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04b
04b
Hand crank
&
6
&Drive
shoe
Figure 4.18 Vane shear test arrangement (Acker Sampling Catalogue and Design
Manual NAVFAC DM 7.1, 1982).
145
146
T
k
c, = -
where
c, = undrained shear strength of clay, lb/ft2 (kN/m2)
T = torque 1b-ft (N-m)
k = constant, depending on dimensions and shape of vane, ft' (m')
0.4 I
20
40
I
60
80
100
120
Plasticity index, Zp
Figure 4.19 Vane correction factor as a function of plasticity index (Bjerrum, 1973).
147
Control
unit
148
correlations. This test is very useful for soft sensitive soils that cannot be sampled
for laboratory testing.
Pressuremeter Tests As indicated in Table 4.4, the pressuremeter test method is
a highly rated test. This device essentially consists of an expandable cylindrical
tube placed at the bottom of a borehole. This cylinder is then expanded under
controlled conditions against the surrounding soil. Existing pressuremeters can
be divided into three main groups: prebored, self-bored, and full displacement.
The prebored pressuremeter test is performed in a predrilled hole, the self-bored
pressuremeter is self-bored into the soil to minimize soil disturbance, and the full
displacement pressuremeter is pushed into the soil with a solid tip (Robertson,
1985).
Volume increase, cm
Figure 4.21 Idealized pressure-expansioncurve from Menard-type prebored pressuremeter test (Robertson, 1986).
149
defines the upper limit of the linear diagram. V, is the mean of volumes Voand V,.
The corresponding pressures are Po, P,, and P, respectively.
The undrained shear strength, S,, of clays can be estimated from the following
semiempirical relationship (Robertson 1986).
S" =-PL.- Po
(4.7)
5.5
+ V,)( P/u)
(4.8)
where
V, = initial volume of the measuring cell,
Po = Pressure corresponding to initial volume V,.
V,,, = volume change read on the volumeter at a pressure corresponding to
the mean pressure in the pseudoelastic range
P/u = slope of the pressure volume curve (AB).
Type of Soil
Limit Pressure
(kPa)
Soft clay
Firm clay
Stiff clay
Loose silty sand
Silt
Sand and gravel
Till
Old fill
Recent fill
50-300
300-800
600-2500
100-500
200- 1500
1200-5000
1000-5000
400-1000
50-300
&IP,
10
10
15
5
I
8
12
12
150
to investigate by conventional methods (e.g., granular soils, till, soft rock, and
frozen soil).
Laboratory Testing Laboratory testing is carried out to classify the soils and to
provide soil parameters for design. The type and number of soil tests will depend
on a number of factors such as:
0.01
345680.1
345681.0
2 3456810
20
406080100
Figure 4.22 Preconsolidation pressure vs. liquidity index (Design Manual NAVFAC
DM 7.1, 1982).
151
The liquid limit (LL) of a soil is the limiting water content of a saturated soil
beyond which the soil will attain a liquid state. The soil has infinitesimal strength
at liquid limit.
The plastic limit (PL) is the percent water content of a wet soil below which it
does not exhibit any plasticity. Thus, plastic limit defines a boundary between the
plastic and nonplastic states.
The plasticity index (PI) is the difference between the liquid limit and plastic
limit (PI = LL - PL) and signifies the range of water content over which the
soil remains plastic.
As we present in the following paragraphs, these soil characteristics (e.g., LL,
PL, and PI) can be empirically related with certain engineering soil properties.
Unconfined Compressive Strength The unconfined compression test is carried
out on clay samples (undisturbed or remolded) to determine shear strength, S,,
under undrained conditions. ASTM D 2166-66 (1989) describes its detailed test
procedure. The undrained strength, S,, is then obtained by dividing the
unconfined compressive value, q,, by 2.
Approximate values of the unconfined compressive strength, q., can also be
obtained from the following relationship (Design Manual NAVFAC DM 7.1,
(1 982).
qu = 2S, = 2pc(0.11
+ 0.0037 PI)
(4.9)
where
a,.
152
Recompression
zone
Effective normal
0;
153
350
g-
$
a
300 -$-
0 Kerisel(1961)
A Muhs and Weiss (1971)
X Melzer(1968)
O
?c%
5:
J
-+
/-
n
b
v1
250
.-c
<
g
200
.-4
-2I
e!
