GSM Fundamentals by DR Hatem MOKHTARI

GSM RF Design and Planning Fundamentals
Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Cirta Consulting LLC
A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony

During the 1980s, in Europe, Many Systems were used without any
Regulation, Standards, or Compatibilities. Most of them were Analog.
As a result :
* No Roaming between Countries
* Major Capacity Problems and Congestions
* Limited Market for each Technology
* Very high subscriber equipment cost...Further growth difficult !
In The USA and Canada DAMPS (Digital Advanced Mobile Phone
Service) : Cheaper handsets, roaming, easy subscribing, etc

Modern Systems are :
* Digital : The signal is Digitized through A/D Converters, Modulated, and
then sent via the Antenna
* High Capacity : They are able to simultaneously serve a large number of
customers
* Encrypted : Due to the fact that they are digital, they have full protection
against fraud. Also, they are highly securised
* High Speech Quality : Due to Technology advance and electronics
improvements
* Spectrum Efficient : They offer optimised frequency spectrum use
* Possibility to roam within the GSM Community Networks (provided a signed
Roaming Agreement)
Role of the RF Design Engineer :

Design the Network Architecture
Select type of Antennas
Analyze the Links : Downlink and Uplink
Propose Solutions to Enhance the Capacity of a Base Station
Consider Marketing Inputs and Propose Design accordingly
Perform Drive Test to ensure Quality of the Link
Use Radio Planning rules to install Antennas in different sites
Use Radio Planning tools to assess the Coverage using Simulation
Perform RF Propagation Model Tunning using measurements
Selects the RF Infrastructure to fullfil the Link Budget requirements
Calculates Propagation, Site Clearance, Link Quality using different
Hardware and Software Tools
A GSM subscriber (Mobile) Should be able to :

Receive and Transmit within a given geographical area
Roam to other countries (If a Roaming Agreement exists)
Have a continuous Quality of Service (QoS)
A Mobile Station should be able to :
Change the Serving Base Station (BS) if the link is bad (or going to
become bad) on the actual BS. This is the Handover (or Hand-off)
Recognize which country, Network, or Base Station the user is
attached to
Inform the actual Network about the Identity of the User
Prevent forthcoming Drop Calls, Quality Problems due to
Interference, or Signal Level (shadowing by obstacles)
B. RF Fundamentals
Notation in dBm, dBW, dBi, dBd, dB
P (dBm) = 10Log10(P mW/1mW)

) Example : 100 mW power results in 10Log10(100)=20 dBm
P dBW = 10Log10(P W/1W)

)
Example : 15 W power results in 10Log10(15)= 11.76 dBW
Relation between dBW and dBm :

dBm = dBW + 30
) Example : 100 mW = 20 dBm = -10 dBW
)
B. RF Fundamentals : DC CIRCUITS
I
E
Voltage
R
Power
If an internal resistor is to be considered:

I
Voltage
r
R
U
E
Power
U = RI
U2
P = UI =
R
R
U=
E
R+r
R
2
P=
E
2
(r + R)
B. RF Fundamentals : AC CIRCUITS
Voltage u = Ri
If
e(t ) = E cos t
Then
i
e
R
e(t ) = E
cos t U m cos t
R+r
Power
U m2
cos 2 t
p (t ) = u (t )i (t ) =
R
RMS Notion = Root Mean Square
T
1 2
U=
u (t )dt
T 0
B. RF Fundamentals : Exercise
Suppose we have a voltage :
T=
u (t ) = U m cos t
With a period of
Compute the RMS Voltage for Um = 50 V
Is the RMS dependent of the frequency ?
Complex numbers
B.RF Fundamentals
* z1 = x1 + jy1
z1 z 2 = ( x1 x2 ) + j ( y1 y2 )
* z 2 = x2 + jy2
z1 z 2 = ( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + j ( x1 y2 + y1 x2
z1 z1 z 2
1
=
=
{( x1 x2 y1 y2 ) + ( x1 y2 y1 x2 )}
2
2 2
z2 z2
x2 y 2
y1

* If 1 = arg( z1 ) = tg
x1
y2
1

2 = arg( z 2 ) = tg
x2
1
Given
Exercise
Compute
arg( z1 z 2 ) = 1 + 2
z1
arg( ) = 1 2
z2
1 = arg(z1 )
z1 = 1 + j 2
2 = arg(z 2 )
z 2 = 1 + j 3
z1 + z 2
z1 z 2
z1 z 2
z1
z2
1
2
z1
3 = arg
z2
4 = arg(z1 z 2 )
B.RF.Fundamentals
Exercise
1 = 2e
Given
Compute 1) 1 + 2 , 1 + 2 and arg(1 + 2 )
1
1 1
and arg
2) ,
2 2
2
2 = 2 j 3
= + j
Given
3) 1 2 , 1 2 and arg(1 2 )
Show that log = log 2 + 2 + jtg 1
U = I
>
Impedance e
where = jL
= 2 f
=
for
C
= jL for
a capacitor
an inductor
=Cirta
R Consulting
for a LLCpure resistor
(rad s )
1
B. RF Fundamentals : Complex numbers

Imaginary Part
Y
Z = X + jY = e
X = cos
Y = sin
Real Part
B. RF Fundamentals : Impedance
A
Zin
U=Z I
U, Z and I are all Complex Numbers
Z
B
Z : The Impedance of the Load and Zin internal to the Generator
Z = R for a Resistor
Z = jL for an Inductive Component
Z = j / C for a Capacitor
In Low Frequencies, all the power delivered to Z is
absorbed or dissipated into heat
B. RF Fundamentals
Vertical Polarization
Refers to the
direction of the
Electric Field
Horizontal
Polarization would
be to configure the
dipole horizontally
Horizontal
Polarization Refers
to the direction of
the Electric Field
r
E
Dipole
Antenna
r
H
r
is the Poynting Vector (Power)
r r
r EH
=
B. RF Fundamentals : High Frequency considerations

A
Zin
At RF domain, Energy flows

from the generator to the Load.
It can be fully absorbed by Z, or
Partly reflected and partly absorbed.
B
2
The % of Reflected Energy is
VSWR 1
=
100
VSWR + 1
VSWR : Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( 1:1 is ideal )

Acceptable VSWR = 1.5 : 1
Impedance Match : Z* = Zin
B. RF Fundamentals
EIRP or Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power :

The Power to supply to an antenna to obtain the same power in all
directions at a distance d :
PE ( , ) = P + G Lr ( , )
We always consider the main lobe direction where no losses exist
PE = P + G
dBi : Refers to an Isotropic antenna and dBd to the Dipole :
dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

EIRP = ERP + 2.15 dB
Example : G = 16 dBi, so G = 13.85 dBd and if P = 33 dBm (2 W)

