velocity gradient
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Turbulent flow

 In the above relation value of mixing length is not

constant for given flow and depends on average flow
variables and distance from the flow.
 Now with computational techniques in usage these are
modeled in terms of turbulent kinetic energy and
turbulent energy dissipation terms.

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Turbulent flow
 Velocity profile for laminar flow can be obtained by
analytical expression. But for turbulent flow it is based
on experimental data and semi-empirical equations.
 Turbulent flow is found to be consists of four different
regions of flow viz., viscous sub layer, buffer layer and
turbulent layer.

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Turbulent flow
Based on the flow regime different empirical relations
have been established to predict the velocity profile for
each flow regime and they require much time and
parameters to be exactly measured.
For practical purposes, u/umax = (y/R)1/n
where the value re of n is found to be 1/7 and is found
to be valid over a wide range of Reynolds number. It is
also called as a power-law velocity profile. The above
relation can be found to determine the velocity
distribution but not the shear stress distribution.

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Turbulent flow

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 Estimation of major loss
From first principles, we can show that pressure drop across a
circular pipe under steady state and turbulent flow conditions,
can be determined using the Darcy Weisbach Equation.
◦Mathematical form of Darcy-Weisbach equation is
 hf = 4 f L V2/2gD
Where,
 hf – loss of head (m);
 f – friction factor;
 It is determined using analytical expression or
Moody’s plot
 L – Length of pipe (m);
 V - Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
 D - Diameter of pipe (D);
 g – acceleration due to gravity

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 Friction factor
 Definition:
◦ It is ratio of wall shear stress to the product of density
and velocity head.
◦ It is a dimensionless number
◦ It can be estimated from Moody’s chart or equation
 For Laminar Flow:
 It depends only on Reynolds number
◦ It can be predicted by Moody’s diagram or f= 16/Re
◦ Friction factor is independent of type of pipe material

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Friction factor
 For Turbulent flow:
 It depends on Reynolds number and surface roughness
 It can be predicted by Moody’s diagram or equation
 The equations are:
◦ For smooth pipe
f= 0.079 (Re)-0.25
It is also called Blasius Equation
 For a pipe with surface roughness (Swamee-Jain
correlation)
f= 0.25/ [log10 {(ks/3.7D)+ (5.74/Re0.9 )}]2
for 4000 < Re < 108 and 10-5 < ks/D < 2 x 10-2
Where Ks /D= Relative roughness
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 Moody’s Plot

Fig. 5.7 – f Vs. Re plot Ref: Fluid Dynamics for chemical

engineers,
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Entry Length Region
 From boundary layer flow, for a flow through pipe, flow
can be divided into two regimes viz., boundary layer
region and core flow region.
 Boundary layer region is a hypothetical region, wherein
viscous effects and velocity changes are significant.
 Core flow region where in frictional effects are
negligible and velocity remains essential constant in
radial direction.
 The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the
flow direction until the boundary layer reaches the pipe
centre and fills the entire pipe and velocity becomes
fully developed farther downstream.

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Entry Length region

 The region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the
velocity profile is fully developed is called the
hydrodynamic entrance region and the length of this
region is called entry length region.
 The length of pipe after entry length region is called
fully developed region.
 In the fully developed region the shear stress at the wall
remains constant, flow profile remains parabolic for
laminar flow, flatter for turbulent flow.
 Further pressure drop is higher in entry length region.

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Entry Length Region

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Entry Length region

 For laminar flow, entry length region (Le) is calculated

by the relation
◦ Le /D = 0.05 Re
 For turbulent flow
◦ Le/D = 1.359 Re0.25
 Where,
 D = Diameter of pipe and Re= Reynolds number
 Hence all the basic fluid mechanics equations are not
applied in the entry length region and are applicable
only where the flow represents fully developed flow.

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Flow through non-circular conduits

 Fluid flow through closed conduit viz., circular conduits

is well understood.
 But, some times, fluid flows through other type of
conduits viz., square duct, rectangular duct, channel,
annulus etc.
 Flow through them can be understood by application of
concept of equivalent diameter (De)
 Equivalent diameter can be defined as 4 time hydraulic
radius(rH)
 De= 4 rH
 Hydraulic radius is ratio cross sectional area of the
conduit to wetted perimeter

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Flow through non-circular conduits

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Problems
5-13:Estimate transition length at the entrance to a 15
mm tube through which 100 percent glycerol at 600C is
flowing at a velocity of 0.3 m/s. The density of glycerol
is 1240 kg/m3and viscosity is 98cP
5-14:Find the drop in pressure due to friction in a 60 m
long and 25 mm i.d. pipe when water is flowing at a rate
of 3 kg/s. If the pressure drop falls by one half what will
the new flow rate be ?
Data: Density of Water =1000 kg/m3; Viscosity of water
=0.0008 Pa.s

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Problems
 5-15: Crude oil of density 840 kg/m3 is pumped at a
rate of 3 l/s through a 600 m steel pipe under a
pressure drop of 550 kPa. Calculate the Fanning
Friction factor if the pipe diameter is 52 mm. Use the
Hagen Poiseuille equation
5-16:Water at 303 K flows through a horizontal pipe of
25 mm diameter, in which the pressure drop meter
length is to be limited to 2.35 Pa. Calculate the
volumetric flow rate. Data: density of water 996 kg/m3
and viscosity of water = 0.8 mPa.s

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Problems
 5-17:Calculate the flow rate of natural gas flowing
through a 300 mm i.d. pipe with a frictional pressure
drop of 21.5 kPa/km. For calculation purpose the gas
may be considered to be an incompressible fluid having
density of 3.48 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 0.012 mPa.s. at
the average temperature and pressure of
transportation.