150
x'
3
.-
100
E
3
50
E
-g
0
::
. 1/
v1
~~
" /A
[Very loose A
LJ
/IX
friction
154
The angle of internal friction can either be obtained from laboratory testing
(Section 4.1.2) or from the correlations established with field penetrometer test
values (e.g., N or qc). Figure 4.24 presents a relationship between the static cone
penetration test (CPT) values, qc and the angle of internal friction, @, values.
Meyerhof (1976) recommends the use of this relationship for pile design. If only
standard penetration test values, N are available at a site, then Figure 4.15 should
be used to first obtain the equivalent qc values. Figure 4.24 can then be used to
obtain Cp' values.
Another method of obtaining the angle of internal friction, as recommended in
Design Manual NAVFAC, DM 7.1 (1982), consists of the following:
1. Obtain the relative density, D,,for the field measured, N, values from
Figure 4.25.
2. Then from Figure 4.26, for the known soil or dry density (or void ratio
or porosity) and D,from (1) above, obtain the angle of internal friction, 4',
Example 4.1 explains the use of both the foregoing methods to estimate the 4'
value from field test data for cohesionless material. The first method using the
qc/N relationship and then the use of qc versus 4 relationship yields Cp' = 36"
while the use of the N,D,, and 4' relationship yields 4' = 35".
Figure 4.25 Correlations between relative density and standard penetration resistance in
accordance with Gibbs and Holtz (1957) (NAVFACDesign Manual DM 7.1, 1982).
45
Angle of internal friction
vs dens0
(for coarse-grained sods)
- 40
Q)
ln
2!
aJ
M
3
-e35
c
---5
0
.&
0
.-L
m
30
effective stress
failure envelopes
Approximate correlation
is for cohesionless
materials without
plastic fines
0)
3
25
2075
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
156
Example 4.1 During a site investigation work, borehole logs indicated the SPT
value of 20 at a depth of 25 ft in sand. Laboratory grain size analysis indicated
that the sand had mean grain size, D,, = 0.004 in. (0.1mm). The density of the
overburden soil was estimated to be 125 Ib/ft3 and dry density of this sand was
estimated at 1101b/ft3. No groundwater table was observed in the borehole.
Estimate the angle of internal friction for the sand.
SOLUTION
The undrained shear strength, S,, of a cohesive soil can either be obtained from
laboratory testing of undisturbed soil sample or by field vane shear tests,
equation (4.6), on soft cohesive soils and pressuremeter tests, equation (4.7), on
stiff soils.
TABLE 4.6 Guide for Consistency of Fine-grained Soils (Terraphi and Peck, 1967,
Design Manual NAVFAC, DM 7.1, 1982, Canadan Foundation Engineering Manual,
1985)
Estimated Range of S, = c,
SPT Penetration
N Values*
<2
2-4
4-8
8-15
15-30
> 30
Estimated Consistency
k Pa
kips/ft2
< 12
< 0.25
12-25
0.25-0.50
25-50
0.50- 1 .OO
50-100
1.00-2.00
100-200
2.00-4.00
> 200
> 4.00
'The Canadian Foundation Engineering Manual does not recommend the relationship with N.
157
S, = C,
= aL(O.1
+ 0.004PI)
(4.10)
0.9
lO
0.7
<
i
-
0.6 -
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Very
soft
Soft
Firm
Stiff
Very stiff
Hard
Figure4.27 Variation of cdS, with c, for different pile materials for driven piles
(developed from data in Tomlinson, 1963).
158
should only be used in the preliminary design. For final design, field and/or
laboratory determined S, values should be used.
Soil-Pile Adhesion (c,) Estimation of soil-pile adhesion (c,) is complex. It
depends on factors such as (1) soil consistency, (2) method of pile installation,
(3) pile material, and (4) time. Reliable values of c, can only be obtained by
performing full-scale pile load tests in the field. Figure 4.27 can be used as a
guide for estimating c, values for driven piles in clay with different consistency
(Tomlinson, 1963). These values have also been recommended by Tenaghi and
Peck (1967). The soil-pile adhesion value c, is also termed as side friction. For
drilled piles or piers, c, can be estimated from Table 4.7.
