AAE 439

4.7 REAL NOZZLE

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Ideal Rocket

Working fluid is homogeneous perfect gas,

No heat transfer (q=0, adiabatic),
No frictional loss, no boundary layer loss,
No shocks,
Invariant gas composition in nozzle,
Steady flow,
One-dimensional flow, i.e., flow is axial and properties are constant across any

plane normal to flow,

Chemical equilibrium in combustion chamber.

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Real Nozzle Effects

Stagnation pressure loss in the chamber:

Non-isentropic flow, including heat and mass transfer, friction,

Two-dimensional flow (divergence, varying properties),
Boundary layer (BL) and wall friction:

Lower velocity in BL: effects include pressure gradient, heat transfer, wall
roughness, nozzle geometry.
Multi-phase flow:

liquid drops and solid particles have higher density (thus lower velocity),
momentum transfer from gas to large drops also slows gas down.
Unsteady flow
Nozzle flow chemical kinetics:

Re-association of relatively unstable (high positive heat of formation) molecules as

gas cools in the nozzle.
Throat erosion leading to lower expansion ratio,
Non-uniform properties:

mixing loss can be a major effect,

Real gas (not perfect gas) properties,
Non-optimal expansion.
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Flow in Ideal Rocket Nozzles:

One-dimensional,
Isentropic.

Area Ratio is only important geometric variable.

Real Nozzles:

Flow is never truly one-dimensional Shape of nozzle walls is important.

Entire nozzle shape must into account variations in velocity and pressure on
surfaces normal to streamlines.
Other influences on flow:
Friction,
Heat transfer,
Composition change,
Shocks.

Shape of the supersonic or divergent part of the nozzle will dictate shock
formation and performance gain/loss.

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AAE 439

Nozzle Contours

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CONICAL NOZZLE

Shape

ve

CS

pa
Thrust:

Momentum Equation:

Fx = T + pa pe A e =

pe

( v n)v x dA

CS

Exit Velocity:

v n = ve

Exit Area projected:

A e = r2

Exit Area spherical:

dA = 2 R R sin d

Mass Flow Rate:

m = v A sph = v e 2 R 2 (1 cos )

v e,x = v e cos
A sph
A sph = 2 R (1 cos )
2

Ae

2
1+ cos

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CONICAL NOZZLE

Thrust:

1+ cos
m v e + (p e p a )A sph

Conical Nozzle:

Tconic =

Ideal Nozzle:

Tisentr,1d = m v e + (p e p a )A e

Thrust Loss due to Divergence Loss:

Tconic,approx = m v e + (p e p a )A e

Small difference between Ae and Asph

A sph = A e
Contribution of pressure term small
Exit pressure does not have any directional influence as exit velocity

(v

v e,conic

isentr,1d e

==

1 + cos
2

Area Ratio:

A e D * +2L tan
=

A *
D*

Nozzle Length:

D * Ae
L=
1 tan 1

2 A*

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Conical Nozzle

General Observations:

Conical nozzle contour is the most simple contour.

It has high divergence losses lower angle will reduce divergence losses, but
longer nozzle (for same expansion) is heavier,
frictional and boundary layer losses will be greater.

Effective divergence loss accounted by applied to momentum thrust term.

Serves as reference contour for the length definition of profiled nozzles (profiled
nozzle length is typically 75% 85% of conical length with same )

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Perfect Nozzle

The Perfect Nozzle is shaped in such a manner as to provide uniform parallel

flow at the exit plane.

Complete elimination of flow divergence loss!!

This perfect case is not a practical case, and produces very long nozzles,

therefore not used for propulsion application.

The Method of Characteristics is used to analytically determine the contour

needed to achieve ideal (uniform parallel) flow conditions at the exit plane.
The Method of Characteristics is widely used to determine nozzles with

practical contours.
Designing a shaped nozzle requires 2dimensional flow.
The curvature of the streamlines is significant, so that gradients of velocity

and pressure perpendicular to streamlines become important.

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Supersonic Nozzle Design

Objective of Design:

Development of nearly 1dimensional flow at nozzle exit while minimizing

pressure loss.

Design Approach/Philosophy:

To generate a wavefree flow downstream, reflected wave has to be eliminated.

The design of the opposing wall is such as to cancel the incident wave by
forming parallel surface to resulting velocity vector.
Far downstream nozzle contour is a result of the initial expansion just downstream
of the throat.

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Oblique Shocks and Expansion Waves

Concave Corner

Convex Corner

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Method of Characteristics

Background:

In supersonic flow, the influence of a small pressure disturbance is limited to a

specific region.
Pressure disturbance propagates relative to fluid as a spherical sound wave at local
velocity of sound a.
Center of sound wave moves downstream with velocity u.
Changes in fluid properties may be thought of as propagating along Mach lines:
Mach line is straight, if flow upstream is uniform.
All properties of flow immediately downstream of a Mach line are uniform.

