0

Understand the manufacture of sulphuric acid.

Synthesise the manufacture of ammonia and its salts.
Understand alloys.
Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymer.
Apply the uses of glass and ceramics.
Evaluate the uses of composite materials.
Appreciate various synthetic industrial materiala.

(H4SO4)

USES OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is used to produce chemical fertilizer such as ammonium sulphate and
potassium sulphate, which are highly soluble in water and can be easily obsorbed by
plant.
2. Car batteries contain sulphuric acid which is used as the electrolyte.
3. Sulphuric acid also used in the making of artificial silk-like fibres and rayon.
4. Chemical like paints, dyes and drug use sulphuric acid as one of
their component materials.

MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID

1. Sulphuric acid is manufactured in industry though contact process
2. The process contain three stage
STAGE1: Production Of Sulphur Dioxide From Sulphur
i. Combustion of sulphur or sulphide ores in the air produce sulphur dioxide SO2.
S(s)+O2(g)SO2(g)
sulphur

ii.

sulphur dioxide is dried and purified.

STAGE2: Production Of Sulphur Trioxide From Sulphur Dioxide

i. The purified sulphur dioxide SO2 and excess air are passed over vanadium(V)
oxide V2O5 at controlled optimum condition optimum condition to produce sulphur
trioxide SO3.
2SO2(g)+O2(g) 2SO3(g)
ii. The optimum used are
a) Temperature:450-500C
b) Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
c) Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide
iii. Under controlled optimum conditions, 98% conversion is possible. Sulphur dioxide
and oxygen that have not reacted are allowed to flow back again over the catalyst in
the converter.
STAGE3: Conversion of trioxide to sulphuric acid
i. Sulphur trioxide SO2 is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid H 2SO4 to form oleum
H2S2O7 which is then diluted with water to form sulphuric acid H2SO4.

SO3(g)+H2SO4(l)H2S2O7(l)
Oleum

H2S2O7(l)+ H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
ii. The two reactions in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide directly into water.
SO3(g)+H2O(l)H2SO4(aq)
iii. The addition of sulphur trioxide directly into is not carried out because the reaction is
vary vigorous; a lot of heat is given off. As a result, alarge cloud of sulphuric acid
fumes is produced, which is corrosive and causes severe air pollution.

The Contact Process

Sulphu
r

Oxyge
n
In the converter

S(s) +
O2(g)SO2(g)
Oxyge

SULPHUR
ENVIRONMENTAL

2SO(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g)

Temperature: 450-500C
Pressure: 2-3 atmospheres
Catalyst: Vanadium(V) oxide

SO2(g) +
H2SO4(aq)H2S2O7(l)
H2S2O7(l) +
H2O(l)2H2SO4(aq)
Outline Of Contact process

Unreacted
2%so2 is
flowed back
to converter
together with
oxygen

DIOXIDE
POLLUTION

AND

1. Sulphur dioxide is one of the by-product of contact process. It is a colourless and

poisonous gas with a vary pungent smell.
2. Sulphur dioxide which escape into the air causes air pollution.
3. Sulphur dioxide is an acidic which dissolves in water to form sulphurous acidic, H2SO3.
In the atmosphere, sulphur dioxide dissolve in water droplets to form sulphurous acidic.
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
4. Oxidation of sulphur acid by oxygen produce sulphuric acid, H2SO4, which falls to the
earth as acid rain. Sulphur trioxide is also easily oxidised in the air to form sulphur
trioxide. Sulphur trioxide dissolve in rainwater to produce sulphuric acid.
SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

Acid rain and environmental pollution

(NH3)
USES OF AMMONIA
1. Ammonia that is produce commercially has many uses.
2. It uses:
i. In the manufacture of chemical fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate, ammonia
nitric, ammonia phosphate and urea.
ii. To manufacture nitric acid and explosive.
iii. In the making of synthetic fibre and nylon.
iv. As a degreasing agent in aqueous form to remove greasy stains in the kitchen.

PROPERTIES OF AMMONIA GAS

1. The physical properties of ammonia gas include the following:
i. It colourless and has a pungent odour.
ii. It is vary soluble in water and form a weak alkaline solution.
iii. It less dense then water.
iv. It easily liquified (at about 35.5C) when cool.
2. The chemical properties of ammonia gas:
a) Ammonia gas dissolves in water to form a weak alkali.
NH3(g) + H2O(l)

NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)

b) The presence of hydroxide icon causes the aqueous solution to become alkaline. Thus
aqueous ammonia solution:
i. Turns red litmus paper blue.
ii. Reacts with acid to form only salt and waterin neutralization reaction.
NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) NH4CI(aq)
2NH3 + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
iii. Reacts with solution of metallic cations to produce precipitates.
Fe+(aq) + 2OH(aq) Fe (OH)2(s)
(Form ammonia solution)