Then PE = 16 + 33 = 49 dBm in the main Lobe
B. RF Fundamentals
60
60
32.5
32.5
10
10
- 32,5
3
0
dB
- 60
Horizontal Diagram
3
0
- 32,5
- 60
dB
Vertical Diagram
20.00
0. 00-20. 00
0.00
-1. 05
-20.00
-0. 60
-20. 00-0. 00
-40. 00--20. 00
-60. 00--40. 00
-0. 15
0.30
0.75
-40. 00
-60.00
B. RF Fundamentals
Directivity : Figure of Merit to quantify the ability of an antenna to

concentrate the Energy in a particular Direction
Wmax
D=
MeanPowerDensity @ d
Where Wmax is the Power Density at a distance d in the main lobe

direction
Generally, we use the Gain instead :
max
PT
4 d
Where PT is the supplied power to the antenna, commonly known as

the output power (minus the cable and connector losses)
Given PT and G, we can compute the Power Density Wmax
B. RF Fundamentals
Relation Between W and E (The Electric Field) :
E2
E2
E2
W=
=
=
120 377
Besides :
30 PT GT
E=
d
E2
PT GT
=
120 4d 2
Maximum Useful Power :

2
E
E G R
. GR =
P=
A=
120 4
2 120
E
B. RF Fundamentals
Effective Area of an Antenna (Reception) :
2
A=
G
4
Received Power :
P = WA
W : Power Density (Per Unit Area)
PT GT
W=
2
4d
PT GT 2
PR =
GR
2
4d 4
Finally, the received power reads :
Free Space Loss Between Isotropic Antennas (GR=GT = 1) :
PR
L(dB ) = 10 Log10
= 32.44 20 Log10 f MHz 20 Log10 d km
PT
B. RF Fundamentals
Propagation Over a Plane Reflecting Surface (Flat Earth Model) :
Tx
Ht
Rx
Hr
d
E = Ed Ed e
jk
Assuming d >> Ht and Hr, the Path Loss (Iinear) :
PR
Ht Hr
= GT GR 2
PT
d
B. RF Fundamentals
Reflection :
Tx
Ht
Rx
Hr
d
E = E d e
jk
is the Complex Reflection Coefficient

The value of depends upon frequency,
Polarization and Electric Characteristics
of the reflecting surface
B. RF Fundamentals
A
C
Shadow region
B. RF Fundamentals
Diffraction :
Tx
Ht
h
D1
D2
Rx
Hr
E = DEd e
jk
D is the Complex Diffraction Coefficient

The value of D depends upon frequency,
Polarization, Geometry, and Angles of the
structure
B. RF Fundamentals
The Diffraction Loss is shown to be :
20 Log (0.5 0.62v )

0 .8 < v < 0
20 Log (0.5 exp(0.95v))

0 < v <1
L (v ) =
2
20
Log
(
0
.
4
0
.
1184
(
0
.
38
0
.
1
v
)
) 1 < v < 2 .4
20 Log (0.225 / v )
v > 2 .4
Where v, the Fresnel Parameter is given by :
2( D1 + D 2)
v=h
D1D 2
B. RF Fundamentals
Hp
Hb
Compute L(v) for :

Hb = 20 m
Hp = 5 m
Ho = 15 m
Hm = 1.5 m
A = 1250 m
B = 4.5 m
Frequency = 900 MHz
Ho
Hm
A
02
01
H
h2
h1
Ht
D1
d1
D2
d2
Bullington Model :
equivalent Knife - edge
d3
Hr
Test : Bullington Diffraction Loss Model
Compute H, D1, D2, and then L(v) the Diffraction

Loss given the following data :
Ht
= 25 m
Hr = 1.5 m
d1=d2=d3=1000 m
h1 = 30 m, h2 = 15 m
Frequency = 1880 MHz
Compare L(v) to the Free Space Loss
Please Conclude
Propagation over irregular terrain

02
01
03
d1
x
d2
x
d3
x d4
The Epstein Petersen diffraction construction
Propagation over irregular terrain

02
01
03
d1
d2
d3
x d4
Main edge
The Deygout diffraction construction

B. RF Fundamentals : Receiver Theory

Receiver Input
BS / MS
Demodulation
& Selective
Filtering
Receiver
Receiver Output
To operate properly the receiver has to receive

a minimum power : Sensitivity
The Sensitivity depends on the technology involved
Receiver Sensitivity :
Is the minimum acceptable input signal level in dBm, at the
receivers low noise amplifier, required by the system for reliable
communication
Carrier to Noise Ratio CNR or C/N :
For a given BER (Bit Error Rate) of about 10-3 for example, C/N is
the required minimum signal to noise ratio
Thermal/Environment Noise :
Is a combination of
) Antenna Noise (dBm)
) Receiver Noise Figure (NF) in dB
) Temperature and System Bandwidth
Receiver
NF
(S/N)in
S
S
= + NF
N in N out
S
S in N in = + NF
N out
S
S in = N in + + NF
N out
(S/N)out
Nin : Thermal Noise,

NF : Noise Figure
RECEIVER SENSITIVITY :
S
Sin = 10 Log10 (k .T .B) + NF +
N out

S
S in = 10 Log10 (k .T .B) + NF +
N out
k : Boltzmann Constant ( 1.38 * 10-23 J/K)

T : System Operating Temperature (K)
B : System Bandwidth (Hz)
T : 290 K typical value
Exercise : Compute Sin (dBm) for a GSM signal of 200 kHz
Bandwidth, with a receiver NF=6 dB and C/N = 9 dB
B. RF Fundamentals : Intermodulation
IM is a non-linear process that generates an output signal
Containing frequency components not present in the input
signal
Non-Linear
Device
a0 +a1x+a2x2 +a3x3 +...
Assuming x to be a two-carrier f1 and f2 sine wave :
x(t ) = A cos(2f1t ) + B cos(2f 2t )
y (t ) = a0 + a1 x + y2 + y3
y2 =
a2 2
a
A + B 2 + 2 A2 cos(2 (2 f1 )) + B 2 cos(2 (2 f 2 )) + a2 AB[cos(2 ( f1 + f 2 )) + cos(2 ( f1 f 2 ))]
2
2
3630 MHz
1800 MHz
1830 MHz
3600 MHz
0 30 MHz
DC
f2-f1
f1
f2
3660 MHz
2f1 f2+f1 2f2
Cellular Band
Spectral Characteristics of y2 Using
f1 = 1800 MHz and f2 = 1830 MHz, A=B=1, and a2 = 1
y (t ) = a0 + a1 x + y2 + y3
Six Different Frequencies are generated in IM3 :
3f1, 3f2, 2f1-f2, 2f1+f2, 2f2-f1, 2f2+f1

