ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

THE 7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

"CIVIL ENGINEERING - SCIENCE AND PRACTICE"
GNP 2020 – Kolašin, Montenegro, 10-14 March 2020

Dubravka Bjegovic1, Ivana Banjad Pecur2, Nina Stirmer3, Ana Baričevic4, Marijana Serdar5,
Ivana Carevic6, Marina Bagaric7

INNOVATIVE CONSTRUCTION PRODUCTS: DRIVERS OF

SUSTAINABLE ENGINEERING

Abstract
Construction engineering has a direct impact on the environment due to generated waste and
emission of harmful substances during the production of construction materials. To assure its
sustainability, significant changes need to be introduced starting with the excavation of natural
resources up to the reuse of construction products after their service life. Such changes are
crucial for the future generations, as the current level of pollution will have a significant impact
on their lives. Taking into account that construction industry is one of the world leaders in the
environmental pollution, this paper describes how we can contribute to the sustainable
development by applying innovative construction products and materials. The paper examines
the usage of the alternative materials in the cement and/or concrete production, the substitute of
natural aggregates by recycled aggregate from different sources and reinforcement of concrete
with recycled fibers from waste tires.
Key words
Concrete industry, sustainability, waste, recycled materials, construction products

1
Professor emerita, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
dubravka.bjegovic@grad.unizg.hr
2
Professor, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
ivana.banjad.pecur@grad.unizg.hr
3
Professor, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering, nina.stirmer@grad.unizg.hr
4
Assistant professor, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
ana.baricevic@grad.unizg.hr
5
Assistant professor, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
marijana.serdar@grad.unizg.hr
6
PhD student, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
ivana.carevic@grad.unizg.hr
7
PhD student, Department of Materials, University of Zagreb Faculty of Civil Engineering,
marina.bagaric@grad.unizg.hr

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1. INTRODUCTION

Sustainability is a way of live, attitude to the overall economic activity in accordance with
the Earth’s eco-system, which needs a vision of development [1]. The developed countries in the
EU developed the strategies in construction at the end of the last century (Figure 1) [2], which
show the difference between the traditional approach and global construction. The basic principle
of sustainable development in construction today is the minimum use of natural resources and
energy and generating the minimum amount of harmful waste for the Earth. The environment
protection and the energy saving have become worldwide issues in all fields of technology
including the construction industry, particularly in the field of the production of concrete.
The concrete industry is the largest consumer of natural resources and one of the largest
producers of waste. Although concrete, compared with other construction materials, is considered
to be an ecologically acceptable material, its components and production technology are not. The
concrete industry uses large amounts of natural resources, and some authors claim that it is
responsible for 7% of greenhouse gas emissions [3, 4]. It is also known that CO 2 emissions in the
environment are the main cause for today’s basic ecological problem – global warming [5 – 10]. In
addition to the problem of energy consumption and the emission of large amounts of CO 2 during
the production of cement, in concrete structures a significant problem is their durability, which
ultimately comes down to the problem of construction waste disposal.
Construction industry, and the industry of concrete within it, have to be capable of dealing
with the challenges of the population growth (150.000 new inhabitants a day globally) and
accordingly to the need for buildings and construction materials, which has an impact on global
warming, so that the demands of sustainable development, both at the level of material itself and its
production and its properties in construction, become primary requirements.
It has been estimated that only in the Republic of Croatia about 1.2 million tons of
construction waste is generated [11, 12]. The research into the technology of concrete has made
progress in the use of recycled aggregate which can be used as a satisfactory substitute for
aggregate from natural sources [13]. Knowledge about the mechanical and durability properties of
concrete produced from recycled aggregate can result in its convenient application, and thereby
increase the value of the material that is currently being used for backfilling or is being discarded at
landfill sites. Also, there are many scientific efforts of using other wastes (slag, glass, tire scrapes,
sewage sludge) as new recycled materials in construction (hot mix asphalt, concrete mixes,
aggregate, soil stabilizer, etc.) [14].

Figure 1. The new approach in global context [2]

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This paper describes how and in what way to contribute to the sustainable construction
engineering by applying alternative materials in cement production and/or as a cement substitute,
by using recycled material as a substitute aggregate in concrete mixture and the use of recycled
fibers from discarded auto tires as a micro reinforcement.

2. ALTERNATIVE MATERIALS AS AN ADDITION TO THE

CEMENT PRODUCTION AND/OR A PARTIAL SUBSTITUTE FOR
CEMENT

In the modern concrete production plants, the largest amount of concrete is made with
supplementary cementitious materials – SCMs – which are either the by-products of various
industries or the materials which can be recycled, and they are numerous [15]. The above materials
vary by origin, chemical and mineral composition and characteristic particles. The application of
alternative materials in concrete mixtures is a well-established methodology for reducing the
clinker factor in cement and developing positive properties of concrete as a construction material.
Some of these materials have been applied for years either as an admixture to cement or as a
substitute for cement in the composition of concrete, such as fly ash, slag, silica fume and
metakaolin. Their application is possible because it has been regulated and standards have been set,
e.g. EN 15167-1:2006 Ground granulated blast furnace slag for use in concrete, mortar and grout,
EN 13263-1:2005+A1:2009 Silica fume for concrete, EN 450-1:2012 Fly ash for concrete. At the
same time, the potential of using numerous other materials as partial or total cement replacement is
studied, which could lead to creation of an enormous number of new binders that could at some
point become available on the market. Some alternative materials are being intensively researched
into, such as sewage sludge [16 - 18], rice flakes ash, copper and zinc slag, waste from the
production of ferronickel, paper sludge, casting sand, sludge from a stone cutters [19], red sludge
[20, 21] and phosphogypsum [19, 22], depending on local availability. There are numerous
industries that create waste materials that could be a new potential by-product for cement and
concrete industry. As a first step in developing alternative binders as new materials for application
in the concrete (ABC – alternative binders for concrete), it is necessary to identify and estimate
potential sources of relevant secondary raw materials in the region and industries that produces
them.

