Week 6.

Eco-indicators 99
The LCA flow diagram of Eco-indicators 99 (This diagram and much of the following material is
derived from Manual for Eco-indicators 99 by Mark Goedkoop, Suzanne Effting and Marcel
Collignon, ,PR Consultants B.V.,Plotterweg 12, !21 BB, "mersfoort, (info#$re.nl%%.
Environmental effects of products
&ver' industrial activit' and $roduct damages the environment to a certain e(tent. Raw
materials must )e e(tracted from the ground and trees cut* then truc+s, trains, shi$s and $lanes must
trans$ort these materials to manufacturing locations and their $roducts has to )e $ac+aged and
distri)uted. ,uring use, some of these $roducts ma' re-uire additional resources , such as electricit'
or gasoline. .inall', the used $roducts must )e rec'cled or dis$osed.
"s discussed earlier, in the /ife C'cle "ssessment of the sum total of the environmental
im$acts of a $roduct, all the stages of its life must )e e(amined and -uantified. 0n conducting an /C",
it is relativel' eas' to determine the contri)ution of a $articular stage of o$eration to a certain
environmental $ro)lem, such as the greenhouse effect, acidification, eutro$hication, etc. " difficult'
arises when one wants to add u$ the various im$acts and $roduce a single num)er that can )e
com$ared to an alternative $rocess or $roduct. To do so meaningfull', one needs to use the $ro$er
weighting factors, as discussed earlier.
The second $ro)lem with carr'ing out /C" studies is that if one has to start from 1scratch2
ever' time, it is a ver' com$le( and time3consuming $rocess. &co3indicators 44 has attem$ted to
overcome these $ro)lems )' a% $roviding a weighing method that allows summing u$ of individual
im$acts, and )% develo$ing a li)rar' of &co3indicator values for the most common material and
$rocesses used in industrial activities. 0t is e($ected that this data )ase will )ecome richer in the future
as more $eo$le use this method and their e($erience is used to refine this s'stem of measuring
environmental costs.
The students in this course are also challenged to loo+ at the &co344 values criticall', -uestion
those that do not seem to ma+e sense, use the s'stem in their 0& term $a$ers and, later, in their
careers as &arth and environmental engineers. &co3indicators 44 are defined in such a wa' that the'
fit together li+e )uilding )loc+s. &.g., there is an indicator for the $roduction of a +ilo of $ol'eth'lene,
one for the in5ection molding of a +ilo of $ol'eth'lene and another for the incineration of one +ilo of
used $ol'eth'lene. 0n the &co344 s'stem, the higher the num)er of the indicator, the greater is the
environmental im$act. "fter all, it re$resents the environmental cost of a certain human activit'.
ses and limitations of Eco-indicators 99
,uring the design of a $roduct or $rocess, a large num)er of o$tions are e(amined and the
)est o$tions identified. 0n the economic s'stem, these o$tions are 1weighed2 in terms of num)er of
dollars $er unit of $roduction, unit of service, etc. Therefore, when all other factors are e-ual, the
lowest cost o$tion is $referred. 6imilarl', in the environmental s'stem, the availa)le o$tions are
1weighed2 in terms of their res$ective &co3indicator values. The lowest &co344 value signifies the
)est o$tion from an environmental $ers$ective. 0t can )e seen that the &co3indicator s'stem of
measurement $rovides a value s'stem for measuring environmental $erformance, much as the
traditional cost3)enefit anal'sis has done over the centuries for the economic s'stems.
1Rome was not )uilt in one da'2 and it will ta+e a long time for $eo$le to $a' as much
attention to the new s'stem as the' have learnt to do with the economic s'stem that offers
immediate awards and $unishment (tr' to s+i$ $a'ing 'our rent to Colum)ia over two months%. The
develo$ers of &co3indicators 44 stress that it is a tool intended for internal use )' $roducers and
manufacturers and should not )e used to $rove to the $u)lic that one7s $roduct is )etter than the
com$etition. 8et, when the $u)lic starts worr'ing and environmental value s'stems start to intersect
and mother a)out the environment and choosing its $urchases accordingl', the economic &arth can
ta+e a dee$ )reath of relief.
nits and dimensions of Eco-indicators
.rom the $ers$ective of $h'sics, the standard &co3indicator values are dimensionless, same
as the units of currenc'. 0n the &co344 s'stem, the unit of measurement is called the &co3indicator
Point, Pt, and is divided into 1999 milli$oints (mPt%. The main $ur$ose of having a unit of
measurement is so as to )e a)le to com$are alternative o$tions for materials, $roducts and
$rocesses ()' the wa', the same need led to the )eginning of the currenc' era%. "$$arentl', the si:e
of the Pt unit was chosen )' &co344 to re$resent one thousandth of the 'earl' environmental load of
an average citi:en in &uro$e. The +ilo$oint (1 +Pt;1999 $oints% was derived )' dividing the
com$uted total environmental load in &uro$e )' the num)er of its inha)itants. 6o, if 'ou have a
friend in .rance she im$oses a load of one +ilo$oint (+Pt% on the $lanet each 'ear, and so do 'ou,
give or ta+e a few hundred Pts.