1800 MHz
0
DC
1830 MHz
1770 MHz
2f1-f2
1860 MHz
f1
f2
2f2-f1
Cellular Band
Spectral Characteristics of y3 Using
f1 = 1800 MHz and f2 = 1830 MHz, A=B=1, and a2 = 1
B. RF Fundamentals : Fade Margin

R
( x m )2
1
exp
p ( x) =
2
x : is the received level

m: Mean value of x
: Standard Deviation of x
Due to shadowing and terrain effects the signal level measured on a circle
around the BS shows radom behaviour around the predicted value given by the
Propagation Model
This Random Signal level through the cell boundary has a Log-Normal
distribution
Log-Normal variable is in fact a Gaussian Process when expressed in dB
B. RF Fundamentals
PDF-Gaussian
0.06
0.05
0.03
PDF-Gaussian
0.02
0.01
-50.00
-56.00
-62.00
-68.00
-74.00
-80.00
-86.00
-92.00
-98.00
-104.00
0
-110.00
( x m )2
1
exp
p( x) =
2
0.04
Theory shows that to ensure 90 % of Surface Reliability,

One may push the received signal level requirement to
Higher values than m (50%).
This leads to a notion called :
Fade Margin : the additional margin to fullfil y % of surface
Covered.
Fade Margin
50% is the median value. To achieve higher %, one may add
a Fade Margin to fullfil X% > 50%
The Probability that a Field Strength Exceeds a Threshold E0 is :
p E 0 = p ( E E0 ) =
p( E )dE
E0
p E0
1
E m E0
= 1 erf

2
2
Fade Margin
The Lognormal Margin is defined as :

Mlog
= Em E 0
Hata Model has a general form :
E0 ( r ) = Em 10 log10 ( r / R )
The Contour Probability can be written as :
p E0
1
=
2
1 erf a + b ln

R
Fade Margin
Em E0
a =
2
10 log 10 e
b =
2
The parameters a and b are :
The Area Coverage Probability over a Circle of Radius R is :
Pcov
1
= 2
R
E0
(r , )rdrd
The contour probability depends only upon the radius r, which simplifies
the computation and leads to :
Pcov
1
ab + 1
2ab + 1
= 1 + erf (a ) exp
1 erf

2
2
b
Probability (% )
Contour and Area Coverage Probability Versus the Fade Margin
100
90
80
70
60
Cell Edge %
Area %
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
Fade Margin (dB)
10
Ms Antenna
Gain Loss
ERP
Gains and losses in uplink
Body Loss
In-Building Car
Penetration Loss
Fade margin
GA
LCCC
Path Loss
RX Base = PAm + Gm Lbody LBldg M Fade Plup
+ GB LCCC
Plup = PAm + Gm LBody LBldg M fade RX Base
+ GB LCCC
Combiner
Cable &
Connector
Losses
RY
Gains and Losses in Down Link

PA
LCCC
ERP
Fade margin
Path Loss
GB
Power
Amplifier
In-Building Car
Penetration Loss
Body Loss
Combiner
Cable &
Connector
Losses
MS Antenna
Gain Loss
RXMobile = PAB LCCC + GB MFade MDown LBldg LBody + GM

PAB = RXMobile+ LCCC GB + MFade + PLDown + LBldg + LBody GM
RX
Maximum Allowable Path Loss

Starting with the reverse link UL
Find the maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)
- Start from MS maximum power
- Subtract all the losses in due to, RF components
- Subtract all the margins due to fading and interference
for a given target loading
- Add all the gains in the path e.g. antenna and diversity gains
- Subtract the receiver sensitivity of the base station
for a given FER
- The result is MAPL
MAPL = PLUp AllLosses + AllGains RX base

Balance Equation:
PLUp = PAm + GM LBody LBldg MFade RXBase + GB + GDiv LCCC
PLDown = PAB LCCC + GB MFade RXMobile LBldg LBody + GM
PLDown = PLUp
Write the balance equation and see which terms
get cancelled
Find the Base station and EIRP that results
in balanced paths.
Changing which parameter jeopardizes the path
balance?
- Antenna Gain
- Antenna Height
- PA
Cirta output
Consulting LLC
Cell Size / Count Estimation
Objective
- To determine the number of cells required to provide
coverage for a given area
Required Input:
- Maximum Allowable Path Loss (MAPL)

- Propagation Loss Model
From MAPL to Cell Size

Path Loss
Propagation Loss Model
MAPL
Distance from TX
Range or
Cell Radius
Cell Size Information With Hata Model

Using Hatas Empirical Formula
PL = 69.55+ 26.16log10 fc 13.82log10 hb + (44.9 6.55log10 hb ) log10 R a(hm ) CF
Solve it backward to find cell radius estimate
MAPL + CF 69.55 26.16 log10 f c + 13.82 log10 hb + a ( hm )

log10 R =
44.9 6.55 log10 hb
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation
BS Installation Requirements :
A certain isolation has to be present between Tx and Rx antennas
Radiation Patterns must not be distorted by obstacles or reflections
nearby the antennas
Isolation :
Between 2 antennas : Attenuation from the connector of one
antenna to the connector of the other antenna when both
antennas are in their installation positions
To avoid unwanted signals into the receiver Rx, the following

isolation values are required :
)
)
40 dB Between a Tx Antenna and a Rx Antenna

20 dB Between 2 Tx Antennas
Isolation :
To obtain the Isolation values the antennas have to be placed at

certain minimum distance from each other
The distance depends on : Antenna types, configuration
Omnidirectional antennas require greater horizontal distance than
directional antennas
Vertical separation requires less distance than horizontal separation
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Vertical Separation

Pre-condition : a > 1 m
Tx-Tx : 0.2 m minimum
Tx-Rx : 0.5 m minimum
k
As a General Rule :
Isolation :
k
AV = 28 + 40 Log10
For GSM 900, = 0.33 m
AV = 47 + 40 Log10 k
With A = 35 dB, k = 0.5 m
dB
dB
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Horizontal Separation

G1 : Gain of antenna 1 in dBd
G2 : Gain of antenna 2 in dBd
d
AH = 22 + 20 Log10 (G1 + G2 )
dB
AH = 31 + 20 Log10 d (G1 + G2 )
dB
General
@ 900 MHz
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Horizontal Separation

Omni Antenna
Gain (dBd)
Tx-Rx distance Tx-Rx distance

(40 dB)
(20 dB)
3.0 m
1.0 m *
5.5 m
1.0 m *
11.0 m
1.0 m
22.0 m
2.5 m
10
28.0 m
3.0 m
Could be less for Tx-Tx but 1.0 m is a conservative option to

avoid shadowing effects
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Combined H/V Separation
A ( AV AH ).
90
+ AH
h
D