Figure 2. Some of the raw materials evaluated as potential supplementary cementitious materials:
ladle slag, iron silica fines, red mud, fly ash, clay and limestone

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One of material, which is declared as waste but could be use as new material in cement and
concrete industry, is wood biomass ash (WBA). After the full combustion of wood biomass in
power plants, WBA is left as a by-product on landfills [24, 25]. In Croatia estimated costs of WBA
disposal rise from 50 EUR to 180 EUR per tonne which doesn’t not include cost of transport cost
[24]. It the future it can be expected the increase of costs of landfill, as well as the difficulties in
acquiring new landfill sites. These leads to a need of the future strategy for WBA management.
Based on previous scientific research, it was concluded that mostly empirical testing approaches
were used delivering fragment understanding of WBA characterization as a raw material in the
concrete sector and WBA effect on cement composites [25]. This demands the need for wider
WBA characterization in the frame of its use in the cement and concrete industry as a new potential
raw material. Comprehensive research is given by [25] where 21 samples of WBA collected from
different sources in the Republic of Croatia were evaluated based on their chemical (chemical
composition, mineralogical composition, phase-stability characterisation and heavy-metal content)
and physical properties (particle-size distribution analysis, density and particle morphology
analysis). Based on their characterization, WBAs were benchmarked and categorised for the
different resource replacements in production of cement and concrete, Table 3. Such ranking
categorisation can be employed to screen the differences in many WBAs from various sources that
is important in the valorisation of WBAs waste in cementitious materials.
Table 1. Example of WBA´ ranking based on normalisation relative to the limit values for their use
as SCM [25] (data in table are normalized)

PQI NQI RANG

SAMPLE PozOx d50 LOI Na2Oeq SO3 P2O5 MgO CaO free HMI

Cement 2.34 0.21 0.40 0.33 1.11 0.04 0.50 1.00 1.00 1

F9 2.35 2.68 0.48 0.58 0.22 0.70 0.70 0.33 2.66 2

F7 2.43 1.60 0.42 0.93 0.91 0.36 2.07 4.87 0.90 3

F1 5.07 0.61 1.57 1.48 0.60 0.68 1.24 4.33 2.15 4

F10 3.55 0.40 1.41 0.94 1.32 0.81 1.18 5.87 2.10 5

F8 5.32 0.16 4.03 1.04 1.47 0.70 2.07 3.87 2.20 6

B5 5.38 1.55 1.49 0.96 0.75 0.33 1.01 7.73 1.23 7

F6 5.37 0.96 1.53 1.32 1.19 0.37 0.94 9.00 0.70 8

M1 9.90 0.89 1.57 1.38 0.70 0.69 1.28 5.93 1.41 9

F4 5.70 0.40 1.49 2.18 1.59 0.52 1.20 5.73 3.16 10

B4 8.26 0.75 1.58 1.03 0.54 0.46 1.04 10.53 1.20 11

B2 11.31 1.13 2.01 1.94 0.19 0.50 1.05 11.27 0.66 12

F2 13.04 0.69 2.12 0.74 0.42 0.55 1.08 15.67 0.85 13

F3 24.56 0.09 2.39 3.52 2.91 0.59 1.25 5.20 1.68 14

F5 18.77 0.13 2.31 4.67 4.12 0.50 0.92 7.20 4.11 15

>70 <6.5
Limit <45µm <9% <5% <3% <5% <4% <1.5%
% %

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3. RECYCLED MATERIALS AS SUBSTITUTE AGGREGATE

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) is one of the most extensive waste streams
generated in the EU. It accounts for about 25 % - 30 % of total waste produced in the EU and
consists of numerous materials, including concrete, bricks, gypsum, wood, glass, metals, plastics
and earth, many of which can be recycled. In Europe, 200 million tons of construction and
demolition waste is produced annually [26]. There is a high potential for CDW recycling and
reuse, since some of its components have a high value. Specifically, there is a market for
aggregates obtained from CDW in road and drainage construction, in the production of
prefabricated elements and other construction projects. Therefore, proper waste management,
including proper handling of hazardous waste, can have considerable benefits in terms of
sustainability and quality of life. For this reason, the EU has drawn up a Protocol [27] that
complies with the construction strategy 2020. [28]. The technology for the separation and reuse of
construction and demolition waste is well developed, and thanks to research new technologies are
being found [29]. Construction waste recycling mainly produces aggregates for concrete, and the
most widely used technology for recycling concrete is the one which produces all fractions [30]. In
the studies conducted within two master’s theses at the Department of materials at the Faculty of
Civil Engineering, Zagreb, it has been proved that the most profitable is the application of fraction
16-31.5 mm [31, 32].
One of the possible applications of recycled aggregate in concrete is in the industry of
prefabricated elements, Figure 3. One of example is developed of an innovative Structural
Concrete Insulated Panel, called ECO - SANDWICH® [33-36]. The ECO-SANDWICH® wall
system is innovative prefabricated wall panel with integrated core insulation allowing very low
energy design and retrofit of buildings. It consists of two precast concrete layers interconnected
through stainless steel lattice girders, Figure 3. The inner (load bearing) layer of the ECO-
SANDWICH® is made of recycled concrete aggregates while the outer façade layer is made of
recycled brick aggregates. After mechanical and durability testing [34], it was decided that inner
layer of ECO-SANDWICH® panels will be made with 50% of recycled concrete aggregates while
the outer façade layer will be made with 50% recycled brick aggregates. Layer of thermal
insulation 20 cm thick is free formaldehyde Ecose® based mineral wool. To prevent possibility of
water vapour condensation, layer of ventilated air is placed between layer of thermal insulation and
outer façade layer. Upscaling recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) from laboratory material
experiments to full scale construction product implementation requires proof-of-concept of RAC’s
suitability for energy high-performing, moisture safe, durable and sustainable building envelopes.
To investigate this suitability, experimental monitoring of very low-energy family house built with
ECO-SANDWICH® panels is being carried out; whereby its hygrothermal performance when
exposed to real climate conditions und under the real occupants’ use is captured [36]. Results
suggest that naturally ventilated air in cavity provides passive cooling of envelope in summer
periods, which is particularly present in case of south-facing panel. No moisture problems were
detected in panels and their high thermal mass potentially can lead to lower energy consumption in
buildings [36].

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a) b) c)

Figure 3: Closing material loop for strengthening construction industry: a) Model of ventilated
prefabricated RAC wall panel with positions of installed sensors; b) Construction of family house
using ventilated RAC wall panels; c) hygrothermal monitoring results accessed in customized
computer system

Larger fractions of secondary waste of metallurgical industry, such as slag, zinc,

ferronickel, aluminium, also could be used as substitute aggregate fractions [19, 37]. During
waste tyre recycling, rubber granules can be obtained. Within the EU RUCONBAR project
[38-42], it has been proved that concrete can incorporate rubber granules from recycled tires
to form a porous noise-absorptive layer of road and railway noise barriers (RUCONBAR). By
incorporating 40% rubber granules recycled from waste tyres recovered from end-of-life
vehicles, innovative solution as absorbing layer in production of noise barriers was
developed, once more proving that innovative materials could be drivers for sustainable
construction sector.