Zone of Silence

u
Uniform parallel
supersonic flow

Limit of Influence

Mach Angle

Source of small
pressure disturbance

v = at
d = ut

at

= sin = sin
ut
M

1
= tan

1
= tan 1

2
2
2

ut at
at

( ) ( )

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Method of Characteristics

Expansion at Infinitesimal Corner:

Velocity change due to an expansion:

dU
=
U

d
M2 1

Change in Mach number is related to change in direction of streamline (for

isentropic flow):

2
1+ 0.5 1 M2
2
M

d
dM2 =
M2 1

Change in Mach number determines temperature, density, and pressure.

See handout about Method of Characteristics.

Wall curvature controls the flow field downstream of Mach lines.

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Method of Characteristics

Intersection of Mach Lines:

Streamlines upstream of O (blue region) and downstream of O (red region) must be

parallel!!
Mach number must be uniform!
Knowing M,
MM,
MM,
M1, MM
M3 will determine flow immediately downstream of O.
1,
3, MM,
Conditions:
(i) 1 2 = 3 4
(ii) M1 + M2 = M3 + M4
(iii) 2 = m1 M2
(iv) 4 = m 3 M4

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Method of Characteristics

The initial expansion occurs inside 1AI5.

At I the design Mach number is reached.
The flow downstream of the left running characteristic IP is uniform and

parallel.
The contour AP is calculated with MoC, such that incoming expansion
waves are compensated.

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Contour Design

Design of a Parabolic Contoured Nozzle

In 1960, G.V.R. Rao proposed a simple optimization method for nozzle design
provides close approximation to a thrust-optimized contour.
G.V.R. Rao, Approximation of Optimum Thrust Nozzle Contour, ARS Journal,
Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1960, p. 561

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Contour Design

Influence of Nozzle Design on Performance

Typical length of bell nozzle: 75%-85% of length of conical nozzle

100
Conical nozzle, 15-degree
bell nozzle, eps=10
bell nozzle, eps=20

99

bell nozzle, eps=30

bell nozzle, eps=40
98

l
97

96

95
50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

Nozzle length / Length of conical 15o-nozzle 100

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Why Altitude-Compensating Nozzles?

Example:

Conventional TCA performance characteristic vs. flight altitude based on ideal gas
analysis.
= 45, p0=100 bar, = 1.2, MW = 22kg/kmol
1

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles

Dual-bell nozzle
Bell nozzle

Extendible nozzle

Plug nozzle
(Aerospike)

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles

Extendible nozzles are being used on the RL-10 and Japanese upper stage

engines.
Detailed nozzle design and mechanical design of a reliable deployment
mechanism are key.

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles

Altitude adjusting nozzles expand at free surface

Plug Cluster Nozzle

Linear Aerospike Nozzle

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Altitude-Adjusting Nozzles

Truncated Aerospike nozzles offer improved mission-averaged performance,

shorter lengths, TVC, and improved structural efficiency.

Clustering losses and inter-thruster interactions, end-wall effects, base
region flow and heat transfer need development

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Performance Definition

Four types (according to Sutton):

Theoretical performance (based on calculations, loss types specified) at operating

conditions,
Delivered (actually measured),
Performance at standard conditions:
p0=1000 psia, optimally expanded at SL or stipulated e in vacuum,
Propellant combination, not propulsion system, performance,

Guaranteed minimum performance.

Associated conditions must be clearly defined:

Chamber and ambient pressures (SL or vacuum),

Nozzle geometry ( !, !, etc.),
Propellants and propellant conditions (T, composition, O/F),
Type of thermochemical analysis (equilibrium chemistry or invariant composition
during nozzle flow).

Ch4 93

AAE 439

Real Nozzle Effects

Stagnation pressure loss in the chamber:

Non-isentropic flow, including heat and mass transfer, friction,

Two-dimensional flow (divergence),
Boundary layer and wall friction:

Lower velocity in BL: effects include pressure gradient, heat transfer, wall
roughness, nozzle geometry,
Multi-phase flow:

liquid drops and solid particles have higher density (thus lower velocity),
momentum transfer from gas to large drops also slows gas down.
Unsteady flow
Nozzle flow chemical kinetics:

Re-association of relatively unstable (high positive heat of formation) molecules as

gas cools in the nozzle.
Throat erosion leading to lower expansion ratio,
Non-uniform properties:

mixing loss can be a major effect,

Real gas (not perfect gas) properties,
Non-optimal expansion.
Ch4 94

AAE 439

4.8 SUPPLEMENT - TABLES

Ch4 95