TABLE 4.7 Design Parameters for Side Friction for Drilled Piers in Cohesive Soils
(NAVFAC Design Manual, DM 7.2, 1982)
Side Resistance Design Category
ca/cu
Limit on Side
Shear-tsf
0.6
2.0
0.3(a)
O.S(a)
0.3
0.5
0.15( b)
0.3(b)
Remarks
159
Elastic Soil Parameter The most common elastic soil parameter required in pile
design is the modulus of elasticity, E,. In cohesionless soils, the static elastic
modulus, E, may be estimated from empirical methods using relations of E, with
SPT N values or with static cone penetration qc values. Many studies relating N
values with E, indicate that such relationships are of little use because the
relationships vary significantly and the ratio of predicted to observed settlements
based on these E, values may range between 0.12 to 20 (Talbot, 1981; Robertson,
1986). This is due to the fact that E, depends on a large number of variables as
explained in Section 4.2. Therefore, these relationships should not be used unless
local experience supports them. A value of E, can, however, be estimated from
results of the static cone penetration test, qc, as follows (Schmertmann, 1970).
E, = c,qc
(4.11)
C1= 1.5
C, = 2.0
Ci = 3.0
C1= 4.0
For cohesive soils, the values of E,, as recommended by the Canadian Foundation
Engineering Manual (1985) can be estimated from the following relationship.
E, = CZDC
(4.12)
160
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR PILE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Figure 4.28
Dynamic shear modulus vs. shear strain y (after Prakash and Pun, 1980; Prakash,
1981).
161
Figure 4.29 Normalized shear modulus (G/G,,,,J vs. shear strain, ye.
strain amplitude (ye) since behavior of the soil is nonlinear (Figure 4.28). In
Figure 4.29, the plot of G vs. ye (in Figure 4.28) has been normalized by dividing
or smaller).
the ordinate with G,,,, the value of G at small strain
In this section, a brief discussion of the laboratory and field methods used to
determine dynamic soil moduli is presented along with typical values of dynamic
soil moduli and damping.
(4.13)
&,
E,,
are
E,
= Ey =
- VE,
(4.14)
162
Tangent
modulus
0
Y)
E!
;j
Strain t
If shear stress, 5, is applied to an elastic cube, there will be a shear distortion, ye,
and shear modulus G is defined as
5
G=-
or ye = -
YO
(4.15a)
Of the three constants (E, G, and v), only two are needed, because they are related
as follows:
E = 2G(1+ V )
(4.15b)
Based on the study of dynamic elastic constants, the factors on which these
depend are (Hardin and Black 1968):
1. Type of soil and its properties (e.g., water content and yd) and state of
disturbance.
163
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Strain level
Time effects
Degree of saturation
Frequency and number of cycles of dynamic load
Magnitude of dynamic stress
8. Dynamic prestrain
Type of Soil, its Properties and Initial Static Stress Level Since the soil modulus
is strain dependent (Figure 4.30), more than one method is needed to determine
the variation of modulus with strain.
The large amount of data on the values of soil constants that had been
collected was analyzed by Hardin (1978), who developed a mathematical
formulation of soil elasticity and soil plasticity in terms of effective stresses. On
this basis, the maximum value of the shear modulus, G,,, (at low shear strain of
is expressed by equation (4.16a) (Hardin and Black 1969):
G,
= 12300CR'
(2.973 - e)2
(50)0.5
(1 + e )
(4.16a)
in which OCR is the overconsolidation ratio, e the void ratio, and k a factor that
depends on the plasticity index of clays, Table 4.8, and do the mean effective
confining stress in psi, equals
+ + 53)/3
do = (6,+ 5),+ 5,)/3.
50 = (51
or
(4.16b)
52
(4.16~)
( ~ 7 ~ )its
~ , value
(4.17)
Effective overburden pressure
(3,
Plasticity Index PI
0
20
40
60
80
0
0.18
0.30
0.4 1
0.48
0.50
100
164
Magnitude 01 strain
10-6
I
Phenomena
Mechanical
&aracleristics
Constants
II
Elastic
104
I
Elastic plastic
Repealed
loading test
Slide,
compaction,
liquifacation
Failure
Angle of
Internal friction
cohesbn
vibration test
romement
lo-'
10"
Cradu, differenw
Seismk wave
method
104
10-~
I
~~~~
Wave propagatlor
~~
Resonant
column test
Repeated
loading test
Figure 4.31 Strain level associated with different in-situ and laboratory tests (after
Ishihara, 1971).