!escription of the standard Eco-indicators 99
6tandard &co3indicator 44 values are availa)le for<
"aterials# The indicators are e($ressed $er +ilogram of material
$roduction processes (treatment and $rocessing of various materials%< &($ressed $er
$h'sical unit that is a$$ro$riate to the $articular $rocess (e.g., s-uare meters of rolled sheet
or +ilo of e(truded $lastic%.
Transport processes< &($ressed mostl' $er ton3+m (- metric ton31999 +g%
Energ% generation $rocesses. =nits are given for electricit' and heat.
&ec%cling or disposal $rocesses. These are e($ressed $er +ilo of material and are
su)divided into t'$es of material and waste $rocessing methods.
"verage &uro$ean figures are used for this calculation. " $articular definition was used for the
terms 1material2 and 1$rocess2 when determining the indicators. The definitions used are
e($lained )riefl' )elow.
a' "aterials
>aterials range from the $rimar' resources of the &arth (ores and their concentrates,
coal?oil?gas, forest and agricultural $roducts%, to refined (cement and other industrial minerals,
metals, refined coal?oil?gas, lum)er, $ul$, $rocessed food%, and manufactured (chemicals, metal
tu)e?sheet?wire, $etrochemicals, $a$er, wood% $roducts. 0n determining the indicator for the
$roduction of materials all the $rocesses are included from the e(traction of the raw materials u$ to
and including the last $roduction stage, resulting in )ul+ material. Trans$ort $rocesses along this
route are also included u$ to the final $rocess in the $roduction chain. @hich $rocess that is, can )e
derived from the e($lanation in the &co3indicator list. .or $lastic, for e(am$le, all the $rocesses are
included from e(traction of the oil u$ to and including the $roduction of the granules* for sheet steel
all the $rocesses are included from e(traction of the ore and co+e u$ to and including the rolling
$rocess. The $roduction of ca$ital goods (machines, )uildings and such li+e% is not included.
(' $roduction processes
The &co3indicators for treatment $rocesses relate to the emissions from the $rocess itself and
emissions from the energ' generation $rocesses that are necessar'. &missions during the
manufacture of ca$ital goods, li+emachines and dies, are not included on the grounds that over the
life of a $lant (29'earsA% the' are distri)uted over a large num)er of $roduction units and, therefore.
"re negligi)le. Bowever, this ma' not )e the case in com$aring $rocess o$tions, e.g. com)ustion or
landfilling of solid wastes where $lant e-ui$ment and land3use are ver' im$ortant.
c'Transport processes
Trans$ort $rocesses include the im$act of emissions caused )' the e(traction and $roduction
of fuel used in trains, shi$s and $lanes and )' the conversion of fuel to mechanical energ' during
trans$ort. &nvironmental im$acts are e($ressed $er one metric ton(1999 +g% of goods trans$orted
over a distance of 1 +m (1 ton3+m%.
Transport (% road< .or trans$ort of materials )' road, where the ca$acit' of a truc+ ma' )e
limited not )' weight )ut )' the volume of low3densit' materials, the environmental im$act ma' also
)e e($ressed $er cu)ic meter (m

% trans$orted $er +ilometer (m

3+m%. Ca$ital goods, li+e the

$roduction of truc+s and road or rail infrastructure, and the handling of cargo $lanes on air$orts, are
included as the' are not negligi)le.
&ail transport< The im$acts for rail trans$ort are )ased on the average &uro$ean ratio of diesel
to electric traction and average load level of a car..
Air transport (cargo $lanes%< " loading efficienc' for &uro$ean average conditions is assumed
and account is ta+en of a $ossi)le em$t'3return 5ourne'.
Energ%# The energ' indicators refer to the e(traction and $roduction of fuels and to energ'
conversion and electricit' generation. The &uro$ean industr' average efficienc' is used and account
is ta+en of the mi( of various fuels used in &uro$e to generate electricit'. "lso, &co3indicators have
)een determined for high3voltage electricit' that is used in industrial $rocesses and for low3voltage
electricit', used in residential, commercial, and light industr' a$$lications. This accounts for line
transmission losses.
0n addition to &uro$e3average indicators, &i344 also $rovides s$ecific indicators for a num)er of
countries. The large differences )etween countries are e($lained )' the vintage and efficienc' of
different technologies used to $roduce electricit'. Cne of the 0& term $a$ers in this class will deal
with determining e-uivalent indices for the =.6. industr'.
d' &ec%cling or disposal of used materials
0n the recent $ast, the onl' concern a)out used materials and $roducts was where to dis$ose
them so the' could not )e seen or smelled. There was little consideration as to their $ro$erties, value
or effects on the environment. &ven toda', well meaning $eo$le who trul' want to $rotect the
environment can )e $assionate a)out what should )e done with what the' consider to )e a generic
material, called wastes. 0ndustrial ecologists, such as the &i344 develo$ers and facult' in this school,
are tr'ing to shed some scientific light on this difficult su)5ect. @astes, and in $articular what is called
munici$al solid wastes (>6@%, consist of all $hases and $racticall' all materials that e(ist on this
$lanet. Ta+ing such materials and )ur'ing them in a common 1grave2, as is $resentl' done for most
>6@, is an insult to the &arth and also to human intelligence. 8et, in the =.6. it is encouraged )'
federal legislation.