Antenna height
4
Step function
First Fresnel zone
2
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45 distance(m)
The mast is allowed Mast

to swing 1 at a wind
velocity of 30 m/s
1
a
2 m is recommended

d
o
Max. 15
o
90
Forward direction

RxB
Axis
Maximum diversity
RxA
a
Ground level
h
D

Antenna height (m)
4
Step function
First Fresnel zone
2
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45 distance(m)

Top view
Forward direction
Wall
Top view
Forward direction
Maximum 15
Cell sector
including
safety margin 75
Top view
Forward direction
More than 15
Cell sector
including
safety margin
Wall
75
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Diversity
Definition
Diversity is the statistical improvement of the received signal when

more than one signal is used.
To improve the overall received signal level, due to multipath

phenomenon, it is interesting to use more than one antenna and
consider internally the best received signal.
Diversity in cellular is used only at the Base Station end, although it is

theoretically possible for mobiles, it is quite cumbersome to have two
antennas moving with the subscriber !
Mobile
Station
(MS)
Base Station
(BS)
Antenna #1
d
Antenna #2
The Receiver uses different
combining techniques. The most
popular is the Maximum Combining
Ratio Technique
Received signal
Signal Level Received by Antenna 1 (RxA)

Signal Level Received by Antenna 2 (RxB)
Improvement due to Antenna Diversity
Time
Typical Diversity Gains : 3.5 dB for Cross-Polarised antennas, 4.5 dB for Space
Diversity. The maximum theoretical value is 6 dB.
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Correlation vs distance
J (k .d )
Correlation Function
Antenna #2
Antenna #1
2
0
0.7
10
40
Normalized Distance
H. Guidelines for interference Minimisation : Diversity Requirements

a
H
10
a = distance between
Rx antennas
RxA
RxB
H = height of mast
plus building
(Effective antenna height)
H
Ground level
Maximum diversity
RxA
Minimum diversity
a
90
RxB
Coverage area
RxB
Optimum
diversity
RxA
Market Boundaries
Usually a midsize market covers heterogeneous areas,e.g.

- Downtown,Urban or dense urban areas
- Suburban, Light residential areas
- Rural, open areas, farmland
Urban
Suburban
Rural
Radio Planning Methodology

Define Design Rules and Parameters
Set Long Term Plans and Performance

Targets
Coverage Requirement &
Demand Forecasts from
Marketing
Design Nominal Cell Plan
Acquire Sites and Implement Cell Plan

Computer-Based
Modelling
Produce Frequency Plan
Optimise Network
Design Iteration
Business Planning
Market Boundaries
Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments

Lu = 69,55 + 26,16Log( f ) 13,82Log(hb ) a(hm ) + [44,9 6,55Log(hb )]Log(d )
a(hm ) = [1,1Log( f ) 0,7]hm [1,56Log( f ) 0,8]
a(hm ) = [3,2Log(11,75hm )] hm 4,97
2
Lsu = Lu 2[Log( f / 28)] 5,4

2
For a Midium Size City
For a Big Size City and f > 400 MHz
For Suburban Environments
2
Lro = Lu 4,78[Log( f )] +18,33Log( f ) 40,94 For Rural Environments
2
Lrqo = Lu 4,78[Log( f )] +18,33Log( f ) 35,94 For Semi-Rural Environments
Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments
Hata Model is valid under certain conditions :

Frequencies between 150 and 1000 MHz
Base Station Antenna Height between 30 an 200 m
Mobile Station Antenna Height between 1 and 20 m
BS-MS Distance between 1 and 20 km
As a Result, it is suitable for GSM900 only and NOT
GSM1800 or PCS1900 !!!
COST231-Hata RF Propagation Model for Urban Environments
Lu = 46,33 + 33,9 Log ( f ) 13,82 Log (hb ) a (hm ) + [44,9 6,55 Log (hb )]Log (d ) + Cm
a (hm ) = [1,1Log ( f ) 0,7]hm [1,56 Log ( f ) 0,8]
Cm = 0 dB
For Medium Size Cities and Suburbs
Cm = 3 dB
For Big Metropolitan Centers
Validity : Frequencies between 1500 MHz and 2000 MHz
Table of Penetration Losses

In Building penetration (dB)
In Car penetration (dB)
Body Loss (dB)
For all receiving environments

a loss associated with the effect
of users body on propagation
has to be included.
This effect is in the form of a
few dB loss in both uplink and
downlink directions.
15 - 25
3 - 10
2- 5
Tower Mounted Amplifier :

Effect on Coverage and Quality
TMA
4 dB Gain
in the UL
3 dB cable loss
BTS
BTS
Static Sensitivity=-110 dBm
S(without TMA) = -110 + 3 = -107 dBm*
* Body
Cirta Consulting
LLC
S(with TMA) = -110 + 3-4 = -111 dBm*
Loss and Lognormal Fading have to be added
Overview on Linkbudget Impact (1/2)
Cell Range R computed using :

MAPL=A+B*log(R)
MAPL : Maximum Allowed Path Loss
MAPL = EIRP-Effective Sensitivity
Example :
) Given EIRP=Pout+Gant-CableLoss
) with Pout=40 dBm; Gant=18 dBi; Cable Loss=3 dB
) EIRP=40+18-3=55 dBm
) MAPL =
55 - (-107+7+5) = 150 dB without TMA
55 - (-111+7+5) = 154 dB with TMA
MAPL : The higher the bigger the cell radius

)
log(R) = (MAPL-A)/B R = 10^((MAPL-A)/B)
Numerical Example :
Assume we use a Rural Propagation Model PL = 135 + 30*log(R)
Cell Radius R=
) 10^( (150-135)/30 )= 3.2 km without TMA
) 10^( (154-135)/30 )= 4.3 km with TMA !
Path Loss (dB)
135+30*lod(d)
MAPL=154 dB with TMA
4 dB due to TMA
MAPL=150 dB without TMA
3.2 km
4.3 km
Distance (km)
Uplink Coverage
Downlink Coverage
Directional
Antenna
Due to linkbudget imbalance
TMA Improves Uplink vs Downlink: To balance the Linkbudget

the BTS output power has to be raised by 4 dB ! (the TMA gain)
Measurements and Propagation Model Calibration

Three Types of measurement equipment are commonly used :
1. Narrowband measurements (CW)
a)
b)
c)
Prior to starting the design

For calibrating the prediction model
For verification of critical and borderline coverage areas
2. Test Mobile Measurements

a)
b)
c)
Once the Network has been built

For analysis of System Parameters and Handover behavior
For Network Optimization
3. Reflection Measurements (channel sounder)

a)
b)
c)
As a research tool
For analysis of Multipath Propagation and Delay Spread
Normally only necessary in mountainous regions