Struin Level Figure 4.3 1 shows strain levels associated with different pheno-
menon in the field and in corresponding field and laboratory tests. Typical
variations of G versus shear strain amplitude for different types of in-situ tests are
shown in Figure4.28. The soil modulus values may vary by a factor of 10,
depending on the strain level.
It is customary to plot a graph between normalized modulus (defined as G
value at a particular strain, divided by G,,, at a strain of
and shear strain
(Figure 4.29).
The shear strains induced in soil may not be precisely known (Prakash and
Puri, 1981).In the case of wave propagation tests, the shear strain amplitudes are
low and are assumed to be of the order of
The shear strain induced in soil
essentially depends on the amplitude of vibration or settlement, which in turn
depends on superimposed loads, the foundation contact area, and soil characteristics. The measured values of amplitude or settlement take care of the factors
affecting them. In vertical vibrations, the shear strain amplitudes, Ye, is equal
to the ratio of the amplitude or settlement to width of the oscillating footing
for all practical purposes, both at low and high strains (Prakash, 1975; Prakash
and Puri, 1977; Prakash and Puri, 1988). For values of and v, in the range
of interest, it is reasonable to assume, therefore, that Y e 2 E,.
165
in which t, and t , are the times after primary consolidation, and AG is the
change in low-amplitude shear modulus from t , to t , (Figure 4.32).
Figure 432 Phases of modulus-time response in soils (after Anderson and Stokoe,
1977).
Soil Type
Specimen Type
Confining
Pressure
(kN/m2)
Low-Amplitude
Shear Modulus
G,o0o(kN/m2)
Typical
I.,
(kN/m2)
14O,OOO-l90,OOO 24,000-35,000
50,OOO- 180,OOO 1,400-5,500
Typical
N:
E)
17-18
1-1 1
Reference
Hardin and Black (1968)
Afifi and Woods (1971)
EPK kaolinite
Ottawa sand
Quartz sand
Quartz silt
Dry clay
Kaolinite
Bentonite
Vacuum extruded
70-550
4,000-170,OOO
1,ooO-8,500
5-25
Agsco sand
Ottawa sand
Airdried EPK
Kaolinite
Compacted by
raining and
tamping
70-280
so,o0o-11o,OOO
2,000-10.000
1-17
Saturated EPK
Kaolinite
Vacuum extruded
Silty sand
Sandy silt
Clayey silt
Shale
Undisturbedd
70-220
80,OOO-2,6W,OOO
2,000-22,9M
1-14
Undisturbedd
Undisturbedd
70-700
35-415
32,500-54.000
13,000-235.000
Undisturbedd
35-70
SO,Ooe200,000
5 7,000
26,000-23,500
15-18
2-40
Clay fills
4,200- 15,000
7- 14
Decomposed marine
limestone
San Francisco
Bay mud
Dense silty sand
Stiff OC' clay
~~~
Undisturbedd
325-830
Undisturbedd
17-550
Undisturbedd
Undisturbedd
220-620
1,280- 1,300
3-4
725-32,000
8-22
Lodde (1977)
5,000-17,000
45,000-180.000
300,000-320,000 14,000-26,ooO
4-10
4-8
365,000- 1,300,MMl28,000-102,000
7,600-150,000
Source: Anderson and Stokoe, 1977, copyright ASTM. Reprinted with permission.
' I , defined by equation. 4.18a.
bN, defined by equation. 4.18b.
168
169
50
45
40
.- 35
J
- 30
3
E 25
3
8 20
15
10
lo,
104
105
106
107
dynamic shear modulus generally increased with the number of prestrain cycles,
as shown in Figure 4.33. The soil samples were first subjected to high-amplitude
vibrations (dynamic prestrain) for a predetermined number of cycles and then the
low-amplitude vibration modulus was determined. No data are available on the
effect of dynamic prestrain on the dynamic shear modulus of clays and silts.
There are several laboratory and field methods for determination of dynamic
soil properties that are described briefly as follows.