Cf course, the first thing to consider in $rocess?$roduct design is how to minimi:e the
materials?energ' to )e used in $roduction and mar+eting?distri)ution of a $roduct ($ac+aging, etc.%.
Bowever, 'ou cannot ma+e an omelet without having egg shells to dis$ose of. .or as long as $eo$le
want to )e fed, clothed, housed, and entertained, there will )e used materials to dis$ose of.
"unicipal )olid Wastes
@ith regard to >6@, the higher densit' materials (metals, glass, and ceramics% do not
decom$ose nor )urn and are the easiest to se$arate $h'sicall' and rec'cle. Bowever, if their sorting
is done manuall', a large fraction still ends u$ in landfills. Dlass and ceramics are inert materials )ut
metals in landfills continue to o(idi:e for centuries after a landfill closes.
>anual sorting of $a$ers and $lastics can result in some rec'cling of these materials while the
rest goes to landfills. Pa$er and $lastics are rec'cled to some e(tent )ut, in most =.6. communities,
nearl' two thirds end u$ in landfills. The' range from Edifficult to im$ossi)leE to decom$ose so the' lie
in a landfill for decades or centuries. Their gradual decom$osition results in a reduction of volume so
that the cover and walls of a closed landfill ma' su)side with time resulting in ru$ture of mechanical
)arriers (liners, etc.% and see$age of corrosive solutions into the groundwater or ad5acent surface
waters. "lso, an' organic material such as $a$ers (cellulose% and food?$lant wastes that is )uried in a
landfill continues to decom$ose anaero)icall' (i.e., in the a)sence of o('gen% with time and $roduce
methane gas which is a greenhouse gas (DBD% that is a)out 29 times more $otent than car)on
dio(ide. ,uring the active life of a landfill, some of this gas ma' )e collected and used* after the landfill
closure, an' methane gas generated is emitted to the atmos$here.
Bowever, this $a$er?$lastics com$osite material has a Eheating valueE that is nearl' the same
as some =.6. coals. Therefore, it can )e used as an alternative fuel to fossil fuels for generating
electricit'. 0n fact, it is used as such in @aste3to3&nerg' $lants in enlightened communities in the =.6.
and man' other develo$ed countries. Fearl' 1GH of the =.6. >6@ is $rocessed to recover energ'.
The remaining class of materials are food and $lant wastes. This is what is called the EwetE
stream of >6@. This material cannot )e rec'cled and if com)usted has a ver' low heating value.
Bowever, the 1wet2 stream decom$oses easil' aero)icall' (i.e., in the $resence of o('gen% to $roduce
a com$ost $roduct that can )e used as a soil conditioner% or anaero)icall', in a )ioreactor, to $roduce
methane gas and a com$ost $roduct.
sing the Eco-indicators 99 in evaluating waste disposal routes
@hen using the &co344 indicators to evaluate waste $rocessing and dis$osal o$tions, careful
consideration must )e given to their $ro$erties and to the waste $rocessing method that is the most
a$$ro$riate. @iith regard to $roducts that consist mainl' of $a$er or glass, it is reasona)le to assume
that a large fraction of households will remove these materials from the waste stream and dis$ose of
them into se$arate rec'cla)le streams. .or e(am$le, the F8C Bureau of Rec'cling (,e$artment of
6anitation% has )een a)le to rec'cle over 29H of the total >6@ stream, in the form of $a$er, glass,
and $lastics.
Bowever, $roducts that consist of mi(ed materials cannot )e sorted to se$arate streams
manuall'. "s noted a)ove, such materials need to )e su)5ected to $h'sical $rocessing?sorting )'
mechanical methods and then rec'cled, or com)usted to $roduce energ', or in the last resort
landfilled. The &i344 method has calculated scenarios for the rec'cling, com)ustion, or landfill dis$osal
of $roducts<
I *ousehold waste. 0n an average household, a num)er of materials such as glass, $a$er and
com$osta)le waste are collected and rec'cled se$aratel' once the decision has )een ta+en to
dis$ose of a $roduct. The rest is $ut in the dust)in and is thus routed to the munici$al waste collection
s'stem. The household waste scenario is )ased on the waste handling in an average household in
&uro$e.
I "unicipal waste. The munici$al waste scenario, is modeled after the average $rocessing of waste
in &uro$e. 0t is assumed in this that a certain $ro$ortion is landfilled and the rest is com)usted. The
environmental im$act of trans$ort of wastes is also included.
+ Com(ustion. This scenario assumes that com)ustion is carried out in an average 6wiss @aste3to3
&nerg' $lant e-ui$$ed with an average ('ear 2999% gas cleaning s'stem.. " $ro$ortion of the steel
and aluminum is also reclaimed and rec'cled from the incinerator slag. 0n addition, energ' is
generated and su$$lied to the grid as electricit'. The 6wiss $erformance of @T& $lants does not
re$resent the average for &uro$e )ut it is e($ected that this will change graduall' in the coming 'ears.
Com)ustion of wastes generates electricit' and thus decreases the amount of coal or oil that need to
)e mined for that $ur$ose.
