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Post Lab Notes PDF
Post Lab Notes PDF
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COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
1. Physical state, color and odor
- The physical appearance of an unknown will be your first datum in the search to
discover its identity.
- Solid (amorphous or crystalline) or liquid.
2. Solubility Properties and Reaction with Litmus paper
- Solubility of organic compounds in H
2
O
indicates the polarity of the sample and the
intermolecular forces of attraction that exists between the sample and H
2
O.
- Reaction with litmus paper indicates the acidity/basicity of the H
2
O-soluble
samples.
- Red Blue (Base) RBB
- Blue Red (Acid) BRA
- Litmus paper that retains its color indicates a neutral compound.
- Solubility of organic compounds in 5% HCl and/or 5%NaOH also reveals the acidity
and basicity of the sample.
- The table below summarizes the solubility of different organic compounds in various
solvents.
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- The solubility of the sample in different solvents indicates the possible class of
organic compounds to where it belongs as shown in the figure.
Try this: In one whole sheet of paper, make a summary table for the solubility of the
organic compounds used in the experiment.
Which compounds are acidic? basic? Write the chemical equations of the
compounds when reacted with H
2
O, HCl and NaOH.
REVIEW: Types of Intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA)
*Arranged in decreasing order of IMFA strength
a. Ion-dipole exist between ions and polar molecules.
e.g. NaCl and H
2
O (Na
+
and Cl
-
in H
2
O)
b. H-bonding exist between two polar molecules; a special type of dipole-dipole
interaction.
- occurs when there is an OH, NH and F bond
c. Dipole-dipole exist between two polar molecules.
d. Dipole-induced dipole exist between polar and non- polar molecules.
e. Van der Waals force exist between two non- polar molecules.
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Try this: Identify the IMFA exist on the reactions/chemical equations involved you just
did in the earlier part.
3. Ignition Test indicates the presence of unsaturation or high carbon to hydrogen ratio.
- C/H ratio, luminosity, sooty
- Degree of luminosity can be assessed by the presence of yellow flame and soot.
4. Infrared (IR) Analysis it identifies the functional groups present in the sample.
- It depends upon the interaction of IR light with the vibrating dipole moments of
molecules.
- The molecular vibrations of the organic compound are promoted to higher energy
state (exhibited as bond stretching and/or bending modes) as it absorbs energy (IR
radiation).
- The IR energy is measured in wave numbers (cm
-1
).
THINGS TO CONSIDER:
1. The Coordinates
The x-axis indicates the wave numbers and examined most of the time. On the
other hand, the y-axis describes the intensity of a given peak.
2. Peaks
Examining the peaks in IR spectra is the most important task at hand. Most of the
significant peaks can be seen in the diagnostic region (from 4000 to 1500cm
-1
).
*The fingerprint region is from 1500 to around 400cm
-1
.
3. Peak Quality
Certain functional groups are easy to identify from its peak quality. These
include: 1) broad, 2)strong (intense but not wide), 3) weak (tiny), 4) sharp (slim)
and 5) multiplet (overlapping peaks).
4. Diagnostic Peaks
Examining diagnostic peaks coupled with their molecular formula is enough to
elucidate the gross structure of the molecule.
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CHARACTERISTICS INFRARED ABSORPTION FREQUENCIES
BOND COMPOUND TYPE FREQUENCY (cm
-1
)
C-H Alkanes 2960 - 2850 (s)
C-H Alkenes 3080 - 3020 (m)
Aromatic Rings 3100 - 3000 (m)
C-H
Phenyl Ring Substitution Bands 870 - 675 (s) bend
C-H Alkynes 3333 - 3267 (s)
C=C Alkenes 1680 - 1640 (m,w)
CC Alkynes 2260 - 2100 (w,sh)
C=C Aromatic Rings 1600, 1500 (w)
Alcohols, Ethers, Carboxylic acids,
C-O
Esters
1260 - 1000 (s)
Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic
C=O
acids, Esters
1760 -1670 (s)
Monomeric -- Alcohols, Phenols 3640 - 3160 (s,br)
H-bonded -- Alcohols, Phenols 3600 -3200 (b) O-H
Carboxylic acids 3000 - 2500 (b)
N-H Amines 3500 - 3300 (m)
C-N Amines 1340 - 1020 (m)
CN Nitriles 2260 - 2220 (v)
1660 - 1500 (s)
NO
2
Nitro Compounds
1390 - 1260 (s)
* v variable, m - medium, s strong, b r - broad, w - weak
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CLASSIFICATION TESTS FOR HYDROCARBONS
1. Physical state, color and odor
- The physical appearance of an unknown will be your first datum in the search to
discover its identity.
- Solid (amorphous or crystalline) or liquid
- Most hydrocarbons are colorless and odorless. However, many liquid compounds
oxidize when they are stored for a long time. Often the oxidation products are
intensely coloredyellow, green, red, brown, or black. (e.g. phenol becomes red
upon oxidation)
2. Solubility in concentrated H
2
SO
4
- Solubility of organic compounds in H
2
SO
4
indicates whether the sample is a very
weak base (can be protonated) or a neutral compound (cant be protonated).