Measurement requirement for Tool Calibration
To measure out to the cell radius, requires typically 145 dB (MAPL)
To measure out to the point where interference is significant, requires typically
another 20 dB (i.e. a total of 165 dB dynamic range)
The measuring equipment should handle this range easily, i.e. should have a
dynamic range of the order of 175 dB
To achieve this dynamic range, narrowband CW measurements are necessary
Wideband Receivers and Test Mobiles (Based on a

modified subscriber handset measuring GSM RXLEV) are
unsuitable for model calibration but may be used later for
confirmation of coverage

Tx Antenna
Rx Antenna
Trigger
MS
BTS
Amplifier
Rx/Computer
Transmitter
Navigation
Trigger Wheel
Antenna
Storage

For CW measurements it is important to record an averaged value of
instantaneous measurements
1. Rayleigh Fading makes instantaneous measurement
unrepresentative
a)
b)
Aim to eliminate the Rayleigh fading, but not the shadow fading
Average over an interval which is less than the magnitude of streets and
buildings. Some refereneces speak about a distance of 40
2. Averaging interval should be greater than the Rayleigh Fading

interval, but shorter than the building interval
a)
b)
13 m outdoors
6.5 m indoors
3. Separation of instantaneous measurements should be :

a)
b)
More than 36 per interval to reduce averaging variation to less than 1 dB

Corresponds to 0.36 m (1.1 at 900 MHz)

Sampling Rates
RMS Error (dB)
Number of
averaged samples
in 13 m
Resulting
Sampling Interval
()
0.50
144
0.28
0.75
64
0.63
1.00
36
1.11
1.25
23
1.74
1.50
16
2.50
1.75
12
3.40
2.00
4.44

Guidelines for CW Measurements
1. The Survey Route should include various road directions and street
widths in built up areas
2. Special features relevant to propagation such as tunnels, bridges, etc.
should be clearly marked in the case of calibration measurements
3. If possible, measurement antennas should be the same as the planned
antenna in type and installation
4. Measurements must be conducted and documented accurately,
especially regarding antenna installation and transmitter height
5.
Only measure within 3 dB beamwidth (antenna aperture)

The pattern outside the main beam may not correspond to the stored antenna
pattern, due to local obstructions, such as the mast and other antennas

* To effectively calibrate a propagation model, many measurements
are needed :
1.
2.
3.
About 10 different base stations in each city

At least 75 km of survey route for each city
At least 1000 km of route in total
* Measurements at each point are compared to the predictions at

each point and the error statistics analyzed
Errors may be broken down by :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Clutter class
LOS/NLOS
Within a given range
Outside a given range
Error Analysis Statistics
The Error is commonly defined as the difference between the

predicted value (Propagation Model) and the measured value. At
a given distance of index i, the error is noted i
Root Mean Square Error and Mean Error are given by :

N
(
)
i
RMS =
i =1
i =1
The target is to ensure a mean error=0

and an RMS < 9 dB (The Lower the Better)
Non-uniform Propagation Types

Each area has a different correction factor.
Also the coverage objectives are usually different for
urban, suburban and rural areas.
Therefore MAPL and the corresponding cell size has to
be calculated for each region and cell count is:
For each area: A = 2.6 R 2 where R is
the cell radius and A is the area of the
corresponding hexagon.
UrbanArea( Km 2 ) SuburbanArea( Km 2 ) RuralArea( Km 2 )
CellCount =
+
+
2
2
AUrban ( Km )
ASuburban ( Km )
ARural ( Km 2 )
Introduction
Definition of Outdoor signal level design threshold to be

used in prediction tool.
Insure good quality communications.
Threshold important because it is the basis for the
design, and cell size and no. of cells depend on this.
Aim: understand the different elements in the determination
of the threshold.
Introduction 2
Receiver Sensitivity (from vendor or standard)
Use of Different Margins
Outdoor coverage design threshold

Receiver sensitivity margin (1)

Sensitivities defined in GSM Rec. 05.05
Portable: -104 dBm

Handheld: -102 dBm
DCS1800: -100 dBm
Sensitivity : Min required signal level at receiver to meet

performance requirements
Sensitivities defined for mobiles in an urban environment
traveling at 50 km/h (TU 50)
These sensitivities with a C/I of 9dB correspond to error
rate of 10% or RxQual =6
These values include a margin for Rayleigh Fading

Today many handsets used at walking pace or static
At 50 km/h effect of fading is averaged butstatic
mobiles will remain in fading holes longer.
Measurements show that for a handheld moving at 3
km/h (TU3) then for an acceptable audio quality we need:
- RxQual = 4 ( system without frequency hopping)
- RxQual = 5 ( system with frequency hopping)
Quality margin must be introduced

Measurements campaign by CNET to link C/N, C/I and
Rxqual
With no interference, without frequency hopping a
Rxqual = 4 is obtained with C = -97 dBm
Quality margin = 5 dB
(FT 3 dB, Cellnet 4 dB)
5 dB
3 Km/h
50 Km/h
Prediction/Lognormal Margin (1)

Propagation model predicts mean signal level
( )
Characteristics: Mean error (0) and standard deviation

Shadow fading (obstacles) not taken into account
Model this shadow fading by a probability following a
lognormal law
Introduce Margin to guarantee a certain percentage of
cell surface area is covered
Standard Deviation of
Prediction model
Level of guarantee
Required (probability)
Lognormal Margin
To calculate the margin we use coverage probability

at cell border which corresponds to the required
coverage probability over the surface of the cell.

Typical values:
- Urban environment (Typical distance exponent = 3.5 )
- Standard Deviation of prediction model = 7 dB
Margin in dB
Coverage probability
on cell bordure %
Coverage
Probability
Over cell surface %
0
5
50
75
77
90
84
95
90
97
12
95
99
- GSM Rec
3.30
Head Effect
The human body creates loss for handheld mobile.

Loss due to distortion of antenna diagram
Some suggested values :
Recommendations GSM 03.30 = 3 dB.
Dr. Lee proposes 5 dB in worst case ( mobile on belt)
Most operators use 6 dB.
Motorola proposes 9 dB head effect, 15 dB at belt.
Telemate suggested value is 5 dB.
Other Margins
Hand Over: Some Operators use a 2 dB margin to ensure a
good HO to neighboring cell
Material imperfections: we take a 1 dB margin to account
for the tolerance in MS and BTS output power
Interference Margin: Some vendors use an interference
margin to overcome interference impairments
Example Calculation of Outdoor coverage

threshold for 2W GSM handheld
Sensitivity ( GSM Rec. 5.50 )
- 102 dBm
Sensitivity margin
5 dB
Lognormal margin ( for 90% area

coverage probability)
7 dB
Head Effect Margin
5 dB
Outdoor Coverage Threshold
- 85 dBm
Indoor Threshold (1)

Different types of Indoor Threshold corresponding to
different services
- Indoor Window: Near to window
- Indoor: In room with windows
- Indoor Deep : In corridor (loss through 2 walls)
Penetration loss varies greatly. Depends on type of
materiel, architecture (no. of windows), floor within
building etc.
Mean penetration loss must be determined from
extensive measurement campaigns
Indoor Threshold (2)