I Landfill disposal. /andfill dis$osal is also )ased on modern 6wiss landfills ('ear 2999% e-ui$$ed
with good water )arriers and leachate $urification s'stems, so that relativel' few harmful su)stances
can esca$e to groundwater sources.
I &ec%cling. Rec'cling $rocesses have a certain environmental im$act, li+e all other industrial
activities, )ut the' also result in the $roduction of useful $roducts. These $roducts decrease the
amount of minerals or forest $roducts that need to )e used and therefore re$resent an environmental
gain. The &i344 ta)ulation $resents )oth the environmental load as the environmental gain. Bowever,
these two items can differ considera)l' from case to case, de$ending on the $urit' of the in$ut
materials, -ualit' of the out$ut materials, and other factors s$ecific to each case. Therefore, &i344
suggests that their waste indicators re$resent a rather ideal and thus o$timistic situation. 0n some of
the term $a$ers in this course we will attem$t to refine these num)ers for =.6. conditions.
&i34J waste data have )een determined for most im$ortant $lastics, metals and $ac+aging
materials. The' do not include $rocesses for treating construction materials and chemicals.
Construction (other than wood and $lastics that can )e com)usted% can )e reused for road or
foundation )uilding, in $lace of stone aggregate in concrete, or as landfill cover. Chemicall' inert
materials, such as construction de)ris (e(ce$ting wood% and )ottom ash from @T& $lants, have no
other environmental im$act than that the' occu$' an area in a landfill. &i344 $rovides a general figure
$er landfill volume used. This value is valid under the assum$tion that the ultimate height of the landfill
is 19 meters. .or shallower landfills, this figure is $ro$ortionall' higher (e.g. dou)le the 193m figure for
a J3m landfill%. The dis$osal of chemicals $resent a more com$le( situation and &i344 does not $rovide
an' values e(ce$t for the dis$osal of refrigerants.
,egative figures for waste processing
@hen the waste $rocessing results in a useful )'3$roduct that can )e rec'cled or reused, the
reclaimed materials and energ' values re$resent an environmental $rofit. Therefore the net value of a
dis$osal $rocess can )e a negative num)er. .or e(am$le the environmental im$act of $rocessing of
1 +g of scra$ iron is e-ual to the im$act of the scra$ smelting $rocess minus the im$act of the $rocess
that $roduces the same amount of iron from iron ore.
Eco-indicator 99 flowseet of options for disposing Municipal Solid !astes "MS!#$ %ption of
separation of wet and dry strea&s at source and of co&posting te wet strea& are not sown$ '
better ter& for (ncineration is !aste-to-Energy "!)E# or Co&bustion and Energy Generation
"CEG#$

-nventor% of the processes
The standard &co3indicators 44 have )een )ased on the energ' data)ase develo$ed )' &6=3
&TB in KLrich M&6= 144GN. "lso, data from the 6imaPro /C" software tool (see www.$re.nl we)
address% have )een used. 0n the inventor' of such data it is ver' im$ortant to use a consistent
methodolog' concerning items li+e<
6'stem )oundaries (what is to )e included in anal'sis%.
"llocation (how to deal with industrial $rocesses that $roduce more than one out$ut%.
Regional as$ects (0e344 uses ,utch, 6wiss or average &uro$ean data%.
Deneral data -ualit' issues. " )rief descri$tion of such these issues follows.
"lso, &co344 recommends that that users of their methodolog' do not mi( their data)ase with
indicators that have )een develo$ed )' other methodologies.
ncertainties
Two t'$es of uncertainties are noted in the methodolog' that is used to calculate the indicators<
=ncertainties a)out the correctness of the models used.
,ata uncertainties.
The first t'$e includes value choices li+e the choice of the time $eriod of to )e used in the
damage model, or whether to include a $articular effect when there is not as 'et sufficient scientific
$roof of its environmental im$act . The data uncertainties refer to difficulties in measuring or $redicting
effects. This t'$e of uncertainties is relativel' eas' to deal with and can )e e($ressed as a range, or a
standard deviation from the re$orted value.
ncertainties a(out the correctness of the model
These uncertainties are ver' difficult to e($ress -uantitativel'. 0n de)ates a)out the seriousness
of environmental effects o$inions are usuall' ver' diverse, even when the evidence is overwhelming
(e.g. the glo)al warming effect%. This is due to differences in economic interest, +nowledge level, or
fundamental differences in attitude (e.g. anthro$ocentric vs )iocentric views of the &arth%. 6ome
$eo$le would argue that long3term effects are ver' im$ortant, while others )elieve that in the long3term
new wa's will )e found to solve the environmental $ro)lems of future generations.