- The dissolution of compounds in H
2
SO
4
may also produce large amounts of heat
and/or a change in the color of the solution, precipitation or any combination of
these. (The reaction can be either violent or slow.)
*H
2
SO
4
-soluble (very weak base)
Esters Ketones
Alkenes Aldehydes
Alcohols
*H
2
SO
4
-insoluble (neutral compound)
Alkanes Aryl halides
Alkyl halides most aromatic hydrocarbons
3. Ignition Test indicates the presence of unsaturation or high carbon to hydrogen ratio.
- C/H ratio, luminosity, sooty
- Degree of luminosity can be assessed by the presence of yellow flame and soot.
- Aromatic compounds burn with sooty flame due to the incomplete combustion which
causes the formation of an unburned carbon.
- In terms of degree of luminosity, aromatic compound > unsaturated hydrocarbon >
saturated hydrocarbon.
*Complete combustion is indicated by a blue flame (non-luminous) and there is more
heat than light; the carbon is completely oxidized.
*Incomplete combustion is indicated by a yellow flame (luminous) and there is much
light than heat; the carbon is not completely oxidized.
x y 2 2 2
C H + O CO + H O
x y 2 2 2
C H + O CO + CO + C (soot) + H O
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4. Test for Active Unsaturation
a. Baeyers Test test for double bonds
Reagents: 2% KMnO
4
(+) result: decolorization of a purple solution; formation of a brown ppt. (MnO
2
)
- involves redox reaction
- Mn
7+
is reduced to Mn
4+
; alkene is oxidized to a diol.
- Alkenes react with potassium permanganate (KMnO
4
) to give a diol and MnO
2
.
- Aromatic compounds do not react because of their stability.
Cyclohexene + KMnO
4
1,2-cyclohexanediol + MnO
2
(purple) (colorless) (brown)
Try this: Draw the structure of cyclohexene and 1,2-cyclohexanediol.
b. Bromine Test test for double bonds
Reagents: 0.5% Br
2
in CCl
4
(+) result: decolorization of an orange solution
- Involves electrophilic addition reaction
- Alkenes react with Br
2
to form a trans-dibromoalkane.
- Aromatic compounds do not react because of their stability.
- However, aromatic compounds will react slowly upon using FeBr
3
or through the
action of UV light.
Challenge: Write the reaction mechanism for the bromine test on cyclohexene.
5. Test for Aromaticity: Nitration test for aromatic compounds
Reagents: HNO
3
, H
2
SO
4
(+) result: yellow globule/yellow oily layer
- involves electrophilic substitution reaction
- H
2
SO
4
acts as a catalyst and facilitates the formation of nitronium ion (NO
2
+
), an
electrophile
- One hydrogen atom in the benzene ring is substituted by the nitronium ion.
HNO
3
+ H
2
SO
4
NO
2
+
+ 2HSO
4
-
+ H
3
O
+
Benzene + NO
2
+
nitrobenzene
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Challenge: Write the reaction mechanism for the nitration test on benzene and
toluene.
6. Basic Oxidation test for alkylated aromatics or arenes
Reagents: 2% KMnO
4
, 10% NaOH
(+) result: green solution (MnO
4
)/brown ppt (MnO
2
)
- involves redox reaction
- NaOH provides a basic environment.
- The alkyl group of the aromatic compound is oxidized to a carboxylic acid. (Reaction
occurs with 1
0
and 2
0
alkyl side chain, but not with 3
0
.)
- Mn
7+
is reduced to Mn
6+
or Mn
4+
depending on the extent of the reaction.
4 4
methylbenzene + KMnO benzoic acid + MnO
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CLASSIFICATION TESTS FOR ORGANIC HALIDES
1. Belstein Test - a quick preliminary check for halogens
(+) result: blue-gree flame
- The simplest method for establishing presence of a halogen, but does not positively
differentiate between Cl, Br, I
- The blue-green color is due to the emission of light from excited states of copper
halide that has vaporized in the burner flame.
- Heating the copper wire before the test is carried out removes traces of sodium
chloride that may be present on the wire from handling it with the fingers.
- Reactions in Belstein test
- CuX
2
is volatile and imparts a blue-green flame.
2. Reaction with Alcoholic AgNO
3
- test for S
N
1 Reactivity
Reagents: 2% ethanolic AgNO
3
(+) result: white ppt
* S
N
1 - substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular
- The kinetics of the reaction depends only on the alkyl halide.
Substrate Effect:
- The more stable the carbocation intermediate, the faster the S
N
1 reaction.
- 3
0
> 2
0
> 1
0
> -CH
3
Leaving Group:
- good leaving group is needed
- TosO
-
> I
-
> Br
-
> Cl
-
H
2
O
more reactive less reactive
Nucleophile:
- hardly affected
- The nucleophile does not enter into the reaction until after rate-limiting dissociation
has occurred; thus cannot affect the reaction rate.
Solvent:
- Polar, protic solvent
- Polar solvent stabilize the carbocation intermediate by solvation, thereby increasing
the reaction rate.
- H
2
O
> 80% EtOH
> 40% EtOH
> EtOH
more reactive less reactive
(EtOH = ethanol)
[ ] reaction rate = RX k
0
2
2 2 2
Cu + O CuO
loop black solid
RX + CuO CuX + CO + H O