Dirty green precipitate

 MANUFACTURE OF AMMONIA IN INDUSTRY

1. Ammonia is manufacture on a large scale in industry through the haber process. In this
process, ammonia is formed form direct combination of nitrogen and hydrogen gas in
the volume ratio 1:3.
2. The gas nitrogen obtain form the fractional distillation of liquefied air. The hydrogen
gas is obtained form the cracking of petroleum or from the catalysed reaction of natural
gas, CH4, with steam.
CH4(g) + H2O(g) CO(g) + 3H2(g)
3. The mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases is passed over an iron catalyst under
controlled optimum condition as below to form ammonia gas.
i. Temperature: 450-500C
ii. Pressure: 200-500 atmospheres
iii. Catalyst used: Iron fillings
N2(g) + 3H2(g)

2NH3(g)

4. Under these control optimum condition, only 15% of the gas mixture turn into ammonia
gas. The nitrogen and hydrogen that have not reacted are then flow back over the catalyst
again in the reactor chamber.
5. The ammonia product is then cooled at a low temperature so that it condenses into a
liquid in the cooling chamber.

The Haber Process

Nitrogen

Hydrogen

N2 and H2 are mixed in the proportion of

In the reactor chamber
1:3
In cooling chamber
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
2NH (g)
Temperature: 450-500C
Pressure: 200-500
Liquid
atmospheres
Outline
Habert
process
Catalyst
used:Of
ammonia
Iron
fillings

Unreacted N2 and
H2 gases

AMMONIUM FERTILIZERS
1.
2.
3.
4.

Nitrogen is required in large amount by plant to make proteins which are necessary
for growth and cell repair.
Most plant are not able to get a nitrogen supply directly from the air although it is
abundant in the air (78%). Plants can only absorb soluble nitrogen compounds from
soil through their roots.
The nitrogen compounds are usually soluble nitric salt, ammonia and ammonia salt
which are manufacture as chemical fertilizer.
Reactions of ammonia with acids produce ammonium fertilizers.
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
Ammonium nitrate

3NH3(aq) + H3PO4(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)

Ammonium phosphate

2NH3(aq) +H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Ammonium sulphate

 ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN MATELS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

The atom of pure metals are packed together closely. This causes the metal to have a
hight density
The forces of attraction between atoms (metallic bonds) are strong. More heat energy
is needed to overcome the metallic bond so that the atoms are further apart during the
melting. This is why metals usually have hight melting point.
Heat energy can be transferred easily from one atom to the next by vibration. This
make metal good conduct of heat.
The freely moving outermost electrons within the metals structure are able to conduct
electricity. Metal are, therefore, good electrical conductors.
Since atoms of pure metal are of the same size, they are arranged orderly in a regular
layered pattern. When a force is applied to metal, layer of atom slide easily over one
another. This make pure metals soft, malleable and ductile.
Layer of atom slide

Force

Metals are ductile

The shape of the

metal change

Force

Matel are malleable

 WHAT ARE ALLOYS

1. Pure metal are usually too soft for most uses. They also have a low resistance to
corrosion. They rush and tarnish easily.
2. To improve the physical properties of metal, a small amount of another element
(usually metal) is added to form another an alloy.
3. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals (something non-metal) in a specific
proportion. For example:
a. Bronze (90% of copper and 10% of tin)
b. Steel (99% of iron and 1% of carbon)
4. The purposes of making alloys include the following:
a) Increase the strength
i. Pure iron is soft and vary malleable. When a small amount of carbon is added to
iron, an alloy, steal is formed. The more carbon is added, the stronger the steel
becomes.
ii. Pure aluminium is light but not strong. With a small amount of copper and
magnesium are added to aluminium, a strong, light and durable alloy call
duralumin is produced.
b) Improving the resistance to corrosion
i. Iron rust easily but stainless steel which contains 80.6% of iron, 0.4% of carbon,
18% of chromium and 1% of nickel does not rush. These properties make
stainless steel suitable for making surgical instrument and cutlery.
ii. Pure copper tarnish easily. When zinc (30%) is added, the yellow alloy which is
known as brass develops a high resistance to corrosion.
c) Enhancing the appearance
i. Pewter, an alloy of tin (97%), antimony and copper is not only hard but also has
a more beautiful white silvery appearance.
ii. When copper is mixed with nickel to form cupronickel, an alloy that has an
attractive silvery, bright appearance is formed which is suitable for making
coins.

Alloy
High carbon steel

Composition
99% iron
1% carbon

Stainless steel

80.6% iron
0.4% carbon
18%chromium
1% nickel
70% copper
30% zinc

Brass

Bronze

Pewter

Duralumin

Cupronickel

Properties
Uses
Strong,hard and high Making of cutting
wear resistance
tools, hammers and
chisels
Do not rust and
Making of surgical
tarnish, strong and
instrument, knives
durable
forks and spoons

Making of
ornaments,
electrical wiring
and plug.
90% copper
Hard, do not corrode For casting bells,
10% tin
easily and durable
medals, swords
and statues
90% tin
Ductile and
Making of
2.5% copper
malleable, white
ornaments,
0.5% antimony
silvery appearance
souvenirs and
mugs
95% aluminium
Light, strong and
Making part of
4% copper
durable
aircrafts and racing
1%magnesium
cars
75%copper
Attractive, silvery
Making of silver
25%nickel
appearance, hard and
coins
tough
Composition, properties and uses of alloys
Hard, do not rust,
bright appearance