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Problems
 5-18:Water at 294 K (210C) is flowing at a velocity of
3m/s through the annulus between a tube with an
outside diameter of 25mm another with an internal
diameter of 50 mm in a concentric tube heat exchanger.
Estimate the pressure drop due to friction per 1 m
length of annulus.

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Flow through pipes and piping systems
 Fluids are transported through piping systems due to
the various advantages they offer for a process industry
 Continuous supply of material to an equipment or end
user.
 Higher level of safety
 Reduction in operating cost
 Ease to control the flow and operating conditions
 Transportation of fluids through pipes is done with the
help of piping systems, wherein the piping materials
used in the transportation changes depending on the
nature of the fluid, process requirement, economics and
safety requirement.
 In transportation of fluids two types of costs are
involved viz., initial cost and operating cost
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Flow through pipes and piping systems
 Initial cost depends on the distance the fluid needs to be
transported, nature of the fluid, operating temperature and
pressure and material selection based on economic, safety
and environmental conditions.
 For given condition, it is one time investment.
 On the other hand, the operating cost depends on the
nature of the fluid, operating conditions to be maintained and
the pressure loss that occurs in the transfer of fluid.
 To meet the objective of process requirement, developing a
good piping system design plays an important role.
 A good piping system should meet the following objectives:
 Transfer fluid at the required condition, Initial cost should
be minimum, Long life and minimum operating cost.

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Flow through pipes and piping systems
 The operating cost can be reduced by minimizing the
pressure loss through the system per unit length.
 In piping system, two types of losses are encountered viz.,
Major Losses and Minor Losses.
 Major losses indicate the pressure loss or energy loss that
occurs in a straight length of pipe
 Minor losses indicate the loss through the following:
 Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
 Loss head due to sudden contraction
 Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe
 Loss of head at the exit of the pipe
 Loss of head due to an obstruction in a pipe
 Loss of head due to various fittings
In case of pipe length L/D ratio >1000, these losses can be
considered negligible in comparison to losses in straight
length of pipe. Hence they are called minor losses

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Flow through pipes and piping systems
 If L/D ratio <1000, then contribution from these will be
significant and hence gain importance in design of piping
systems
 Loss due to sudden expansion
 When the cross-section of the pipe is suddenly
enlarged, the fluid stream from the smaller cross-section
separates from the wall and issues as a jet into enlarged
section. The jet then expands to fill the entire cross-
section of the layer of the conduit.
 The space between the expanding jet and conduit wall
is filled with fluid in vortex motion characteistic of
boundary layer separation and considerable friction is
generated within this space.

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Loss due to sudden expansion

hfe= Ke Ua2/2g = Ke V2/2g

 hfe= head loss due to sudden
expansion
 Ke= proportionality constant for
sudden expansion
 Ke= (1- Sa/Sb)2
 Sa= cross sectional area of inlet
pipe or cross –sectional area
based on diameter (d)
 Sb= Cross sectional area of
outlet pipe or cross sectional
area based on diameter (D)
 Ua or V = Velocity of fluid in the
upstream pipe

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Loss due to Sudden contraction
 When the conduit cross-section of the conduit is
suddenly reduced, the fluid stream cannot flow around
the sharp corner and the stream breaks contact with
the wall of the conduit.
 A jet is formed which flows into the stagnant fluid in the
smaller cross-section and downstream from the point
of contraction the normal velocity distribution is
eventually established.
 The cross section of minimum area at which the
jet changes from contraction to expansion is
called “Vena-contracta”

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Loss due to Sudden contraction

 hfc= kc ub2/2g= kc V2/2g

 hfc =head loss due to sudden
contraction
 kc= proportionality factor called
contraction loss coefficient
 Ub=V= Average velocity of fluid in
downstream section of the pipe
 kc= 0.4 (1-Sb/Sa)
 Sb= Cross-sectional area of
downstream pipe or cross-sectional
area based on diameter (d)
 Sa= Cross-sectional area of
upstream pipe or cross-sectional
area based on diameter (D)

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Loss of energy due to sudden contraction

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Loss of head due to entrance

 hi = 0.5 ua2/2g
 hi= head loss due to entry of
fluid into pipe
 ua= velocity of fluid in the
Flow profile with sharp inlet pipe

 ho= ua2/2g
 ho= head loss due to exit of
fluid from pipe
 ua= velocity of fluid in the
Flow profile with rounded inlet pipe

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Loss of head due to pipe fittings

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 Effect of sharp turn
and flanged elbow:

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  h

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 Operating cost should be minimum

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 MAJOR LOSS ESTIMATION
The Major loss across a pipe in a piping system depends
on
 Reynolds number
 Length of pipe
 Pipe material
 It is determined by using Darcy-Weisbach
equation

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PROBLEMS – MAJOR LOSS
ESTIMATION
Problem – 5.15: Find the head loss due to friction in a
pipe of length 50 m and diameter 300 mm carrying
water at a velocity of 3 m/s using Darcy’s formula
Problem –5.16: A crude oil of kinematic viscosity 4 x 10-
4 m2/s is flowing through a 300 mm pipe diameter is

flowing at a rate of 300 liters per second. Find the head

lost due to friction for a length of 70 m of the pipe.

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 PROBLEMS – MAJOR LOSS
ESTIMATION
 Problem–5.17: Calculate the discharge through a pipe of diameter
200 mm when the difference of pressure head between the two
ends of a pipe 500 m apart is 4m of water. Take the value of f =
0.009 in the Darcy’s formula.
 Problem–5.18: An oil of specific gravity 0.9 and viscosity 0.07
poise is flowing through a pipe of diameter 200 mm at the rate of
60 liters/s. Find the head lost due to friction for a 500 m length of
pipe

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