4.23
Laboratory Methods
The following laboratory methods are used to determine the dynamic elastic
constants and damping values of soils:
1. ,Resonant column
2. Cyclic simple shear
3. Cyclic torsional simple shear
4. Cyclic triaxial compression
The resonant column test for determining the modulus and damping
characteristics of soils is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic
rods (Richart et al., 1970). Either compression waves or shear waves can be
170
propagated through the soil specimen so that either the Youngs modulus or
shear modulus is determined.
In such a test, more often a soil sample is subjected to vibrations at the firstmode resonance at which the material in a cross section at every elevation
vibrates in phase with the top of the specimen. The shear wave velocity and shear
modulus are then determined on the basis of system constants and the size, shape,
and weight of the soil specimen (Drnevich et al., 1977). In a resonant column test,
different end conditions can be used to constrain the specimen (Figure 4.34). Each
configuration requires a slightly different type of driving equipment and methods
of data interpretation. In the fixed-free apparatus (Figure 4.34a) the distribution
of angular rotation, 8,along the specimen is 4 sine wave, but by adding a mass
eat)
0.5
Driving force-
Rigid mass (
$
I
1
;
;
Specimen, nonrigid
distributed mass
Weightless spring
Driving fone
(C)
(d)
Figure 4.34 Schematic of resonant column end conditions (after Hardin, 1965, 1970;
Drnevich, 1967). (a) J / J o = 03, (b) J / J o = 0.5, (c) free-free (d) fixed base-spring top.
171
with polar mass moments J,. at the top of the specimen (Figure 4.34b) the
variation of ye along the sample becomes nearly linear. Later models of the fixedfree device (Drnevich, 1967) take advantage of end-mass effects to obtain
uniform strain distribution throughout the length of the specimen. In
Figure 4.34d, the sample has a fixed base and a top cap partially restrained by a
spring, which in turn reacts against an inertial mass. If the spring in Figure 4 . 3 4 ~
is weak compared to the specimen, this configuration could be calledfree-free. In
such a case, a node will occur at midheight of the specimen, and the rotation
distribution would be a sine wave. By adding end masses, the rotation
distribution can also be made nearly linear. For K O = 1.0 tests, the inertial mass is
balanced by a counterweight, but if one changes the counterweight, an axial load
can be applied to the specimen.
In Figure 4.35, a hollow cylinder is used for test so that the shearing strain is
Taring spring
Vert. accelerometer
Rot. LVDT
Drive coils
Membranes
O-ring
Pnuun
Figure 435 Hollow specimen resonant column and torsional shear apparatus (after
Drnevich, 1972).
-z
Figure 4 3 6 Idealized stress conditions for element of soil below ground surface during
an earthquake.
Shearing chamber
Soil sample
Plan view
Soil deformation
Elevation
Figure 4.37 Schematic diagram illustrating rotation of hinged end plates and soil
deformation in oscillatory simple shear (after Peacock and Seed, 1968).
173
more or less uniform along the height of the specimen. Unlike the strain
distribution in a solid sample with zero strain in the center and maximum at the
periphery (Drnevich, 1967,1972),the torque capacity of this device was increased
to produce large shearing strain amplitudes. Anderson (1974)used a modified
Drnevich apparatus to test clays at shearing strain amplitudes up to 1 percent.
Woods (1978)tested dense sands on the same device at shearing strain amplitudes
up to 0.5 percent at 40 psi (276 kN/m2)confining pressure. Drnevich et al. (1977)
described a calibration procedure and aids for reducing data of compression or
shear wave propagation along a cylindrical sample.
A soil element at xx, as indicated in Figure 4.36,may be considered to be
subjected to a series of cyclic shear stresses,which may reverse many times during
dynamic loading. In the case of a horizontal ground surface, there is no initial
shear stress on the horizontal plane.
In practice, initial static shear stresses are present in the soil (k,-initial
condition). Oscillatory shears may be introduced due to ground motion or a
machine load at the surface of the ground. A simple shear device simulates all
these loadings and consists of a sample box, an arrangement for applying a
cyclic load to the soil, and an electronic recording system (Figure 4.37),Peacock
and Seed (1968).Kjellman (1951),Hvorslev and Kaufman (1952),Bjerrum and
Landra (1966),and Prakash et al. (1973)have described this type of apparatus.