6uch differing $ers$ectives are also $resent in the economic s'stem. .or e(am$le, man'
$eo$le )elieve that the mone' the' earn is due onl' to their hard wor+ and not at all to the societ' in
which the' have thrived* therefore, there can )e no societal claim to a fraction of their income in the
form of ta(es. The develo$ers of &co3indicator 44 were also confronted with model choices that are
de$endent on such different $ers$ectives. To sim$lif' matters, the' used three 1archet'$al2
$ers$ectives that are re$resentative of the $rinci$al $ers$ectives in $u)lic with res$ect to the
environmental s'stem<
The three .archet%pes/ in Eco-indicators 99
T%pe Time perspective A(ilit% to manage &e0uired level of
evidence
Bierarchist (0% Balance )etween
short and long term
Pro$er $olic' can
avoid
man' $ro)lems
0nclusion is )ased
on
consensus
0ndividualist (0% short term Technolog' can
avoid man'
$ro)lems
0nclude onl' $roven
effects
&galitarian (&% long term Pro)lems can lead
to
catastro$h'
0nclude all $ossi)le
effects
The &i344 1"rchet'$es2 were ta+en from the Cultural Theor' framewor+ (Thom$son 1449 and
Bofstetter 144!%, and are fre-uentl' used in social science. This theor' does not im$l' that there are
5ust three t'$es of $eo$le* the three archet'$es are conce$tual models that most $eo$le use to some
degree in their dail' life (e.g. an egalitarian in $u)lic life ma' ver' well )e a hierarchist at home%. The
&co3indicator 44 methodolog' $resented here is )ased on the Bierarchist (B% t'$e that is considered
)' &co344 to )e the default $ers$ective . Bowever, the full &co344 /C" software $rovides data for the
other two t'$es so that /C" modelers can assess the influence of the other two t'$es on the result of
the /C".
!ata uncertainties
&(am$les of data uncertainties are< uncertaint' in the e($ected num)er of cancer cases when
a grou$ of $eo$le are e($osed to a certain su)stance* uncertaint' of the concentration of a certain
contaminant in the sediments of a har)or* uncertaint' of the im$act of this contaminant on the various
ecos'stems in the har)or. The &co344 1>ethodolog' Re$ort2 descri)es the data uncertainties for
nearl' all re$orted human health effects and for most ecos'stem effects.. Bowever, the degree of
uncertaint' in the acidification, eutro$hication and resources data is not availa)le as 'et.
0n considering uncertainties, it is im$ortant to distinguish )etween the a)solute and relative
uncertainties. The latter denotes uncertainties in the differences (etween indicators. The relative
uncertaint' is ver' im$ortant when the /C" is a$$lied in com$arisons of material or design o$tions*
than+full', the relative uncertaint' is usuall' smaller than the a)solute uncertaint'. This is )ecause
these uncertainties are correlated (e.g. in com$aring material " to material B% and tend to com$ensate
each other. .or e(am$le, let us assume that $roduct design " uses 1 +g of $ol'eth'lene and design B
1.2 +g* if the source of $ol'eth'lene is the same for the two cases, although there ma' )e some
uncertaint' in the a)solute value of the environmental im$act of $ol'eth'lene, it is safe to assume that
its use in design B will have an im$act that is 29H higher than in design ".
Cn the other hand, if $roduct design B uses wood rather than $ol'eth'lene, the uncertainties
can )e ver' significant, as the $rocesses and the most im$ortant emissions and resources are ver'
different. " flaw in the damage model for e(traction of oils to $roduce $ol'eth'lene is not com$ensated
)' a similar flaw in the $roduction $rocess of wood. 6imilarl', a flaw in the model for land3use
($roduction forest% is not com$ensated )' the flaw in the model for a refiner', as the amount of land
used $er +g of oil is low. "ccordingl', &co344 recommends that when entirel' different materials or
$rocesses are used, one must allow for a large error margin )efore choosing a $articular o$tion.
"s a ver' $rovisional and general measure, &i344 recommends the following guidelines in /C"
com$arisons<
a% ,etermine the most im$ortant $rocesses ($rocesses with the highest im$act contri)utions%
)% ,etermine if these $rocesses are e($ected to have similar or dissimilar raw materials,
o$erating conditions, and emissions.
c% 0f the dominant $rocesses are considered to )e -uite similar, the difference )etween the &co3
indicator scores should )e greater than 19 to J9H (u$ to the discretion of the /C" anal'st% in order
to warrant selection of the lower im$act o$tion.
d% 0f the dominant $rocesses are considered to )e dissimilar or entirel' different, the &co3
indicator scores should differ )' more than 199H )efore a relia)le conclusion can )e drawn.
)teps to follow in using the Eco-indicators s%stem for LCA
&sta)lish the $ur$ose of the &co3indicator calculation.
,efine where the life c'cle )egins and ends.
&($ress materials, energ' and $rocesses -uantitativel'
.ill in the &co3indicator form
,raw conclusions from the information on the form.
&cco344 recommends that a 1rough2 calculation is carried out first. This ensures that 'ou do not waste
too much time with details.
Step 1: Establish the purpose of the Eco-indicator calculation
I ,escri)e the $roduct or $roduct com$onent that will )e anal':ed.
I ,ecide whether this is an anal'sis of a s$ecific $roduct is or a com$arison
amongst several $roducts.
I ,efine the level of re-uired accurac' of the anal'sis.
"s an e(am$le of how a com$arison can )e sim$lified, if the same $rocess is involved in $roduct "
and $roduct B, it need not )e included in the anal'sis.
Step 2: Define the life cycle
I ,raw u$ a schematic overview of the $roduct7s life c'cle, including feed materials,
$roduction, use, and waste $rocessing. "s an e(am$le, the sim$lified life c'cle of a coffee machine for
domestic use is shown )elow in the form of a $rocess flow sheet.