4. RECYCLED MICRO REINFORCEMENTS

0,1 30 0,1 30
Early age deformations (‰ )

Early age deformations (‰ )

0,08 0,08
25 25
0,06 0,06
Temperature (
C)

Temperature (
C)

0,04 20 0,04 20
0,02 0,02
15 15
0 0
-0,02 0 10 20 30 10 -0,02 0 10 20 30 10
-0,04 -0,04
5 5
-0,06 -0,06
-0,08 0 -0,08 0
Time (hours) Time (hours)

Figure 4. Recycled tire steel fibers Figure 5. Average results of the early age shrinkage
(RTSF) and recycled tire polymer fibers measurement for: a) referent mix; b) mix with 5
(RTPF) kg/m3 of cleaned RTPF [45]

During recycling of tyres, besides rubber granules, recycled tire steel fibers (RTSF) and
recycled tire polymer fibers (RTPF) can be obtain (Figure 4) and use in design an eco-friendly
cement-based composites [43-47]. Currently, RTPF are mainly sent to landfills or valorized as an
alternative fuel during cement production. The main challenge when using RTPF is storage, since
they are extremely flammable, and their low weight allows them to be easily carried by the wind.
Following the performance-based logic and considering the RTPF properties, RTPF can be used in
the concrete industry (independently to its rubber contamination level) as a replacement for
monofilament polypropylene (PP) fibers as their contribution to the improvement of concrete
behaviour in early age and during exposure to aggressive environments , Figure 5. The RTPF is

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usually heavily contaminated with residual rubber particles that can influence the concrete
properties. Therefore, a small-scale cleaning device [45] for RTPF cleaning was developed at the
Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Zagreb, unclosing the possibility for establish the new
sector/industry that will assure the constancy of a new recycled waste as a new material in the
construction sector.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The construction industry slowly adopts new techniques, materials and technologies, and
our traditional building methodologies rely on traditional skills and unskilled labour. Today, this is
the reason for lagging behind and for the negative impact on the whole sector, and for the growing
gap between the traditional, aged working force and younger, technologically advanced
generations selected by other industries over construction one. However, a smart era, innovative
building methods are “round the corner” precisely because the main attention is paid to minimize
the impact on the environment by using innovative materials which can be durable and extremely
cost-effective. Examples in this paper shows various researches at the different technology
readiness levels (TRS) that are focus on implementation the concept of sustainability, respectively
reducing high energy consuming and negative environmental impacts in the concrete and cement
industry. This paper show potential of wastes from other industries as new materials in the new
developed construction products in order to overcome economic and ecological challenges, making
them as drivers for sustainable construction sector.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Parts of the work presented in this paper were performed in the scope of the following
projects: “Transformation of Wood Biomass Ash into Resilient Construction Composites” (IP-
2016-06-7701) and “Alternative Binders for Concrete: understanding microstructure to predict
durability, ABC” (UIP-05-2017), funded by the Croatian Science Foundation.

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864
 THE 7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
"CIVIL ENGINEERING - SCIENCE AND PRACTICE"
GNP 2020 – Kolašin, Montenegro, 10-14 March 2020

Büşra Cesur1, Cristina Campian 2

EVALUATION OF FLOATING STRUCTURES IN TERMS OF

SUSTAINABLE AND EFFECTIVE ENERGY USES

Abstract
One of the human-induced factors that cause climate change is; by releasing harmful gases into
the atmosphere creating a greenhouse gas effect and causing global warming. Climate change
due to global warming is progressing very rapidly and has different effects on ecosystems. The
most known effect is the rise of the sea level by melting the polar glaciers. The rising water
level also causes a number of risks to coastal environments in coastal areas cities. It is known
that approximately 50% of the world's population lives in coastal areas and the population in
these areas will increase further in the later processes. As this is the case, the number of
communities that were affected and will be affected by the water level is also increasing. On the
other hand, countries that are inadequate in the terrestrial terms have begun to develop
examples of alternative floating structures in the structural against climate change. There are
examples of floating building systems in many areas, such as floating houses, schools, airports,
commercial centers, marinas and they continue to increase. Because, while the mentality of
sustainability is taken advantage of today's natural resources, is to act by thinking that future
generations can benefit. Since the management and usage principles of water resources are also
important in this respect, sustainable approaches should be exhibited in the new floating
architecture approach of the future. Effective energy uses are construction methods that can be
easily applied in floating building projects. It is also relevant to sustainability, as it provides
energy-efficient use inside and outside the building. For this reason, this paper considers
sustainability principles related to floating structures, where examples will begin to be seen in
many areas in the future. It also provides an evaluation in terms of reflecting on floating
building projects by considering these principles. Some samples', sustainable and effective
energy use targets have been interpreted and the criteria that should be taken into consideration
have been tried to be emphasized.
Key words
Climate Change and Global Warming, Floating Architecture, Sustainability and Its Factors,
Energy Efficiency, Renewable Energy, Floating Architecture Examples and Evaluation

1
PhD Student, Süleyman Demirel University, Department of Civil Engineering, Sustainable Building Materials and
Technologies Pr., Kaskelen, Kazakhstan, busracesur.pm@gmail.com
2
Prof.Dr.Eng., Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Civil Engineering Faculty, Structures Departement, Cluj-Napoca,
Romania, Cristina.Campian@dst.utcluj.ro

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1. INTRODUCTION

Global warming is one of the biggest problems of our time, where the effects of our damage
to nature are seen at the fastest rate. Climate change, which plays an important role in the
interaction of air, water and land ecosystems, has a great impact on living life. The fact that the
effects are experienced so fast also accelerates the process of the measures that need to be taken. In
this respect, for the purpose of the paper, it is necessary to first understand climate change and the
changes that will occur on the coasts. According to the SR1.5 final versions of IPCC, Climate; in a
narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or as the statistical description in terms of
the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to
thousands or millions of years. As defined by the World Meteorological Organization the classical
period for averaging these variables is 30 years. Climate change, on the other hand, is a change that
has been going typically decades or longer, where changes in the average or variability of climate
characteristics can be calculated by some measurement methods. This can be caused by the
destruction caused by humans in natural environments or by natural processes of change [1]. Or
according to Article 1 of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC); defines
climate change as: ‘a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity
that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods.’ [2].
Due to climate change and its impacts sea level increases cause the threat in coastal areas.
This has enabled the development of various floating construction projects. The aim of the paper is
to investigate the sustainability and effective energy uses of these floating building architectures.
Because, the damage we've done to our planet is great, and in the floating systems that many
examples begin to seen, it is necessary to think about the effects on ecosystems from the beginning.
In this respect, some selected samples have been examined by considering sustainability factors.