Typical shear-stress, shear-strain relationships obtained during cyclic simple
shear tests are shown in Figure 4.38a. A soil exhibits nonlinear stress-strain
behavior. For purposes of high-stress, high-strain loading as in an earthquake,
this behavior can be represented by a bilinear model (Figure 4.38b)defined by
three parameters: (1) modulus G, until a limiting strain, yy, is reached, (2)modulus
G, beyond strain yr and (3) strain y y (Thiers and Seed, 1968).
Typical simple shear stress-strain plots of San Francisco Bay mud for different
cycles of loading are shown in Figure 4.39for cycles 1,50,and 200,with about 4
percent shearing strain. The decrease in peak load as the number of cycles
increase is reflected by the progressive flattening of the stress-strain curves.
However, corrections for confining pressure and other factors need to be applied,
as described in section 4.2.2.
A major drawback of most of the cyclic simple shear apparatus is that they do
not permit measurement or control of lateral confining pressures during cyclic
loading. Therefore, the value of ko is not known and hence the effect of the K O
condition on the behavior of soils cannot be studied.
Cyclic torsional simple shear is used to provide the capability of measuring
confining pressure and controlling K O conditions. Ishihara and Li (1972)
modified a triaxial apparatus to provide torsional straining capabilities. As in
resonant column sample, the shear strain distribution in a hollow sample is more
uniform.
The apparatus configuration (Figure 4.35) has an advantage in that both
resonant column and cyclic torsional shear tests can be performed in the same
device. For details refer to Woods (1978),Iwasaki et al., (1977)and Prakash and
Puri (1988).
174
Shear
stress
Shear ,
b)
0)
Figure 4.38 (a)Stress-strain curve of a soil, (b) bilinear model (after Thiers and Seed,
1968).
Shear
Shear
stress
&g/crn2)
o.20
r
t
Shear
ocg/crn2)
stmsr
o.20
r
t
-0.20
b) Cycle 1
a31 Cyck 50
Figure 4.39 (a) Stress-strain curves and bilinear models in San Francisco Bay mud
(a)Cycle No.1, (b)cycle No.50, (c)cycle No.200 (after Thiers and Seed, 1968).
Cyclic triaxial tests have been extensively used to study the stress-deformation
behavior of saturated sands and silts (Puri, 1984), and Seed (1979). Also, Youngs
modulus, E, and the damping ratio, have often been measured in cyclic triaxial
tests (Figure 4.40) when strain-controlled tests have been conducted. These tests
are performed in essentially the same manner as the stresscontrolled tests for
liquefaction studies.
As in all laboratory attempts to duplicate dynamic field conditions, cyclic
triaxial tests have the following limitations:
r,
175
Vertical stress
1
Area of Hysteresis Loop
D - -2T
Area of Triangle OAB & OA'B'
Figure 4.40
176
4.2.4
Field Methods
The following methods for determining dynamic properties of soil are in use:
1. Cross-borehole wave propagation test
2. Up-hole or down-hole wave propagation test
Figure 4.41 Sketch showing cross-bore hole technique for measurement of velocity of
wave propagation.
177
///I////
(a) Up hole
S = Source
R = Receiver
Figure 4.42 (a) Up-hole and (b) down-hole techniques for measurement of velocity of
wave propagation.
traverse the known distance is monitored. Alternatively, shear wave may be
generated at any depth in a borehole with a special tool. The arrival of the shear
wave is monitored at the same elevation in the second borehole (ASTM D 4428,
1989).
Up-hole and down-hole tests are performed by using only one borehole. In the
up-hole method, the sensor is placed at the surface, and shear waves are generated
at different depths within the borehole, while in the down-hole method, the
excitation is applied at the surface, and one or more sensors are placed at different
depths within the hole (Figure 4.42). Both the up-hole and the down-hole
methods give average values of wave velocities for the soil between the excitation
and the sensor (Prakash and Puri, 1988).
The shear modulus G is then determined as
or
v,=m
G =pVs
(4.19a)
(4.19b)
in which f is the frequency of vibration at which the wavelength (A,) has been
measured.
It is important to note that the Rayleigh wavelength (A,) will vary with the
frequency of excitation (f).For smaller f,the AR is larger and the soil will be
sampled to a larger depth (Prakash and Puri, 1988; Stokoe and Nazarian, 1985).
