Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Asthma
AZL & YSP
Dept. Pharmacology & Therapeutic,
School of Medicine
Universitas Sumatera Utara
Mei 2011, KBK, Respirasi, FK USU, Medan
Pathologic Findings
Bronchoconstriction
Hyperinflation of the
lungs
Hyperplasia of the
smooth muscle
surrounding the bronchial
and bronchiolar walls
Thickening of the
basement membrane
Mucosal edema
DesJardin, T, Burton, G: Clinical Manifestations and Assessment of Respiratory Disease. St. Louis, Mosby, 1995
Pathophysiology of Asthma
Airway inflammation
Cytokines
Bronchial hyper-responsiveness
Hipersensitifity type 1
Alergen
Antibodi (IgE)
Mast cell
Mediators (Histamin, Lekotrien, etc)
Slow phase
Airflow limitation
Etiology
Genetic factors
Atopy
Environmental
factors
Viruses
Allergens
Occupational
exposure
Gender
Obesity
Environmental Factors
Indoor allergens
Outdoor allergens
Occupational
sensitizers
Tobacco smoke
Air Pollution
Respiratory Infections
Diet
Allergens
Respiratory infections
Exercise and hyperventilation
Weather changes
Sulfur dioxide
Food, additives, drugs
histamine,
cysteinyl leukotrienes,
tryptase,
tumor necrosis factor-alpha,
prostaglandin D2, and
cytokines including IL4, IL-5 and IL-13
Lymphocytes
Eosinophils
Neutrophils
Inflammatory processes
Desquamation of
epithelium
Hyperplasia of
Mucos glands
Mucus plug
Basement
Membrane
thickening
Oedema
Smooth muscle
Hypertrophy and contraction
Barnes PJ
Neutrophil and
eosinophil infiltration
Chemicals Involved in
Inflammation
IgE
Histamine
Tryptase
Leukotrienes (LTC4)
Platelet activating
factor (PAF)
Prostaglandins
(PGD2)
Patho-physio-pharmacology of Asthma
Allergen
Macrophage/
dendritic cell
Mast cell
Th2 cell
Neutrophil
Eosinophil
Mucus plug
Nerve activation
Epithelial shedding
Subepithelial
fibrosis
Plasma leak
Oedema
Mucus
hypersecretion
Hyperplasia
Barnes PJ
Vasodilatation
New vessels
Sensory nerve
activation
Cholinergic
reflex
Bronchoconstriction
Hypertrophy / hyperplasia
Asthma components
Healthy airway
Aveolar septum
Smooth
muscle
Barnes PJ
Epithelium
Asthmatic airway
Inflammation
and oedema
Smooth muscle
contraction
Epithelial shedding /
damage
Severe
Persistent
Moderate
Persistent
Mild
Persistent
Mild
Intermittent
Days with
Symptoms
Continual
Nights with
Symptoms
Frequent
PEF or
FEV1.0
60%
Daily
5/month
3-6/ week
3-4/month
> 60%
< 80%
80%
2/week
2/month
80%
Intervention in Asthma
Avoidance
of allergens, infections
Inhaled
corticosteroids
2 agonist
bronchodilators
Inducers
Triggers
Inflammation
eosinophils
ECP
Airways
Hyper-responsiveness
Exercise induced asthma
Symptoms
Wheeze, dyspnea
Airways obstruction
2-adrenergic agents
Anti-cholinergic (Parasympatholytic) agents
Controllers
Corticosteroids
Long-Acting bronchodilators
2-adrenergic agents
Methylxanthines
Cromolyn sodium
Leukotriene inhibitors
Anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies
Relievers
Historical Perspective
Patho-Physio-Pharmacology of
Bronchodilators
Adrenergic Bronchodilators
Short-Acting Agents
Catecholamines
Epinephrine
Isoproterenol
Isoetharine
Resorcinol agents
Metaproterenol
Saligenin agents
Salbutamol
Pirbuterol
Bitolterol
-Agonists
Mechanism of Action -relax smooth muscle
within the airways, causing bronchodilation.
Short Acting
Long Acting
Salmeterol (Serevent)
Formoterol (Foradil)
Classification of agonists
Beta Agonists
Short acting
Duration of action
2-selectivity
Salbutamol
4-6 h
+++
Levalbuterol
8h
+++
Metaproterenol
4-6 h
++
Isoproterenol
3-4 h
++
Epinephrine
2-3 h
Salmeterol
12+ h
+++
Formoterol
12+ h
+++
Generic name
Long acting
Modes of action
Relax airway smooth muscle
Enhance mucociliary clearance
Decrease vascular permeability
May modulate mediator release from mast
cells and basophils
Tremor
Papitations and tachycardia
Headache
Insomnia
Rise in blood pressure
Nervousness
Dizziness
Nausea
Salbutamol
Mainstay of Therapy for Many Years
Characteristics
Dosing every 4-6 hours
Dosage Forms
MDI (HFA), Unit Dose Vials for Nebulizers, Oral
Solutions, Oral Tablets
Anticholinergic Bronchodilators
Tertiary Ammonium Compounds
Atropine sulfate
Scopalamine
Anticholinergic Bronchodilators
Mode of administration
Inhaled
Mechanisms of action
Block the effects of acetylcholine released from
cholinergic nerves in the airways (i.e., reduce intrinsic
vagal cholinergic tone to the airways).