1.1. THE EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

The major factor that causes climate change is global warming. In the opinion of scientists,
this warming in our world continues due to natural factors like changes in the sun's intensity,
volcanic eruptions, or slow changes in the Earth's orbit around the sun, natural processes within the
climate system such as changes in ocean current circulation [3]. However, the most important
reason for the rapid increase experienced today is due to anthropogenic origin. Especially after the
industrial revolution, for the past 200 years the burning of fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and
deforestation have caused the concentrations of heat-trapping greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide
(CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases) to increase
significantly in our atmosphere [3,4]. The increase in the amount of greenhouse gases also causes
the sun's rays to hold in the atmosphere more and the temperature to rise. According to the SR1.5
final versions of IPCC, the change in temperature rise is estimated to be in the range of about 0.8 °
C to 1.2 ° C and possibly 1.0 ° C to date. If global warming continues, it is expected to reach 1.5 °
C between 2030-2052. It is thought that this increase in air temperature will have different effects
on our planet among ecosystems and on continents. According to the SR1.5 final versions of IPCC,
it is possible to summarize the effects of this increase in temperature as follows:

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• Climate models have very different effects between present-day warm values and global
warming of 1.5C and between 1.5 C and 2.5 C. These differences include increases in: changes
such as mean temperature variability in the land and ocean region, increased temperatures in most
inhabited regions, heavy precipitation in some areas and drought in some regions.
• On land, impacts on ecosystems, including species loss and extinction, are projected to be
lower at 1.5°C compared to 2°C.
• Limiting global warming to 1.5°C compared to 2°C is projected to reduce increases in
ocean temperature and ocean acidity, while reducing risks to marine biodiversity, fisheries and
ecosystems in Arctic sea ice and warm water coral reef ecosystems.
• Climate-related health, livelihoods, food, water supply, human security and economic
growth risks are projected to increase with global warming of 1.5°C while increasing by 2°C.
• In terms of adaptation, it will be 1.5°C lower compared to 2°C. However, within 5°C
global warming there are limits to the adaptation capacity of human and natural systems.
• The change in sea level is expected to be about 0.1 m lower with global warming of 1.5°C
compared to 2°C by 2100, and will increase after 2100 depending on future emissions. At the same
time, sea levels rose by 11-16 cm due to climate change in the twentieth century [5,6,9] and are
estimated to rise by another 0.5 m this century even if the carbon emissions that cause global
warming are reduced [7,9]. If in the case of the early-onset Antarctic ice sheet is unstable, the level
is expected to exceed 2 m [8,9].
It is obvious that these effects of global climate change, such as rising sea level, tsunami,
high-water and increasing flood risk will be felt more in coastal cities. Because in 2030, it is
estimated that about 50% of the world's population will live within 100 km of the coast [10].
According to the World Bank Policy Research Study Report, the countries that will be affected by
this situation terrestrially; In Latin America and the Caribbean, the Bahamas is also expected to be
most affected by the 1 m rise in sea level, followed by Cuba and Belize. In the Middle East and
North Africa region, a large amount of Qatar's land area, the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait are
expected to be affected. Here, Gambia and, to a small extent, Guinea-Bissau are expected to be
affected. The most severely affected by sea level rise in East Asia is Vietnam, with 16% of its land
area, followed by Taiwan, China, Myanmar, Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia and the Philippines. In
terms of the population comes Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar. In South Asia, it is expected that
Bangladesh and then SriLanka and Pakistan will be affected [11]. The countries most affected by
climate change in Europe are Lithuania, Finland, Latvia, Estonia and then Belgium, the
Netherlands and Denmark [12]. It is known that some measures have been taken against the risks
such as floods, high-water, tsunami and tide in these countries, which are located in coastal areas
due to global warming and sea level rise. In coastal settlements, it is possible to see houses being
raised from the ground, or in developed countries coastal embankments, water barriers and floating
architectural examples.

1.2. FLOATING ARCHITECTURE

Nowadays floating architectural structures' floating house, Bridge, Airport, Stadium,
floating solar panel, a hotel with different concept projects, marina, mosques, grassland area,
greenhouse, school, cemetery, pool, ice rink, floating islands, city projects, such as many samples
are available. While some of these examples can move, they usually consist of fixed systems in a
certain position to provide infrastructure services. Moon (2014) describes these floating
architectures as follows;

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“Floating architecture can be defined as a building for living or working space that floats on
the water with floatation system, is moored in a permanent location, does not include a watercraft
designed or intended for navigation, and has a premises services (electricity, water/sewage, gas)
system served through connection by permanent supply/return system between floating building
and a service station on land, or has self-supporting service facilities for itself.” [13]. In other
words, floating architectures are structures with functions, sizes, materials, renewable technologies,
fixed or movable properties that vary depending on public or private uses. People's desire to be
close to water since the past and the use of water in various fields such as fishing, trade and
Transportation shows that the history of these floating structures goes back a long way.
Floating houses are known to have developed over the centuries. Also, the global history of
floating houses is very complex and it widespread almost all continents [14]. For example, through
centuries, fishing tribes in the province of Siem Reap in Cambodia have homes, and depending on
the water level can rise and also move. In addition to Cambodia in Southeast Asia, there are many
floating villages in Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia and China [15]. From the 17th century onwards
in Europe especially in cities like Holland-Amsterdam, it was stated people started to live on boats
and ships [16]. However these floating houses are different all over the world and it depends on the
technical characteristics of the buildings, architecture, material usage, climatic conditions and the
cultural structure of the region. The history of floating bridge examples dates back a very long
time, and the first floating bridge was built in ancient China by the Zhou Dynasty in the 11th
century [15]. Floating drilling platforms, one of the offshore building systems, have been used to
extract oil at a deeper level since the 1970s. [17].
The fact that the history of floating architectural structures dates back to the old times, that
it is serving different uses by changing today, is perhaps the future precursor of development of
new residential areas and different concept projects on the water. However, sustainability aspects
of these projects, which are so widespread and may affect aquatic ecosystems, need to be
considered.

1.3. SUSTAINABILITY FACTORS

Sustainability, while benefiting from natural resources, to exploit the without exceeding
capacity to use and the threshold usage limit, and is to ensure that future generations can benefit.
According to the United Nations' Brundtland report published in 1987, which is widely known;
The concept of sustainability is that today's needs and expectations are met without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs and that resource values are maintained to
use by protecting [18]. In order to achieve this, mainly ecological, economic and social qualities
are taken into consideration.
Environmental sustainability is to meet the resource and service needs of future generations
without compromising the health of existing ecosystems for water, soil, food, fuel, energy, material
needs, etc. Environmental sustainability is a condition of balance, resilience, and
interconnectedness that allows human society to satisfy its needs while neither exceeding the
capacity of its supporting ecosystems to continue to regenerate the services necessary to meet those
needs nor by our actions diminishing biological diversity [19]. Economic sustainability is linked to
environmental and social sustainability. It is the term used to identify various strategies that make it
possible to use available resources to their best advantage [20]. Economic sustainability should
involve analysis to minimize the social costs of meeting standards for protecting environmental
assets but not for determining what those standards should be [19]. Sustainability of rights such as

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social equality, justice, liveability, equal access to public services, security, social capital, social
support, and cultural competence covers social sustainability issues. Social sustainability occurs
when the formal and informal processes, systems, structures and relationships actively support the
capacity of current and future generations to create healthy and liveable communities [21].
In order to provide ecological, economic and social sustainability factors in floating
architectures, the structure must be planned to premeditate from the design stage to its use and after
the end of its life. Renewable energy sources and impact energy use in floating structures are also
important in terms of sustainability. Renewable energy can be easily used in floating structure
examples, as the resource values which exist continuously and that the energy flow continues
without interruption, are practical and fast applicable systems. Especially renewable energy sources
such as sunlight, wind, rainwater recycling, wave energy and bottom current can be utilized, thus
ensuring ecological and economic sustainability.