178
0.3-0.35
Rock
0.15-0.25
0.5
The Rayleigh wave velocity V, and shear wave velocity V, are generally
approximately equal, therefore:
G== V i p
(4.21)
E==2pVi(l+ v)
(4.22)
and
in which p is the mass density and v the Poisson*sratio of the soil. Values of v from
Table 4.10 may be used.
More recently, the interpratication of surface wave by a method called the
spectral analysis of surface waves (SASW) has been developed (Stokoe and
Nazarian, 1985). In the field, two vertical velocity transducers are used as
receivers. The receivers are placed securely on the ground surface symmetrically
about an imaginary centerline. A transient impulse is transmitted to the soil by
means of an appropriate hammer. The range of frequencies over which the
receivers should function depends on the site being tested. To sample deep
materials, 50 to lOOft, the receiver should have a low natural frequency, in range
of 1 to 2 Hz.In contrast, for sampling shallow layers, the receivers should be able
to respond to high frequencies in the range of 1OOOHz or more.
Several tests with different receiver spacing are performed. The distance
between the receivers after every test is generally doubled. The geophones are
always placed symmetrically about the selected, imaginary centerline. The raw
data obtained from the impact test is reduced with the help of a Dynamic Signal
Analyzer (DSA) and the inversion curve is obtained.
A typical shear wave profile for a site in which the velocity profiles have been
determined both by the crosshole method and SASW method show a good tally
between the values measured by the two methods. The SASW method is very
economical and less time consuming than the cross-borehole method and has the
advantage of complete automation. The detailed description of this technique is
given by Nazarian and Stokoe (1984). However, the inversion techniques
applicable to soils are still not perfected (1990).
In the Standard Penetration Test (SPT), a standard split spoon sampler is
driven with a 140-lb hammer that falls freely through a distance of 30 in. The
number of blows for 12 in. of penetration of the split spoon sampler is designated
as the N value. This is N ~ e r s u In
r caddesign
.
problem using N values, a correction
for effective overburden pressure is applied (Peck et al., 1974). Although the test is
designated as a standard test, there are several personal errors as well as errors
179
that are equipment based. Therefore, the use of SPT to measure any soil property
has been questioned by many engineers (Woods, 1978). Recent careful studies by
Kovacs (1975), Kovacs et ai. (1977a. 1977b), Palacios (1977), and Schmertmann
(1975, 1977) have described the potential of SPT for obtaining consistent and
useful soil properties. Seed (1979) and Seed and Idriss (1982) presented
correlations between SPT and observed liquefaction.
Imai (1977) developed a correlation between (uncorrected) N and shear wave
velocity, V,(m/sec), in 943 recordings at four urban locations in Japan and
established the following relationship:
(4.23)
Then,
(4.19b)
In the above relationship, he converted the M values over 50 or under 1 for the
penetrating length at the time of 50 or 1 blows into the number of blows for 30-cm
penetration. Prakash and Puri (1981, 1984) successfully applied the above
relationship in predicting dynamic soil properties at different depths.
In footing resonance tests and free vibration test, a test footing 1.5 x 0.75
x 0.70m high is cast either at the surface or in a pit 4.5 x 2.75 m at a suitable
depth and is excited in vertical or horizontal vibrations.
From the natural frequency determined either in the forced or free footing
vibration tests, the soil modulus is determined (Prakash, 1981a; Prakash and
Puri, 1988).
The cyclic plate load test is a static test. There is ample evidence to show that in
non-cohesive soils, the values of soil modulus from this test match with those
from dynamic tests at appropriate strains and confining pressures (Prakash,
1981a; Prakash and Puri, 1988).
4.25
The modulus of a given soil varies with strain and the confining pressure. It is
therefore necessary to make a plot of G vs. shear strain. G values are determined at
a mean effective confining pressure corresponding to the depth of soil and at a
shear strain that may be induced in the soil when the pile is subjected to dynamic
load. Prakash (1981a) and Prakash and Puri (1981) used a mean confining
pressure CO1,of 1kg/cm2 or (1000KN/m*) to reduce the data from different tests
to a common confining pressure for comparison purpose only using Equations
(4.17) and (4.164
(4.17)
uo =
6,+8,+6,
(4.16~)
180
VOID RATIO
Figure 4.43 Variation of shear wave velocity and shear modulus with void ratio and
confining pressure for dry round and angular sands (After Hardin and Richart, 1963).