Block reflex bronchoconstriction caused by inhaled
irritants
They do not diminish the early and late allergic
reactions and have no effect on airway inflammation.
Less potent bronchodilators than inhaled beta-2
agonists, and in general, have a slower onset of
action (30-60 min to maximum action).
Anticholinergic Bronchodilators
Role in therapy
Additive effect when nebulized together with a
rapid-acting beta-2 agonist for exacerbations
of asthma
It is recognized that Ipratropium can be used
an alternative bronchodilator for patients who
experience adverse effects such as
tachycardia, arrhythmias, and tremors from
beta-2 agonists.
Side effects
Dryness of the mouth and bitter taste
Controllers
Controllers
Corticosteroids
Long-Acting bronchodilators
2-adrenergic agents
Methylxanthines
Cromolyn sodium/Nedrocromil
Leukotriene inhibitors
Anti-IgE monoclonal antibodies
Corticosteroids
Inhaled Glucocorticoids
Beclomethasone
Flunisolide
Fluticasone
Triamcinolone
Budesonide, and
Mometasone
Systemic Glucocorticoids
Prednisone
Methylprednisolone
Prednisolone
Dexamethasone
Inhaled Glucocorticoids
Mechanisms of action
Reduces pathologic signs of airway
inflammation mediated in part by inhibition of
production of inflammatory cytokines
Airway hyperresponsiveness continues to
improve with prolonged treatment
Role in therapy
Most effective anti-inflammatory medication
for the treatment of asthma
Inhaled Glucocorticoids
Side effects
Local adverse effects include oropharyngeal
candidiasis, dysphonia, and occasional coughing from
upper airway irritation.
Because there is some systemic absorption, the risks
of systemic adverse effects will depend on the dose
and potency of the Glucocorticoids as well as its
bioavailability, absorption in the gut, metabolism by
the liver, and the half-life of its systemically absorbed
fraction.
Contraindication:
hypersensitivity, nasal infection and haemorrhage,
candidiasis orofaring, and patient with recurrent
epistaxis.
Inhaled Glucocorticoids
Beclomethasone dipropionate
Dosage: 200-1000g
Budesonide
Dosage: 200-800g
Flunisolide
500-2000g
Fluticasone
100-500g
Triamcinolone acetonide
400-2000g
Systemic Glucocorticoids
Mode of administration
Oral
Parenteral
Mechanisms of action
Role in therapy
Systemic Glucocorticoids
side effects
Osteoporosis
Arterial hypertension
Diabetes
Hypothalamic-pituitary
axis suppression
Cataracts
Glaucoma
Obesity
Skin thinning leading
to cutaneous striae
Easy bruising
Muscle weakness
Fatal herpes virus
infections have been
reported among
patients who are
exposed to these
viruses when they are
taking systemic
Glucocorticoids
Adrenergic Bronchodilators
Long-Acting Agents
Sustainedreleased
salbutamol
Salmeterol
Formoterol
Adrenergic Bronchodilators
Long-Acting Agents
Modes of administration
Inhaled
Oral
Mechanisms of action
Same as short-acting beta-2 agonists
Effects persists for at least 12 hours
Adrenergic Bronchodilators
Long-Acting Agents
Role in therapy
Long-acting inhaled beta-2 agonists should be
considered when standard introductory doses of
inhaled Glucocorticoids fail to achieve control of
asthma before raising the dose of inhaled
Glucocorticoids.
Because long-term treatment with these agents does
not appear to influence the persistent inflammatory
changes in asthma, this therapy should be combined
with inhaled Glucocorticoids
Fluticosone propionate salmeterol and bedesonideformoterol inhalers (Advair)
Adrenergic Bronchodilators
Long-Acting Agents
Side effects
Inhaled beta-2 agonists cause fewer systemic
adverse effect (e.g., cardiovascular
stimulation, skeletal muscle tremors, and
hypokalemia) than oral therapy particularly if
the oral regimen includes theophylline.
Salmeterol
Dosing - every 12 hours
Dosage Forms
MDI, Discus (powder), combination with steroid
Advantages
long acting, less tolerance to effects than
salbutamol- decreases need to increase
corticosteroid dose
Side Effects/Problems
Slow onset of effect
Headache, tremor, palpitations, and
nervousness are the most frequent side
effects.