2. SAMPLE FLOATING ARCHITECTURES

2.1. AMPHIBIOUS HOMES, MAASBOMMEL, THE NETHERLANDS

In Maasbommel, 32 amphibian-style houses were built that could swim against tidal
currents and floods. These amphibious houses are attached to flexible mooring poles and are based
on concrete caissons. Fixing to anchoring poles limits the movement caused by water. The houses
float when the water level rises and sit on concrete foundations when it decreases. These concrete
caissons are used for storage in normal periods, but they shift to the role of pontoons when
flooding occurs [22]. Lightness is an important factor in the design, construction of these caissons,
and also in the wood frame construction of houses. Concrete caissons weigh about 72 tons, while
timber frame homes weigh in at about 22 tons [22]. Waterproofing of concrete caisson is achieved
by making ordinary concrete with aggregate and strengthening the joints with an additional water-
resistant sealing strip. Projections indicate that the water level will rise by more than 70cm every
five years, and therefore homes will rise accordingly [23].

Figure 1. Amphibious homes in Maasbommel [by Factor Architecten bv, Dura Vermeer, 23]

2.2. FLOATING PAVILION, ROTTERDAM, THE NETHERLANDS

The floating pavilion in Rotterdam is notable for being its appearance, materials used
against climate change, sustainable and flexible. The Pavilion consists of three spheres, the largest
of which has a radius of 12mt, and can be automatically raised and lowered with water. The
harbour where the pavilion is located is very suitable due to its moderate waves. It aims to reduce

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Rotterdam's greenhouse gas emissions and fight against climate change. The building is heated and
cooled with solar energy and surface water. It can provide the vast majority of its energy needs. By
purifying own toilet water rest of it can be safely discharged into the surface waters. The ETFE foil
in their special domes is about 100 times lighter and thicker than glass. The body, which floats to
keep these islands light and unsinkable, consists of sheets of polystyrene foam [24].

Figure 2. Floatıng Pavilion in Rotterdam [24]

2.3. JELLYFISH BARGE, NAVICELLI CANAL, THE ITALY

The jellyfish Barge project was conducted by Professor Stefano Mancuso who the director
of the International Laboratory of Plant Neurobiology (LINV)and his team. It consists of a wooden
base of about 70 square meters, floating on 96 recycled plastic drums. Inside the greenhouse, a
highly efficient hydroponic cultivation method saves up to 70% of water compared to conventional
crops cultivating systems [25]. Dubbed for the shape and translucency of the jellyfish barge, this
floating greenhouse can grow the crops hydroponically and produce up to 150 liters of fresh
drinking water a day [26]. The jellyfish Barge has a solar distillation system and absorbs moist air,
forcing it to condense in barrels that come into contact with the cold surface of the sea [25]. It is
designed in small size for installation in places with limited material resources. Despite this, it is
able to support the food and water needs of the two families [26].

Figure 3. Jellyfish Barge in Navicelli Canal [25,26]

2.4. HUB ON THE HUDSON, THE ABD

The Hub on the Hudson project, designed by architect Eytan Kaufman, is connected to the
shore by a footbridge and consists of a 9-acre circular pier. The circular pier is located on high
capacity caissons anchored into bedrock. The bridge, which uses steel and concrete material, would
extend the floating island through a raised circular promenade. The 9-acre park comprises gardens
and five pyramidal buildings constructed from steel and reflective glass. The centre of the hub is
designed for art activities and gathering. A marina built of a pile-supported flared wood was placed
on the western side of the island. The project was designed in accordance with the nature and spirit
of the High Line,” but there are thought to be shortcomings in its viability [27].

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Figure 4. Hub on The Hudson in ABD [27]

2.5. HARVEST CITY, THE HAITI

Collaborating with architect E. Kevin Schopfe and Tangram 3DS (visualization), they
designed the “Harvest City” project, which would also have floating agriculture and light industry
on the island's shores in Haiti. Harvest City was conceived as a functioning and vibrant city where
30,000 people could live. It embraces three main concepts. “The creation of an artificial, floating,
productive and habitable land needed for Haiti, Building an ecological, sustainable and practical
urban platform, Creating a new and advantageous economic model developed for struggling
nations.” Harvest City is envisioned as a 2 mile diameter complex of tethered floating modules.
The overall design is divided into four zones, which include housing complexes, schools,
administrative structures, community activities and general marketplace. The entire complex will
be floated and connected to the seabed by cable. Due to its low profile and perimeter wave
attenuators, hurricanes and typhoons will have little effect [28].

Figure 5. Harvest City in Haiti [28]

3. FLOATING ARCHITECTURES' SUSTAINABLE FEATURES

The realized and planned five cases of floating architecture were introduced and analysed in
terms of sustainable in Table 1. Features evaluated in terms of sustainability; use of new, light,
durable and different materials; discharge of waste water (grey water, rain water); prefabricated
and moved to different locations; self-contained systems in terms of electricity, water and sewage
treatment; use of renewable energy sources; energy efficiency; use of recycled materials.

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Table 1. Sustainable features of the sample buildings

Name of Floating
SUSTAINABLE FEATURES
Architectures
Amphibious Foundation is float upwards in the event of a flood, Electrical and sewer
Homes lines are kept to the land by flexible pipes, The material used is light.
Use of new, light, flexible, durable and different materials, Prefabricated
and moved to different locations, Reduce greenhouse gas (CO2)
Floating Pavilion
emissions, Use of renewable energy sources, Discharge of waste water,
Energy efficiency.
Prefabricated and moved to different locations, Self-contained systems in
Jellyfish Barge terms of electricity, water and sewage treatment, Use of renewable energy
sources, Use of recycled materials.
Hub on the Use of new, light, durable and different new materials and It has very
Hudson functional usage areas.
use of new, light, durable materials, discharge of waste water (grey water,
Harvest City rain water), self-contained systems in terms of electricity, water and
sewage treatment; use of renewable energy sources; energy efficiency.

4. CONCLUSION

Floating structures has been emerging as a strong alternative to the sea level rise caused by
climate change and against threat happening in some coastal countries. The applicability of floating
architectures' sustainability features, which are expected to be seen more in the future, is very high.
These findings were found in the samples investigated. In particular, by selecting realized and
planned examples, it was observed that sustainability could be reflected in future studies and it has
been achieved that more can be implemented in urban projects. However, since the study was
conducted through article reviews and internet researches, the details of the material properties
(domestic, low energy, renewable, recyclable, non-toxic, light structure), daylighting and natural
ventilation could not be reached in the samples.
As a result, floating architectures are considered as sustainable and high-availability
projects for countries that are inadequate in coastal terms. However, the blocking of sunlight by
large floating architectures may pose a disadvantage for undersea ecosystems. In addition, the
presence of constantly wet atmosphere conditions may have negative effects on people and
buildings. Therefore, floating architectures should be considered in these respects.