To determine an Indoor threshold from the penetration
loss there are two methods:
- Use the distribution function of the measurements to find
the loss corresponding to 90 % of the samples
- Use the mean penetration loss and increase the
lognormal margin to take into account the standard
deviation of the indoor measurements.
Use of margins
Understand what goes into the determination of coverage
thresholds.
Make sure that all margins are included but only once!
Translate the clients requirements for service quality into
margins
Thresholds must be validated by the client.
TEST : Link Budgets

Balanced link budgets show Maximum Allowable Path Losses for the
coverage objectives shown below. Drive tests have shown the following
propagation equations are valid. Determine the cell radius for each
coverage objective.
Coverage objectives:
Rural on-street MAPL = 147 dB

Suburban in-car MAPL = 135 dB
Urban in-building MAPL = 125 dB
Propagation equations:
Rural: path loss = 110 + 32 log d
Surburban: path loss = 115 + 37 log d
Urban: path loss = 120 + 48 log d
The Cellular Concept
Urban Areas : High Interference Amounts

C/(N+I)=C/I,
The System is Interference-Limited

Coverage is not a problem (in General)
Service Criterion : C > I
Rural Areas : Low Interference Profile

C/(N+I)=C/N,
The System is Noise-Limited

Interference is not a problem (in General)
Service Criteria : C > N
The Cellular Concept
Frequency Planning aims at :

Optimising the Allocated Spectrum
Guaranteeing a seamless coverage
Ensuring minimum interference
Main Difficulty of Frequency Planning is :
Limited Number of TRXs (Available Channels)
The concept of Frequency Re-Use overcomes the

Spectrum Limitations. Caution has to be made concerning
the risk of generating co-channel and adjacent channel
interference
GSM Spectrum
Allocated GSM1800 Band comprises two sub-bands :

1710 1785 MHz for Uplink (MS->BTS)
1805 1880 MHz for Downlink (BTS->MS)
Each Sub-band = 375 Channels of 200 kHz associated to a given
carrier
95 MHz are necessary to ensure the isolation between Up and
Down Links Duplexing
Each Operator is allocated a DL/UL band
GSM uses TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
) 1 Physical Channel = 8 Logical Channels
) 1 Logical Channel = TCH or Signalling Channel (SDCCH,
FCCH, SCCH, AGCH, RACH, etc...)
Interference
Definition of the Signal to Noise Ratio irrespective to the coor adjacent channels
C/I = Puseful/Pharmfull
Co-Channel Interference
Interference Due to a Signal using the same Frequency :
C
C
= 0

0
I co channel I1 + I 2
C
is the useful Signal, I1 and I2 are co-channel interferers

using the same frequency as C
C, I1 and I2 are linear units (i.e. Watts or mW)
Interference
Adjacent Channel Interference are due to out-of-band

spurious transmission
GSM RF Mask is based upon the GMSK Modulation
Scheme (GMSK = Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying)
C
C
=0 1 2

I Resulting I +I +I +...+N
0.5 dB
-30 dB
-60 dB
GMSK RF Mask
f-400 kHz f-200 kHz
f+200 kHz f+400 kHz
Interference
Interference = Impossible to identify and extract the wanted

and interfering signal (noise included)
GSM Specifications require C/I to be higher than 9 dB
GSM
Recommendation
Protection
C/I (dB)
C/I
Protection
CoChannel
7.94
1st Adjacent
-9
0.125
18
2nd
Adjacent
-41
0.0000794
50
3rd
Adjacent
-49
0.0000125
58
Traffic Theory : Erlang B
Poisson Input with mean of arrivals/sec.

Mean Service Time = 1/
Traffic Intensity = A = . 1/
Number of Serving Trunks (Channels) = S
Blocked Calls Abandoned
AS
Pb = B( S , A) = S S! k
A
k = 0 k!
Traffic Theory : Erlang B

Nb Carriers
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Etc.
Nb TCH
7
14
22
29
37
45
52
59
Erlang
2.3
8.2
14.9
21.0
28.3
34.7
42.1
48.7
Traffic Theory : Erlang C

Negative Exponential Service Time with mean = 1/
Blocked Calls held until served
Pr ob( Delay) = C ( S , A) = P[ D > 0]

AS
S
.
S! S A
C (S , A) =
s 1
AS
S
Ai
+
.
S! S A
i!
i=0
Traffic Theory : Erlang C
Probability of Delay Greater than t :
P( D > t ) = C ( S , A)e
Average Delay :
C ( S , A)
E[ D ] =
(1 A) S
(1 A ) st
Traffic Theory : Poisson

Negative Exponetial Service Time with Mean = 1/
Blocked Calls Held
A
Pb = P( S , A) = e
k = S k!
A
Capacity Planning
Aims of Capacity Planning

9 To allocated Sufficient Channels to support the expected traffic load
9 To ensure future sites are planned and implemented in time to meet
subscriber growth (Business Plan)
9 To provide Traffic Loading Figures on which the fixed network can be
based
Traffic Unit
9
9
9
9
Traffic is measured in Erlang : Etot = Esub*Nsubs

Etot is the total Traffic
Esub is the average traffic per subscriber
Nsub Number of Subscribers
Example : Esub = 25 mE* and Nsub = 100, then Etot = 2.5 Erlangs
*25 mE = 1.5 minutes of occupied TCH per Hour
Capacity Planning
Procedure for Calculating Number of Required Channels
First Compute Busy Hour Traffic per Subscriber (Erlangs) :

9 Average Daily Number of Call Attempts Average Call Length
9 Plus Number times length of Incoming Calls
9 Times Proportion of Total Calls made in the Busy Hour
Then Calculate Total Traffic as Average Traffic Times Number of
Subscribers
Finally Use Erlang B Tables to determine the number of Channels
required for a given Blocking Level
Example : For GSM, 2 % is the typical blocking rate used
Capacity Planning
TEST ON DIMENSIONING USING CAPACITY DEMANDS
Given a Dense Urban Area of about 35 km2 and a penetration rate estimated
to 9 % over a total population of 500.000 inhabitants
Assuming 4 TRX 3-sector BTSs will be used,
Each sector (using 4 TRXs) has a cell radius of 0.45 km
Each Subscriber will require a 25 mE traffic
Compute the total required Traffic (Erlang) within this dense urban area,
along with the required number of 3-sectorial BTSs
What would be these numbers if the unit traffic increase to 40 mE ?
Tower Mounted Amplifier :