Formoterol
Dosing every 12 hours
Dosage Forms aerosolized powder
Similar to Spinhaler (drug in gelatin capsule)
Advantages
has both a rapid-onset bronchodilator is longacting but not as a rescue medicine
Side Effects/Problems
The most common side effects are headache,
palpitations, and tremor.
Less common side effects include agitation,
restlessness, sleep disturbance, muscle
cramps, and increased heart rate
Xanthine Agents
Naturally Occurring Agents
Caffeine (Coffee and kola beans; tea leaves)
Theophylline (Tea leaves)
Theobromine (Cocoa seeds or beans)
Synthetic Derivatives
Dyphylline
Proxyphylline
Enprophylline
Methylxanthines
Mode of administration
Oral or Parenteral
Mechanisms of action
The bronchodilator effect may be related to phosphodiesterase
inhibition (>10mg/L);
anti-inflammatory effect is due to an unknown mechanism and
may occur at lower concentrations (5-10mg/L).
This latter mechanism may involve the inhibition of cell surface
receptors for adenosine, which modulate adenylyl cyclase activity
(contraction of isolated smooth muscle and to provoke histamine
release from mast cells.
Methylxanthines
Side effects (serum concentrations > 15g/mL)*
Gastrointestinal symptoms nausea, vomiting
CNS Seizures
Cardiovascular tachycardia, arrhythmias
Pulmonary stimulation of the respiratory
center
*Monitoring theophylline levels is advised when high-dose
therapy (>10mg/kg body weight is used or when a
patient develops an adverse effect on the usual dosage
Disadvantages:
Leukotriene modifiers
Zafirlukast, Montelukast, and Zileuton
5-lipoxeygenase inhibitor
(zileuton)
Leukotriene modifiers
Mode of administration
Oral
Using dosage four times a day (Zileuton)
Mechanism of action
Receptor antagonists block the CysLT1
receptors on airway smooth muscle and thus
inhibit the effects of cysteinyl leukotrienes that
are release from mast cells and eosinophils
5-lipoxygenase inhibitors block synthesis of
leukotrienes.
Leukotriene modifiers
Role in therapy
These agents have a small and variable
bronchodilator effect, reduce symptoms,
improve lung function, and reduce asthma
exacerbations.
Effect of these drugs is less than that of lowdoses of inhaled glucocorticoids. There is
evidence that the use of these drugs as an
add-on may reduce the dose of inhaled
glucocorticoid required by patients with
moderate to severe asthma.
Note that leukotriene modifiers are less effective than longacting inhaled beta-2 agonists as an add-on therapy.
Leukotriene modifiers
Side effects
These drugs are usually well tolerated, and
few if any class-related effects have been
recognized.
Zileuton has been associated with liver toxicity and
monitoring liver test is recommended
There are several reports of Churg-Strauss
syndrome associated with the leukotriene modifier
therapy (typically associated with a reduction of
systemic glucocorticoids)
Contraindication:
patients with coronary heart disease, and
cardiac arrhythmias.
IgE Antibodies
IgE Antibody
Omalizumab
Used as intravenous or intramuscular anti-asthma.
diminishing the production of IgE through effects on
interleukin 4 or on IgE itself have been evaluated
Advantages:
Routes of Administration
Inhaled
Metered dose inhalers (MDI)
Spacers
Oral
Parenteral
Subcutaneous
Intramuscular
Intravenous
Pharmacokinetics of anti-asthma
Oral
Inhaler
Sub-cutane
Vena
portae
Membrane
mucous
Blood
flow
Excretion
Urine
Is there an advantage to
using a nebulizer, as
opposed to an MDI, for
delivery of medications
for the treatment of
asthma?
Key Points
Short-acting beta2-agonists: Therapy of choice
for relief of acute symptoms and prevention of
EIB.
Anticholinergics: May provide some additive
benefit to inhaled beta2-agonists in severe
exacerbations. May be an alternative for
patients who do not tolerate inhaled beta2agonists.
Systemic corticosteroids: Used for moderateto-severe exacerbations to speed and prevent
recurrence of exacerbations.
Key Points
Corticosteroids: Most potent and effective antiinflammatory medication currently available
Cromolyn sodium and nedrocromil: Mild-tomoderate anti-inflammatory medication.
Leukotriene inhibitors: May be considered an
alternative therapy to low dose inhaled
corticosteroids or cromolyn sodium or
nedrocromil for patients >12 years of age with
mild persistent asthma.
Key Points
Long-acting beta2-agonists: These drugs are
typically used concurrently with antiinflammatory medications for long-term control
of symptoms, especially nocturnal symptoms.
Methylxanthines: Sustained release
theophylline is a mild-to-moderate
bronchodilator used principally as an adjuvant
to inhaled corticosteroids for prevention of
nocturnal asthma symptoms.
Treatment Protocols