LITERATURE

[1] IPCC: “Global Warming of 1.5°C”, Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J.
Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W. Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R.
Matthews, Y. Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T. Waterfield
(eds.), 2018, 616, final versions of the Full SR1.5.
[2] UNFCCC: “United Nations”, 1992, 33, Date of access: 20.12.2019,
https://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/background_publications_htmlpdf/application/pdf/conve
ng.pdf

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[3] EPA: “What is climate change ?”,

https://www.epa.ie/climate/communicatingclimatescience/whatisclimatechange/, Date of access:
20.12.2019
[4] National Geographic: “Greenhouse Effect”, https://www.nationalgeographic.org/article/greenhouse-
effect/, Date of access: 21.12.2019
[5] C. C. Hay, E. Morrow, R. E. Kopp, J. X. Mitrovica: “Probabilistic Reanalysis of Twentieth-Century
Sea-Level Rise”, Nature 517, 2015, 481–484.
[6] S. Dangendorf, M. Marcos, G. Wöppelmann, C. P. Conrad, T. Frederikse, R. Riva: “ Reassessment of
20th Century Global Mean Sea Level Rise”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114
(23), 2017, 5946-5951.
[7] R. E. Kopp, R. M. Horton, C. M. Little, J. X. Mitrovica, M. Oppenheimer, D. J. Rasmussen, ... & C.
Tebaldi: “Probabilistic 21st and 22nd Century Sea‐Level Projections at a Global Network of
Tide‐Gauge Sites”, Earth's Future, 2(8), 2014, 383-406
[8] R. E. Kopp, R. M. DeConto, D. A. Bader, C. C. Hay, R. M. Horton, S. Kulp, ... & B. H. Strauss:
“Evolving Understanding of Antarctic Ice‐Sheet Physics and Ambiguity in Probabilistic Sea‐Level
Projections”, Earth's Future, 5(12), 2017, 1217-1233
[9] S. A. Kulp, B. H. Strauss: “New Elevation Data Triple Estimates of Global Vulnerability to Sea-Level
Rise and Coastal Flooding”, Nature Communications, 10(1), 2019, 1-12
[10] B. Bates, Z. Kundzewicz, S.Wu: “Climate Change and Water”, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change Secretariat, 2008
[11] S. Dasgupta, B. Laplante, C. Meisner, D. Wheeler, J. Yan: “The Impact of Sea Level Rise on
Developing Countries: A Comparative Analysis”, The World Bank, 2007
[12] A. T. Vekony: “Mapped: Impact of Climate Change on European Countries”,
https://www.greenmatch.co.uk/blog/2019/04/climate-change-europe, Date of access: 21.12.2019
[13] C. Moon: “Renewable Energy Application in Floating Architecture”, 30th International Plea
Conference, CEPT University, Ahmedabad, 2014, 8p.
[14] H. Stopp, P. Strangfeld: “Scwimmende Wohnbauten”, Beuth Verlag GmBH, Berlin-Vien-Zürich,
2012, 109p.
[15] M. J. Koekoek: “Connecting Modular Floating Structures-Connecting Modular Floating Structures”,
Delft University of Technology, Master Thesis, Rotterdam, 2010, 173p.
[16] K. Maarten, Y. Korte: “Mooring Site Amsterdam: Life on Water”, ARCAM/Architecture & Natura
Press, Amsterdam, 2007, 184p.
[17] N. D. P. Barltrop: “Floating Structure: A guide for Design and Analysis (Vol. 1)”, Herefordshire,
England: Oilfield Publications Ltd., 1998, 1200p.
[18] G. H. Brundtland: “Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: our
common future”, United Nations, 1987
[19] J. Morelli: “Environmental Sustainability: A Definition for Environmental Professionals”, Journal of
environmental sustainability, 1(1), 2011, 2
[20] C. Moon: “Applications of Sustainable Factors in Floating Architecture”, World SB14 Barcelona,
2014, 373-379
[21] S. McKenzie: “Social Sustainability: Towards Some Definitions”, Hawke Research Institute Working
Paper Series 27, University of South Australia, Magill, 2004, 29
[22] C. R. Manley: “Floating Tybee: Planning and Designing for Rising Seas”, Georgia Institute of
Technology, Master Thesis, Georgia, 2014, 139
[23] Urban Green-Blue Grids: “Amphibious homes, Maasbommel, The Netherlands”,
https://www.urbangreenbluegrids.com/projects/amphibious-homes-maasbommel-the-netherlands/,
Date of access: 23.12.2019
[24] Drijvend Poviljoen: “What is the Floating Pavilion?”, https://www.drijvendpaviljoen.nl/floating-
pavilion-event-location, Date of access: 23.12.2019
[25] Inside Flows: “Jellyfish Barge”, https://www.insideflows.org/project/jellyfish-barge/, Date of access:
23.12.2019

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[26] Arch Daily: “Jellyfish Barge" Provides Sustainable Source of Food and Water”,
https://www.archdaily.com/569709/jellyfish-barge-provides-sustainable-source-of-food-and-water,
Date of access: 24.12.2019
[27] Inhabitat: “Proposed floating island with pyramids connects the High Line to the Hudson River”
https://inhabitat.com/proposed-floating-island-with-pyramids-connects-the-high-line-to-the-hudson-
river/, Date of access: 24.12.2019
[28] Evolo: “Harvest City is a Floating Agricultural and Industrial City for Haiti”,
http://www.evolo.us/harvest-city-is-a-floating-agricultural-and-industrial-city-for-haiti/, Date of
access: 24.12.2019

874
 THE 7th INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
"CIVIL ENGINEERING - SCIENCE AND PRACTICE"
GNP 2020 – Kolašin, Montenegro, 10-14 March 2020