)implified process diagram of the life c%cle of a coffee machine 1Eco-99'
Step 3: Quantify materials and processes
I ,etermine the most im$ortant functional unit .
I Ouantif' all relevant $rocesses from the $rocess tree.
I >a+e assum$tions for an' missing data.
6ince all details of a $roduct life c'cle ma' not )e +nown, it ma' )e necessar' to ma+e
reasona)le estimates of the missing elements or assume them to )e negligi)le* generall', it is )etter to
err on an estimate, and im$rove on it later when )etter information )ecomes availa)le than to ignore
something that ma' later )e found to have overriding im$ortance.
Examples of functional unit
The $ur$ose of the coffee machine is to ma+e coffee and +ee$ it hot. The following are
therefore chosen for the functional unit< all the $roducts and $rocesses needed for the $rovision of
coffee for a household for a certain $eriod. " certain $eriod then has to )e s$ecified (e.g., five 'ears%
and the average coffee consum$tion $er household estimated (e.g., ca$acit' of J cu$s of coffee twice
a da' and +ee$ing it hot for half an hour after )rewing%. The num)er of filters (GJ9% and the energ'
consum$tion can then )e calculated on the )asis of this assum$tion. Two o$tions ma' )e considered,
a hot $late under the coffee $ot or a thermall' insulated $ot.
"s another e(am$le, in com$aring landfilling to com$osting of solid wastes, the functional unit
would )e one ton of material to )e treated. 0n com$aring sources of energ', the functional unit would
)e 1 Poule or 1 +@h.
Step 4: Fillin the Eco-!! form
I The $rocesses and amounts of materials involved are noted on the form.
I The a$$ro$riate &co3indicator values are o)tained from the &30 lists and are entered on the
form.
I The num)er of Points are calculated )' multi$l'ing the amounts )' the indicator values and
the $roducts are summed u$ to 'ield the resultant &co344 value.
&i344 has develo$ed a sim$le form to )e used in this t'$e of /C" anal'sis. @hen an indicator for a
$articular material or $rocess is not availa)le, the following ste$s are suggested )' &i344<
I Consider whether the missing indicator would ma+e a significant contri)ution to the total
environmental im$act of the $roduct?$rocess under anal'sis. 0t is generall' )etter to tr' to estimate
than to omit a certain com$onent of the life c'cle.
I 6u)stitute a +nown indicator for the un+nown one. .or e(am$le, if 'ou e(amine the 0e344
ta)les of indicators, 'ou will see that indicator values for $lastics are close to each other. Cn this
)asis, 'ou ma' )e a)le to estimate the &co3indicator value for a 1missing2 $lastic that is within this
range.
I "s+ an /C" s$ecialist to calculate a new indicator value or consult one of the software
$ac+ages that have )een develo$ed for this $ur$ose.
Step ": #nterpretation of results of analysis "suggested by Eco-99#
I .ormulate $reliminar' conclusions on )asis of results of anal'sis.
I &(amine the effect of changes in assum$tions and in uncertaint' elements on results
(sensitivit' anal'sis%.
I "mend conclusions on )asis of sensitivit' anal'sis.
I Review initial goals of life c'cle anal'sis and determine whether the' have )een met or what
more need to )e done.
0n drafting 'our conclusions on the )asis of the results o)tained, discuss which $rocesses and
$hases in the life c'cle were found to )e the most im$ortant and which alternative had the lowest
score. "lso, discuss fran+l' the assum$tions 'ou have made and the effect that uncertainties in the
data ma' have had on the results o)tained and the conclusions reached. 0f 'ou feel that a definite
conclusion cannot )e reached with the information at hand, state so clearl', it is useful to +now what
we do not +now.
" general word of advice< The more radical a result of an anal'sis ma' seem to )e, with relation
to $revalent thin+ing in the scientific?technical communit', the more 'ou need to ensure that 'ou have
ta+en all factors into consideration and that the 1facts2 'ou have used are chec+ed and rechec+ed.
E2amples of application
E2ample 3. )imple anal%sis of a coffee machine
" design team is designing a new coffee machine for domestic use, ta+ing into full consideration the
associated environmental as$ects. The' start )' an anal'sis of the current model.
Step 1: Establish the purpose of the Eco-indicator calculation
The $ur$ose of the calculation is to esta)lish $riorities, i.e., 1where can the designer )est start to
achieve the greatest $ossi)le environmental im$rovementQ2 Therefore, the $ur$ose is not to com$are
two coffee machines. Rough calculations and sim$lifications are $ermissi)le at this stage.
Step 2: Define the life cycle
The 1$rocess diagram2 of a coffee machine was shown earlier. 0t is a sim$lified model of a coffee
machine (e.g. it does not include the ca)le that connects it to a wall $lug% which shows onl' the
$ol'st'rene housing, the glass coffee $ot, the steel hot $late and an aluminum riser tu)e. The white
)loc+s in the figure )elow are not included in the anal'sis. The consum$tion of coffee and water have
)een omitted )ecause the' are common to all coffee machines. "lso, the $ac+aging materials are not
under stud' at this stage.