181
where
The variation of modulus with strain is determined from different tests and a
plot similar to that in Figure 4.28 is obtained. This plot is then used to select the
design value at a predetermined strain and confining pressure. In the absence of
experimental data, values of shear modulus at low strain for preliminary design
may be selected from Figure 4.43 and Equation (4.16a). The following numerical
examples explain the selection method of dynamic design parameters.
',
Example 4.2 In a deposit of dry sand with G = 2.70 and dry density of 112 1b/ft
estimate the shear wave velocity at 10, 20, and 30ft below ground level. Also
determine G,,,.
SOLUTION
G Y W
e=----
G Y W
Yd
=1+ e
1=
Yd
v*=m
112
32.4
p=-=
2.7 x 62.4
- 1 = 0.504
112
3.46 slugs
Let
then
Also,
At 10' Depth
182
= 0.273 kg/cm2
= 0.364 kg/cm2
,
.
G
= 4985(5.185)2
= 11,352lb/in.2 = 5.543 kg/cm2
= 78,271 kN/m2
V,=
/T
At 2 0 Depth
6,= 20 x 112 = 2240 lb/ft2
= 1.094 kg/cm2
dh
= 11201b/ft2
= 0.545 kg/cm2
G,,,=
V,=
/F
A t 3 0 Depth
6, = 30 x 112 = 33601b/ft2
= 1.64 kg/m2
6h= 16801b/ft2
= 0.82 kg/cm2
Bo = 22401b/ft2 = 15.551b/i11.~
= 1.094 kg/cm2
G,,
= 4985(15.55)2 = 19,6621b/i11.~
=: 9.6 kg/cm2 = 135,569kN/m2
v, =
JF
183
Example 4.3 A sand layer in the field is 20m thick. The groundwater table is
located at a depth 5 m below the ground surface. Estimate the shear modulus G,,
up to a depth of 20 m below the ground surface. The sand has a void ratio of 0.6, a
specific gravity of soil solids of 2.7, and Poisson's ratio of 0.3.
SOLUTION
)Id=--
yd
-- 2.7
Gy,
1+ e
1 +0.6
G=2.7
e=0.6
G+Se
Yt
xl
v=O.3
2.7 + 0.6
= -)Yw
l+e
xl
Depth z = 5 m
bu=-
'
= 1728lb/ft2
5, = 0.3611 kg/cm2 = 739 Ib/ft2
=28151b/ft2
'
Depthz=lSm
lo00
= 3904 Ib/ft2
6h
184
Depth z = 20m
6, =
(2.0625 - 1)
(15) 100 0.84375 = 2.4375 kg/m2
lo00
= 4992 lb/ft2
= 700
(2.17 - e)2
(do)12
l+e
= 1,636,480lb/ft2
= 78,355 kN/m2
(a) Low-amplitude Youngs modulus (E) and shear modulus (G). The specific
gravity of soil solids is 2.7
(b) Poissons ratio
(c) Estimation of G,, at a confining pressure of 15 psi.
Next Page
SOIL PARAMETERS FOR PERMAFROST
185
SOLUTION
V, = 750ft/sec
V, = 1275 ft/sec
G = pV;
= (776)2x
(b) E = 2G(1
:.
+V)
v = --
2G
- 5,654,348 - 1 ~0.35
2(2,094,525)
2,094,525= (30)0.5
G2
G, = 1,481,053Ib/ft
With the development of resources in cold regions of the world, the need for
geotechnical information on seasonal and permanently frozen ground has been
growing. A great deal ofresearch, design, and construction activity in the past two
decades has provided a lot of geotechnical information in this area. Andersland
and Anderson (1978),Johnston (1981)and Morgenstern (1983)provide updated
and excellent documentation on geotechnical related design and construction
data for permafrost areas. This section briefly outlines the geotechnical
information from these sources that are relevant for pile design in permafrost
area.
4.3.1 Northern Engineering Basic Consideration
Permafrost is the thermal condition in soil and rock when the ground stays colder
than the freezing temperature of water over at least two consecutive years.
Continuous permafrost areas are those areas where permafrost occurs everywhere beneath the exposed land surface with the exception of widely scattered