Effect on Coverage and Quality
TMA
4 dB Gain
in the UL
3 dB cable loss
BTS
BTS
S(without TMA) = -110 + 3 = -107 dBm*
* Body
Cirta Consulting
LLC
S(with TMA) = -110 + 3-4 = -111 dBm*
Loss and Lognormal Fading have to be added
Cell Range R computed using :

MAPL=A+B*log(R)
MAPL : Maximum Allowed Path Loss
MAPL = EIRP-Effective Sensitivity
Example :
) Given EIRP=Pout+Gant-CableLoss
) with Pout=40 dBm; Gant=18 dBi; Cable Loss=3 dB
) EIRP=40+18-3=55 dBm
) MAPL =
55 - (-107+7+5) = 150 dB without TMA
55 - (-111+7+5) = 154 dB with TMA
MAPL : The higher the bigger the cell radius

)
log(R) = (MAPL-A)/B R = 10^((MAPL-A)/B)
Numerical Example :
Assume we use a Rural Propagation Model PL = 135 + 30*log(R)
Cell Radius R=
) 10^( (150-135)/30 )= 3.2 km without TMA
) 10^( (154-135)/30 )= 4.3 km with TMA !
Path Loss (dB)
135+30*lod(d)
MAPL=154 dB with TMA
4 dB due to TMA
MAPL=150 dB without TMA
3.2 km
4.3 km
Distance (km)
Uplink Coverage
Downlink Coverage
Directional
Antenna
Due to linkbudget imbalance
TMA Improves Uplink vs Downlink: To balance the Linkbudget

the BTS output power has to be raised by 4 dB ! (the TMA gain)
RF Repeater : Problem Statement (1/2)
Base Station
High Penetration Loss
added to propagation loss
In Car Coverage Threshold not reached

No Coverage Tunnel
RF Repeater : Problem Statement (2/2)
High Diffraction and Shadowing Loss : Hills, Blockings, etc.
Base Station
MS
RF Repeater : Design Issues

Repeater = Bidirectional Amplifier used to
* Provide Coverage to shadowed rural areas
* Provide Coverage to Tunnels
* Provide Coverage to Indoor Areas where Capacity is not an issue
Repeater comprises :
* A High Gain Amplifier
* A Duplex-filter for Up and Downlink Service
* A Donor Antenna : From the Repeater to the Donor Site
* A Re-Radiating Antenna : From the Repeater to the Area to be
covered
Repeater Features :
* High Amplifier Gain
* High Isolation Between the Repeater Ends to avoid oscillation
Cirta Consulting
* High LLC
Channel or Band Selectivity
RF Repeater : Components
Donor Antenna (BTS)
High Gain, Very Directional
To donor Cell
High Gain Amplifiers

up to 85 dB
BPF
BPF
Band-Pass High Rejection Filters :
Channel or Band Selective
To poor area
coverage
Re-Radiating
Antenna (MS)
Lower Gain, Wide Beamwidth
RF Repeater : Typical Antennae Mounting

To donor
cell
To donor
cell
Uni- or Bidirectional
High Gain Antenna
To Tunnel
To a valley
wide bandwidth
antenna
R
RF Repeater : Design Tricks

1. Donor Antenna should be :
a. Preferably in LOS with the Donor Cell
b. High Gain and High Directional
c. Mounted in a location so that the RxLev > its static sensitivity
d. Dip Fades have to be avoided : RF Measurements done prior to
installation (Go or not Go)
2. To avoid interference between Donor and Re-Radiating antennas, an isolation is
required : this should prevent the Repeater to oscillate.
3. Never have LOS between Re-Radiating antenna and Donor Cell
4. Depending on the application : Re-radiating antenna has to be chosen accordingly
a. Tunnels : High gain (uni- or bidirectional)
b. Valley or shadow : wide beamwidth and typical antenna gains
RF Repeater : Antennae Location

To donor
cell
NOT RECOMMENDED
To a valley
wide bandwidth
antenna
To donor
cell
R
RECOMMENDED
To a valley
wide bandwidth
antenna
RF Repeater : Powerbudget
Allgon Indoor Repeater Technical Specs :
Gain : 45 - 70 dB
Noise Figure : 5 dB
Maximum input power : +13 dBm
Assumptions :
(1/3)
Donor BTS @ 4.5 km from the Repeater : Free Space and LOS
assumed. BTS Donor Antenna EIRP : 48 dBm
Donor Antenna to Repeater cable loss : 1.5 dB
Re-radiating Antenna to Repeater cable loss : 0.5 dB
Donor Antenna Gain : 18.5 dBi
Re-radiating Antenna Gain : 14 dBi
Task : Balance the UL and DL, then compute the repeater cell
radius
(2/3)
Received Power at the donor antenna connector :

Pr(donor)=EIRP(donor BTS)-PL = -56.6 dBm
) PL = 32.44+20*log10(4.5*900) = 104.6 dB (free space loss)
) EIRP(donor BTS) = 48 dBm
Input Power at the Repeater (Downlink) :
Pin = Pr(donor) - Cable Loss(DL) + G(donor)
) Pin = -56.6 -1.5 + 18 = -40 dBm
Repeater Output power (downlink) :
Pout(min) = Pin + Gmin(Repeater) = -40 + 45 = 15 dBm
Pout(min) = 15 dBm > 13 dBm (need a 2 attenuation)
EIRP(Re-Radiating) = Pout - Cable(to antenna) + G(Re-Radiating)
EIRP(Re-Radiating) = 13 - 0.5 + 14 = 26.5 dBm
Without a repeater the penetration loss of 15 dB leads to :

Cirta
LLC
Consulting
Rxlev (indoor)
= -56.6 - 15 = -71.6 dBm !!! @ the vicinity of the lossy wall
(3/3)
Received Power at the Re-radiating antenna connector :

Pr(Re-Rad.)=EIRP(MS)-PL = 33 - 106.5 = - 73.5 dBm
) PL = 120 + 45*log(0.5) = 106.5 dB (e.g. Okumura-Hata Model)
) EIRP(MS) = 33 dBm (no Power control considered)
Input Power at the Repeater (Uplink) :
Pin = Pr(Re-Rad) - Cable Loss(UL) + G(Re-rad)
) Pin = -73.5 - 0.5 + 14 = -60 dBm
Repeater Output power (Uplink) :
Pout(min) = Pin + Gmin(Repeater) = -60 + 45 = -15 dBm
Pout(min) = -15 dBm < 13 dBm (OK)
EIRP(Donor) = Pout - Cable(to antenna) + G(Re-Radiating)
EIRP(Donor) = -15 - 1.5 + 18 = 1.5 dBm
Uplink Power Amp. Of repeater must be raised to maximum 75 dB
EIRP (donor) = 1.5 + 30 = 31.5 dBm
Hybrid Combiners : Possible Usage