Ivana Ćipranić1, Marija Jevrić2, Goran Sekulić3, Rajko Janjić4, Nikola Ćipranić5

REMEDIATION OF THE MINE TAILINGS DISPOSAL FACILITY

GRADAC–MONTENEGRO

Abstract
The zinc and lead mine "Šuplja Stijena" with its flotation facilities are situated in the northern
part of Montenegro near Gradac, Pljevlja. Toxic flotation tailings from zinc and lead
production have been deposited at the bank of the river Ćehotina. The height of the deposited
material is about 30m, and it occupies an area of about 9.5 ha. The deposit in Gradac was
erected as a flotation waste dump in a valley. The western and north-western slopes of the
tailings deposit end directly on the riverbank. Deposited sand residues, resulting from the
processing of lead and zinc ores, cause adverse environmental impacts, in various ways. That
material of the mine tailings contains high concentrations of Arsenic, Lead and Zinc as well as
Chromium, Cadmium, Copper and Mercury. The analysis shows that the surface around
dumpsite is contaminated with high levels of: Lead, Chromium, Arsenic, Zinc, Cadmium,
Copper and Nickel. The surface water from the top of the tailings deposit is contaminated with
Lead, Zinc and Iron. The drainage water at the dam toes is contaminated with slightly increased
heavy metal concentrations (Cadmium, Iron, Zinc). The design solution foresees mechanical
stabilization of the reshaped slopes of the mine tailing disposal facility, while on the flat part of
the mine tailing disposal facility, due to work with heavy construction machinery, the
stabilization of surface area of the mine tailing disposal facility is planned to be done by a
cement layer, with a thickness of 50 cm. Afterwards, the recultivation layers are to be installed
over a reorganized mine tailings disposal facility.
Key words
Mine tailings, disposal, zinc and lead mine, recultivation

1
Dr, Civil Engineer, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Montenegro, ivanac@ucg.ac.me
2
Dr, Civil Engineer, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Montenegro, marijaj@ucg.ac.me
3
Prof. dr, Civil Engineer, Faculty of Civil Engineering, University of Montenegro, sgoran2000@gmail
4
Designer, Nik Com ltd, rajkojanjic.nikcom@gmail.com
5
Civil Engineer, Nik Com ltd, nikolacipranic@yahoo.com

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1. INTRODUCTION

The zinc and lead mine "Šuplja Stijena" with its flotation facilities are situated in the
northern part of Montenegro near Gradac. The mine tailings disposal facility is located in Gradac
(Municipality of Pljevlja), about 17 km northwest of the city centre. The location is shown in
Figure 1.
Based on available data, in the period from 1954 to 1978 and in the period from 1996 to
2000, in the "Šuplja stijena" flotation facilities approximately 4.300.000 tons of ore were
processed and around 390.000 tons of lead and zinc concentrates were obtained as well as an
unspecified amount of pyrite. Accoding to a rough estimate, 3.9 million tons of toxic postflotation
tailings from zinc and lead production have been deposited at the bank of the river Ćehotina.[1]

Figure 1. The location of the mine tailings disposal facility

The western and north-western slopes of the tailings deposit end directly on the riverbank
and are reinforced by artificial embankment dams at the foot of the slope, Figure 2. The north-
eastern and eastern part of the deposit adjoins the mountain. The southern end of the pond reclines
on rising ground. In between, at the southeast end, the pond is reinforced by an artificial earth dam,
securing the tailings pond towards the only present housing, belonging to the inhabitants of Gradac.
A natural ridge, shaped by the meandering river, extends into the tailings pond demanding the
installation of two starting dams for the material deposition. In total, the tailings pond covers an
area of approximately 9.5 ha. The base ground sits at an elevation of about 660 m above sea level
and the impoundment area at about 685 m above sea level, resulting in an approximate height of
the tailings deposit of 30 m.
After heavy rainfall and especially after snowmelt in springtime, the river discharge
increases significantly and heavy erosive activities in the narrow river valley can be expected to
take place.

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Figure 2. Western slopes of the tailings deposit

2. THE RESULTS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS

For the purpose of determining the impacts of the deposited material on the environment,
the following tests were carried out [2]:
- Flotation tailings testing. In total, 46 samples from three boreholes were collected
and tested. The sampling process was done at every meter of the borehole. Based
on the obtained testing results, and comparison with the legislation [3] in the field
of soil testing, concentrations of As (up to 10 times), Pb (up to 106 times), and Zn
(up to 26 times), as well as Cr, Cd, Cu and Hg are above the MAC (maximum
allowed concentrations) value in testing samples.
- Testing of surface sampled soil, collected at the depth of 50 cm. Surface sampling
of soil at the Gradac site was carried out by terrain sounding. In total, ten soil
samples were collected, out of which five samples were in the immediate vicinity
of the tailings pond, and other five samples were in the Gradac settlement. Based
on the obtained testing results, and comparison with the legislation [3] in the field
of soil testing, concentrations of Pb (up to 52 times), Cr (up to 3 times), As (up to
7 times), Zn (up to 4 times), Cd, Cu and Ni in testing samples are above the MAC
value.
- Water testing of the river Ćehotina. Two samples were tested, one immediately
upstream of the deposited material, and the other one downstream of it. The results
of the analysed river water show that the concentrations of the tested parameters
are within Class A and A1, except for pH parameters, temperature and
conductivity. The conductivity value exceeds the MAC value for A3 class, based
on legislation [4].
- Water testing at the bottom of the slopes of the mine tailings disposal facility. The
soil along the lower edges of the slopes of the deposited material is saturated with
water, mixing with the water of the river Ćehotina. Based on the obtained testing
results, and comparison with the legislation [5] Cd, Zn and Fe values are above the
MAC value.

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- Testing water from the surface of the tailings pond. The water on the very surface
of the mine tailings disposal facility appears as a result of atmospheric
precipitation, and due to the low permeability of the deposited material, it is
retained on the surface. Based on the obtained testing results, and comparison with
the legislation [5] Pb, Zn and Fe values are above the MAC value.
- Sampling of groundwater from the boreholes, drilled in the disposal facility body.
Based on the obtained testing results, and comparison with the legislation [5] Zn,
Fe, Pb, Cd and F values are above the MAC value.

3. PROPOSED MEASURES WITH RESPECT TO THE REDUCTION

OF EXISTING POLLUTION

Based on the analysis of the results presented in the previous chapter, it is concluded that
the environmental impacts of the deposited material are harmful and it is of high importance to
prevent further adverse effects. Therefore, the closure of the mine tailings disposal facility is
planned to be done with appropriate layers, while a layer of humus would be the final layer
installed, planned for grass covering. Such a solution would enable the closed disposal facility to
fit into the surrounding area. [6]
In order to facilitate the operation of construction machinery along the disposal facility and the
process of placing the designed layers, the stabilization of the disposal facility material is planned.
The mechanical stabilization of the reshaped slopes of the mine tailings disposal facility is
planned on the part of the disposal facility slopes, while the cement stabilization is planned on the
flat part of the mine tailings disposal facility, due to the work with heavy construction machinery.
The cement stabilization is planned to be done in a 50 cm thick layer. Upon the completion of
stabilization of the deposited material, the recultivation layers will be put.

3.1. THE PROCESS OF RECULTIVATION

On the slopes of the dam, over the reshaped disposal facility, the following layers are
planned to be placed (Figure 3.):
- a 20 cm layer of humus, with suitable geocomposite for grass covering;
- a 30 cm recultivation layer – clay material;
- geotextile 500 gr/m2;
- a 20 cm filter layer;
- a 30 cm layer of gravel;
- geotextile 500 gr/m2;
- a 30 cm protection layer;
- geotextile 300 gr/m2;
- HDPE geomembrane 2.5 mm;
- geotextile 300 gr/m2;
- a 50 cm levelling layer.