Si&plified process diagra& of te life cycle of a coffee &acine sowing a&ounts of &aterials and
energy used in te do&inant "saded# process steps "(-e 99#
Step 3: Quantify materials and processes
The amounts of materials and energ' used in the life c'cle of the coffee machine can )e derived from
the design s$ecifications or, for an e(isting machine, )' disassem)ling and weighing the com$onents.
"n assum$tion of the fre-uenc' of use is needed for the re-uired amount of electricit' and the num)er
of filters. 0n this e(am$le, it is assumed that the machine is used twice a da' for five 'ears at half
ca$acit' (J cu$s%. 0t is further assumed that the coffee is +e$t hot for half an hour after it is read'.
Fe(t, it is easil' calculated that GJ9 filters will )e needed with a total weight of R. +ilograms. "s a
first a$$ro(imation, the consum$tion of electricit' is determined )' multi$l'ing the time ta+en to )rew
the coffee )' the rated $ower of the machine (the Cuisinart of 'our instructor is rated at 1999 +@%. .or
a non3insulated coffee $ot, the energ' consum$tion for +ee$ing the coffee hot can )e estimated )'
measuring the current3time relationshi$ of an e(isting machine.
Consumer )ehavior at the dis$osal stage will de$end on the rec'cling s'stem at a $articular
geogra$hic area. 0n this case it is not reasona)le to assume that the machine will )e dismantled and
dis$osed of se$aratel' in different metal?$lastic collection s'stems )' the consumer. 0t is therefore
assumed that the machine will )e $ut in the F8C 1)lac+2 )ag and $rocessed as munici$al waste. The
glass $ot ma' )e dis$osed in the F8C rec'cling 1)lue2 )ag. .or this reason it is not necessar' to
include a se$arate glass rec'cling stage in the calculation (see the sam$le form%. 0n F8C, the R. +g
of $a$er filters will end u$ in the )lac+ )ag and go to a landfill. 0n communities that collect the 1wet2
stream se$aratel', the coffee filters will end u$ in the com$osting $lant., along with other organic
waste.
Step 4: Fill in the form
The form can now )e filled in for each $hase in the life c'cle and the relevant &co3indicator values can
)e recorded. Be careful with the units of measurement of each -uantit', a$$les should not )e added to
oranges. The score is then calculated for each $rocess and recorded in the 1result2 column.
"s mentioned earlier, the &co3indicator 44 list ma' not include as 'et all of the re-uired
$rocesses and assum$tions need to )e made for the missing data. 0n this e(am$le, this involves a
num)er of treatment $rocesses and waste $rocesses. The following assum$tions are necessar'<
I The indicator values for stam$ing and forming of steel are low. Therefore, the $rocessing of
the metal in the coffee machine can )e disregarded.
I There are no data for the glass forming of the coffee $ot. Bowever, an estimate of the amount
of energ' can )e made (in this case S >P% )ased on the melting $oint, the s$ecific heat and an
assumed thermal efficienc' of a glass furnace (of course, for more accurate value of energ' usage
'ou can search the glassma+ing industr' literature%.
I There is no indicator value for the com$osting com$onent of the dis$osal $rocess. Two
a$$ro(imations are $ossi)le<
3 0gnore the $ossi)ilit' of com$osting and assume that all the $a$er ends u$ in the munici$al
waste $rocessing s'stem.
3 "ssume that com$osting has a negligi)le im$act and can thus )e omitted. 0n this e(am$le it
was assumed that all the $a$er ends u$ in the munici$al waste $rocessing s'stem.
E2ample of Ei-99 form with data for various processes in life c%cle of coffee machine

Step ": #nterpretation of the results
The results on the form show that the use $hase has the greatest im$act. The num)er of $oints is
man' times higher than the totals for the $roduction and waste $hases. Therefore the design team for
a new machine should assign highest $riorit' to lower energ' consum$tion.
Reducing $a$er consum$tion )' using a re3usa)le metal screen is a clear second $riorit'. @ith
regard to materials use, the highest $riorit' is redesign of the $ol'st'rene housing.
$erification
The effect of assum$tions made in this case is negligi)le, a$art from the assum$tion regarding
use (and the service life%. The measured electricit' consum$tion is reasona)l' relia)le, )ut the
assum$tion that coffee will )e made twice a da' for five 'ears and +e$t hot for half an hour is not
)ased on an' concrete data. Bowever, the results show that even if the machine is used onl' once a
wee+, the conclusion that energ' consum$tion is $redominant will not )e affected.
The indicator values relating to the assum$tion for the dis$osal of aluminum and $a$er do not
give rise to an' other conclusions. &ven with accurate waste figures, the contri)ution of the waste
$hase will remain onl' a fraction of the indicator for the use $hase.
#mpro%ements
Cn the )asis of the a)ove evaluation, the design team ma' consider develo$ing a coffee
machine with a thermos 5ug instead of a hot $late. 0n addition, the coffee machine could )e fitted with
a $ermanent filter in $lace of one3time use $a$er filters. These design alternatives can, of course, )e
calculated in the same wa' with the &co3indicators 44.