To Antenna
To Antenna
Matched Load
50
-3 dB
50
-3 dB
-3 dB
50
-3 dB
TX1 TX2
TX1 TX2
TX3 TX4
Hybrid Combiners : Features
Hybrid Combiners :
Disadvantage :
4-Port Balanced Passive Devices

Reciprocal : Tx/Rx
High insertion loss : 3 to 3.3 dB

Not suitable for large Number of Transmitters : High Losses
Advantage :
Linear Device : Sufficient isolation between Transmitters

Cost-effective combining solution for small number of Transmitters
Being relatively Wide-band, permits Transmitter Frequency Hopping :
Synthesized or Baseband
Slow Frequency Hopping
Radio Propagation Channel :
Dynamic : Mobility and Scattering problems

Fast Fading : Frequency Selective (dispersive)
) Some frequencies are more or less affected by Multipath fast fading
(Reighley Fading)
) Fast Moving mobiles less sensitive to Multipath : GSM Standard define
TU3 and TU50 and a Sensitivity margin of 4 dB is considered.
) Effective Receive Sensitivity improved for Fast Mobiles
Slow Frequency Hopping (SFH) :
Allows an effective Frequency Diversity

SFH statistically improves the overall signal receive power
SFH diversity gain : between 3 and 6 dB (ref. W.Y. Lee)
Slow Frequency Hopping : Implementation
Synthesized Frequency Hopping :
The processor controlling the Tx retunes it to a new frequency on a per

time-slot basis, according to a predetermined pattern or sequence
The Output from the Tx varies across a wide range of frequencies :

Handled by the Hybrid combiner (wide-band device)
Baseband Frequency Hopping :
The Digital baseband signal is applied to what is effectively a fast electronic

switch, which is controlled by a processor in the Tx.
The Switch is connected to a number of Txs, each being fixed-tuned to a
different frequency
On a per time-slot basis, baseband digital signal is switched between
different transmitters
Cavity Filter Combiners or Hybrid Combiners can be used
Synthesized and Baseband Frequency

Hopping : Comparison
Synthesized FH :
Offers
a versatile solution for multiple channels

Cost-effective : No Cavity Filter Combiners required
Few Transmitters can be used for more channels
hopped
Baseband FH :
Low
losses when Cavity Filter Combiners are used

Hopping can only occur over the same number of
frequencies as there are Transmitters
Slow Frequency Hopping : Implementation

Baseband
Frequency Hopping
Cavity Filters
Baseband Data
TX
Processor
0110110110
Varying Frequency
TX1
TX2
Electronic
Switch
f1
TX1
To Antenna
Tunning Control
11001101110
Hybrid
Combiner
f2
Baseband Data
11001101110
BPF
TX2
BPF
f3
Varying Frequency
Baseband Data
TX
Processor
TX3
BPF
Matching Stub
To Antenna
Synthesized
Frequency Hopping
Receiver Multicoupler
Rx
Antenna
A
AC/DC POWER
SUPPLY
Rx
Antenna
B
RECEIVER MULTICOUPLER
RX A
RX B
RX1
RX A
RX B
RX2
DUPLEX FILTER
Common TX/RX
Antenna
Passes DL
Frequencies only
Passes UL
Frequencies only
DUPLEX
FILTER
From TX
To RX
Typical Antenna Connection : X-POL

Diversity
Cross-Polarized
Antenna Assembly
Tx/Rx A
Rx B
Bandpass Filter
Duplex
Filter
Rx B
Matched Load
Rx A
Hybrid
Combiner
Rx A
Tx
Receiver
Multicoupler
Tx
Rx
Rx
Rx B
Rx A
Rx B
Polarization Diversity Systems

Using Separate Tx Antenna
Without Duplex Filter
Top View of 3-sector site

with Vertical Polarization Diversity
Tx
2 Rx
2 Rx
Tx
Tx
RxA RxB
BTS Equipment
Tx
2 Rx

Vertical
Tx/Rx Antenna
Horizontal
Rx Antena
Tx/Rx
Duplexer
Tx
Rx A Rx B
Tx/Rx
Tx/Rx

d1
d2
d2
Rx
Tx
Tx
Rx
Rx A
Tx
Rx
Rx B
Rx
Tx
Horizontal separation d1 for diversity = 10

Horizontal Separation d2 for 30 dB Isolation = 2
Rx

GSM Fundamentals by DR Hatem MOKHTARI

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GSM RF Design and Planning Fundamentals

Dr. Hatem MOKHTARI

Cirta Consulting LLC

A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony

A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony

A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony

Role of the RF Design Engineer :

A. Introduction to Wireless Telephony

A GSM subscriber (Mobile) Should be able to :

Notation in dBm, dBW, dBi, dBd, dB

P (dBm) = 10Log10(P mW/1mW)

P dBW = 10Log10(P W/1W)

Example : 15 W power results in 10Log10(15)= 11.76 dBW

Relation between dBW and dBm :

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If an internal resistor is to be considered:

Suppose we have a voltage :

Compute the RMS Voltage for Um = 50 V

Is the RMS dependent of the frequency ?

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Compute 1) 1 + 2 , 1 + 2 and arg(1 + 2 )

Show that log = log 2 + 2 + jtg 1

B. RF Fundamentals : Complex numbers

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B. RF Fundamentals : High Frequency considerations

At RF domain, Energy flows

The % of Reflected Energy is

VSWR : Voltage Standing Wave Ratio ( 1:1 is ideal )

EIRP or Equivalent Isotropic Radiated Power :

We always consider the main lobe direction where no losses exist

dBi : Refers to an Isotropic antenna and dBd to the Dipole :

dBi = dBd + 2.15 dB

Example : G = 16 dBi, so G = 13.85 dBd and if P = 33 dBm (2 W)

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Directivity : Figure of Merit to quantify the ability of an antenna to

Where Wmax is the Power Density at a distance d in the main lobe

Where PT is the supplied power to the antenna, commonly known as

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Relation Between W and E (The Electric Field) :

Maximum Useful Power :

Effective Area of an Antenna (Reception) :

Finally, the received power reads :

Free Space Loss Between Isotropic Antennas (GR=GT = 1) :

Propagation Over a Plane Reflecting Surface (Flat Earth Model) :

Assuming d >> Ht and Hr, the Path Loss (Iinear) :

is the Complex Reflection Coefficient

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D is the Complex Diffraction Coefficient

The Diffraction Loss is shown to be :

20 Log (0.5 0.62v )

20 Log (0.5 exp(0.95v))

Where v, the Fresnel Parameter is given by :

Compute L(v) for :

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Test : Bullington Diffraction Loss Model

Compute H, D1, D2, and then L(v) the Diffraction

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Propagation over irregular terrain

Propagation over irregular terrain

The Deygout diffraction construction

B. RF Fundamentals : Receiver Theory

To operate properly the receiver has to receive

B. RF Fundamentals : Receiver Theory