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Figure 3. The layers planned on the slopes of the dam [6]

On the flat part of the mine tailings disposal facility the following layers are planned to be
placed (Figure 4.):
- a 20 cm layer of humus, with suitable geocomposite for grass covering;
- an 80 cm recultivation layer – excavated soil;
- geotextile 500 gr/m2;
- a 50 cm layer of drainage material;
- geotextile 500 gr/m2;
- HDPE geomembrane 2.5 mm;
- geotextile 300 gr/m2;
- a 50 cm levelling layer;
- a 50 cm layer of tailings stabilized with cement.

Figure 4. The layers planned on the flat part of the mine tailings disposal facility[6]

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3.1.1. Reshaping the mine tailings disposal facility body and hydroisolation
During the process of reshaping the mine tailings disposal facility body, partial excavations
and embankments of the natural surrounding terrain will be carried out as well, for the purpose of
fitting into the designed solution of the disposal facility recultivation. In addition, during the
process of reshaping the mine tailings disposal facility body, the eroded tailings, which occupy the
area from the disposal facility toe towards the river Ćehotina, will be removed and placed on the
flat part of the disposal facility.
Upon the completion of disposal facility reshaping, a 50 cm levelling layer will be installed
along the entire body of the disposal facility, including the slopes. The geotextile (300 gr/m2) will
be placed over the levelling layer. This geotextile layer will serve to protect the geomembrane
against any potential damage in case of its contact with the material embedded in the levelling
layer. The installation of HDPE geomembrane of 2.5 mm is planned to be done over the geotextile
layer, and then another layer of geotextile over it is to be placed. As the next planned layer to be
placed on the slopes of the disposal facility is of clay material, it is planned to install the geotextile
of less weight (300 gr/m2) on the slopes, while on the flat part of the mine tailings disposal facility
stronger/heavier/more resistant geotextile (500 gr/m2) is to be installed, since drainage material is
planned over it. After the installation of this layer, a gabion wall is to be built at the very bottom of
the embankment slope. In the area from the gabion wall towards the river Ćehotina the installation
of a layer of stone blocks is planned. The use of this material would ensure a faster evacuation of
high waters of the river. Additionally, it would eliminate the risk of material being washed and
removed, as it would be the case with the fine-grained materials.

3.1.2. Drainage system

The installation of drainage pipes is planned to be done over the installed geotextile layers
and HDPE geomembrane for faster evacuation of leachate. The pipes of diameter DN 250 will be
the primary collectors. These pipes are planned to be installed around the perimeter of the flat
surface of the mine tailings disposal facility as well as behind the gabion wall. The pipes of
diameter DN 200 are planned to be installed over the entire area of the disposal facility as
secondary collectors, whose function would be to collect leachate and channel it to the main
collectors. The inspection chambers, which would be used for maintaining the piping system in the
exploitation phase, are planned to be installed at critical points. All waters from the drainage pipes
will flow down the slopes of the mine tailings disposal facility, along the gabion wall.
Over the geotextile layer an additional layer of geotextile (500 gr/m2) is planned to be
installed on the slopes of the disposal facility. A drainage layer composed of 30 cm of gravel
material and 20 cm of filter sandy layer is planned to be installed over the geotextile, and then
another geotextile layer will follow (500 gr/m2). The geotextile under and above the drainage layer
will perform a filtration function, that is, it should prevent fine clay particles from penetrating into
the drainage layers.

3.1.3. Final layers

On the flat part of the disposal facility, upon the installation of drainage pipes, the drainage
material will be installed in a layer of 50 cm thickness, over which the geotextile (500 gr/m2) will
be placed, with the function of preventing the penetration of fine particles into the drainage
material.

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A 30 cm thick layer of clay soil is planned to be placed over the drainage layer and the
geotextile on the slopes, while this layer of excavated soil with a thickness of 80 cm is planned to
be placed on the flat surface of the disposal facility.
A 20 cm thick layer of humus is planned to be installed as the final layer over the entire
mine tailings disposal facility, including its slopes. The only exception is the drainage trench for
the pipes behind the gabion wall, over which the final layer of crushed stone aggregate is planned.
The entire area of the recultivated disposal facility along with its slopes is planned for grass
covering.

3.1.4. Levelling
The levelling of the mine tailings disposal facility surface is designed in such a way so that the
central part of the disposal facility occupies the highest point and the water flows towards the
peripheral part of the disposal facility (Figure 5). A system of trapezoid concrete canals, whose
function would be to drain atmospheric waters and discharge them down the slopes into the river
Ćehotina, is planned to be formed. All planned layers will be of the same levelling.

Figure 5. The planned levelling of the mine tailings disposal facility surface[6]

Regarding the fitting of the mine tailings disposal facility to the existing access road, a
15cm thick AB slab over the concrete canal is planned to be constructed in order to enable the
access to the disposal facility surface during the exploitation phase.
The slopes of the mine tailings disposal facility surface towards the peripheral canals are
variable due to the better fitting into the surrounding terrain.

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4. EXPECTED COSTS

The expected costs of the works, described in the previous chapter, are given in the Table 1. [6]
Table 1. Expected costs
Description of works Expected costs
1 Preparation works 10.000,00 €
Reshaping the mine tailings disposal facility body and
2 4.600.000,00 €
hydroisolation
3 Drainage system and channels for rain water 1.800.000,00 €
4 Final layers, recultivation 1.500.000,00 €
Total 7.910.000,00 €

LITERATURE

[1] Site Investigations and Preparation Study for the Remediation of Industrial Waste Disposal Sites in
Montenegro, Prepared for The Ministry of Sustainable Development and Tourism Environmental
Protection Agency Montenegro, CDM Europe & Hidroinžering, 2013.
[2] Report on Water and Soil Laboratory Tests, Nik Com Ltd Nikšić & Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy Bor, 2018.
[3] The Regulation on the Limit Values of Polluting, Harmful and Hazardous Substances in Land,
Official Gazzete of Montenegro, No. 15/92 of June 5, 1997.
[4] Regulations on Classification and Categorization of Surface and Subregive Waters, Official document
of Montenegro, No. 2/07 of October 29, 2007.
[5] Regulations on the quality and sanitary-technical conditions for the discharge of wastewater into
recipient and public sewerage, method and procedure for testing the quality of wastewater, the
minimum number of tests and the content of the report on the established quality of waste waters,
Official document of Montenegro, No. 45/08 of 31 July 2008, 9/10 of 19. February 2010, 26/12, from
24 May 2012, 52/12, from 12 October 2012 and 59/13, 26 December 2013.
[6] Final Design of Remediation of the Mine Tailing Disposal Facility „Šuplja Stijena”, Gradac, Pljevlja
Municipality, Nik Com Ltd Nikšić, 2019.

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