Si&plified process diagra& of te life cycle of a coffee &acine wit size of eac block representing
te respecti*e en*iron&ental i&pact "Ecco-99#
+o&e e,ercise- )e instructor.s Cuisinart coffee &aker was found to brew fi*e cups of coffee in / &inutes fro& a cold
start (t ten suts off auto&atically$ (t is e0uipped wit a ter&os 1ug tat doubles te a&ount of plastic &aterial used to
&ake te coffee &aker discussed abo*e$ 'lso, it uses a &etallic screen filter instead of paper filters2 it take s one liter of
water to was tis screen after use$ (f bot &acines are used once a day for a period of fi*e years, calculate teir
respecti*e Eco-indicator *alues o*er tat period$
E2ample 4. Anal%sis of a comple2 product
.or $roducts that consist of several com$onents, the &i344 form can )e filled for each com$onent or
1su)3assem)l'2. 0n the same wa' as is done for engineering drawings (structural, electrical circuits,
etc.%. The &i34J form is used for each su)3assem)l' and the total scores of all su)3assem)lies are
carried over to the main form which can also include the 1use2 $hase of the life c'cle of the $roduct.
The following figure illustrates the a$$lication of this method in the evaluation of a refrigerator.
Su&&ing up te results of te analysis of te sub-asse&blies of a refrigerator

The ta(les shown (elow show the $oint evaluation of various materials and processes 1Eco-
indicators 99'
M
&eferences to Eco-indicators 99 "ethodolog%
Cam$)ell 144!N Cam$)ell, C.P.* " Duide to ,etermining the @orld7s &ndowement and ,e$letion of
Cil, >arch 1, 144!, Petroland Consultants. see also www.hu))ert$ea+.com?
cam$)ell? guide.htm
MCha$man 14!N Cha$man, P...* Ro)erts, .. (14!%< >etal Resources and &nerg'. Butterworths
>onogra$hs in >aterials
M&6= 144GN .risch+necht R. (final editor%, =. Bollens, 6. Bosshart, >. Ciot, /. Ciseri, D. ,o+a,
R. Bischier, ". >artin (&TB KLrich%, R. ,ones, =. Dantner (P60 Villigen%, 144G.
3koin*entare *on Energiesyste&en, Grundlagen f4r den 5kologiscen 6ergleic *on
Energiesyste&en und den Einbezug *on Energiesyste&en in 3kobilanzen f4r die
Scwei:, rd &dition, Dru$$e &nergie 3 6toffe 3 =mwelt, &TB KLrich, 6e+tion
Dan:heitliche 6'stemanal'sen, P60 Villigen
MDoed+oo$ 144J31N Doed+oo$ >.P.* ,e &co3indicator 4J, eindra$$ort* FCB ra$$ort 4J1S, 5uli 144J,
06BF 493R2193RR3S.
MDoed+oo$ 144J32N Doed+oo$ >.P.* ,emmers, >.* Collignon, >.* ,e &co3indicator 4J Bandleiding
voor ontwer$ers, eindra$$ort* FCB ra$$ort 4J19, 5uli 144J, 06BF 493R2193R!32.
MDoed+oo$ 1444N Doed+oo$, >.P.* 6$riensma, R.6.* The &co3indicator 44, >ethodolog' re$ort, "
damage oriented /C0" >ethod* VRC> Re$ort 3333333, ,en Baag, 1444
MBei5ungs 1442N Bei5ungs R. (final editor% et al* >ilieugerichte levensc'clusanal'ses van $roducten,
handleiding en achtergronden, FCB ra$$ort 42J en 42JS* /eiden* 1442* 0n
o$dracht van het Fationaal Cnder:oe+$rogramma Berge)rui+ van afvalstoffen
(FCB%, in samenwer+ing met C>/, TFC en BTD.
MBofstetter 144!N Bofstetter, P. (144!%< Pers$ectives in /ife C'cle 0m$act "ssessment* " 6tructured
"$$roach to Com)ine >odels of the Technos$here, &cos$here and Values$here. ,
Uluwers "cademic Pu)lishers, 144!, 0nfo< www.w+a$.nl?)oo+.htm?9R423!RR3V.
MUWllner 1444N UWllner, T.* /ife3C'cle 0m$act "ssessment for /and =se. &ffect "ssessment Ta+ing
the "ttri)ute Biodiversit' into "ccount., su)mitted for the Pournal of Cleaner
Production. "$ril 1444
M>ettier 1444N >ettier T. < ,er Vergleich von 6chut:guetern 3 "usgewaehlte Resultate einer Panel3
Befragung,
in< Bofstetter P., >ettier T., Tiet5e C. (eds.%, "nsaet:e :um Vergleich
von =mweltschaeden, Fach)ear)eitung des 4. ,is+ussionsforums Ce+o)ilan:en
vom S. ,e:em)er 144!, &TB Kuerich%.
M>Lller3@en+ 144!N >Lller3@en+, R. (144!31%< ,e$letion of ")iotic Resources @eighted on the Base
of
EVirtualE 0m$acts of /ower Drade ,e$osits in .uture. 0@X ,is+ussions)eitrag Fr.
JR, =niversitYt 6t. Dallen, >arch 144!, 06BF 349GJ923JR39
MThom$son 1449N Thom$son >,, &llis R., @ildavs+' ".* Cultural Theor', @estview Print Boulder
1449