10

The formation of

alloy

WHAT ARE POLYMER

1. Molecule that consist of a large number of small identical or similar units joined
together repeatedly are called polymer.
2. The smaller molecules that make up the repeating unit in polymer are caller monomer.
3. The process of joining together a large number of monomers to form a long chain
polymer is called polymerisation.
4. Polymer can be naturally occurring or man-made (synthetic). Natural polymer are found
in plant and in animals for example of natural polymers are starch cellulose, protein and
rubber.
5. Two type of polymerisation in producing synthetic polymer are additional
polymerisation.
6. Double bonds between two carbon atoms usually undergo addition polymerisation.

Some Common Addition Polymers

Name(s)

Formula

Monomer

Properties

Uses

Polyethylene
low density
(LDPE)

(CH2-CH2)n

ethylene
CH2=CH2

soft, waxy solid

film wrap,
plastic bags

Polyethylene
high density
(HDPE)

(CH2-CH2)n

ethylene
CH2=CH2

rigid, translucent
solid

electrical
insulation
bottles, toys

Polypropylene
(PP) different
grades

[CH2CH(CH3)]n

propylene
CH2=CHCH3

atactic: soft, elastic

similar to LDPE
solid
carpet,
isotactic: hard,
upholstery
strong solid

Poly(vinyl
chloride)
(PVC)

(CH2CHCl)n

vinyl chloride
CH2=CHCl

strong rigid solid

Poly(vinylidene
chloride)
(Saran A)

(CH2CCl2)n

vinylidene
chloride
CH2=CCl2

dense, high-melting seat covers,

solid
films

Polystyrene
(PS)

[CH2CH(C6H5)]n

styrene
CH2=CHC6H5

hard, rigid, clear

solid

pipes, siding,
flooring

toys, cabinets
packaging

11

Polyacrylonitrile
(PAN, Orlon,
Acrilan)

(CH2CHCN)n

acrylonitrile
CH2=CHCN

soluble in organic
solvents

(foamed)

high-melting solid
soluble in organic
solvents

rugs, blankets
clothing

Polytetrafluoroeth
tetrafluoroethyl
resistant, smooth
ylene
(CF2-CF2)n ene
solid
(PTFE, Teflon)
CF2=CF2

non-stick
surfaces
electrical
insulation

Poly(methyl
methacrylate)
(PMMA, Lucite,
Plexiglas)

lighting covers,
signs
skylights

methyl
[CH2methacrylate
C(CH3)CO2C
CH2=C(CH3)C
H3]n
O2CH3

hard, transparent
solid

(CH2vinyl acetate
Poly(vinyl acetate)
CHOCOCH3) CH2=CHOCOC soft, sticky solid
(PVAc)
H3
n

latex paints,
adhesives

cis-Polyisoprene
natural rubber

[CH2isoprene
CH=C(CH3)- CH2=CHCH2]n
C(CH3)=CH2

soft, sticky solid

requires
vulcanization
for practical use

Polychloroprene
(cis + trans)
(Neoprene)

[CH2CH=CClCH2]n

tough, rubbery
solid

synthetic rubber
oil resistant

chloroprene
CH2=CHCCl=CH2

Uses of synthetic polymers

SYNTHETIC POLYMERS IN DAILY LIFE

1. Synthetic polymers have many advantages over other type of materials:
a. They are cheap, light-weight and translucent.
b. They are easily coloured, easily moulded and shaped.
c. They are non-corrosive, waterproof and good insulator.
d. They are durable and long lasting because they are resistant to decay, rusting and
chemical attacks.
2. There are disadvantage using synthetic polymer:
a. Most of the synthetic polymer are flammable. When a synthetic polymer material
catches fire, poisonous fumes are produce causing air pollution.
b. Synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable. When there are discharge, they cause
litter problem and pollute the environment.
c. Plastic container that are left aside in an open area collect rainwater which
becomes the breeding ground for mosquitoes.

12

d. There are limitation in recycle have to be separated out as the addition of nonrecyclable polymers in the mixture affect the properties of the recycled polymers.

13

 WHAT ARE GLASS

1. Glass is one of the most useful but inexpensive materials in the world. Many products
are made from glass because of its specials properties.
2. Glass is:
a. Transparent, hard but brittle.
b. A heat and electric insulator.
c. Resistant to corrosion.
d. Chemical not reaction and therefore resistant to chemical attack.
e. Easy to maintain.
Type of glass
Fused glass

Composition
SiO2: 100%

Soda-lime glass

SiO2: 75%
Na2O:15%
CaO: 9%
Other:1%

Borosilicate glass

SiO2: 78%
B2O3: 12%
Na2O: 5%
CaO: 3%
Al2O3:2%

Lead crystal glass

(flint glass)

SiO2: 70%
Pbo/PbO2:20%
Na2O: 10%

Properties
Transparent
High melting point
Good heat
insulator
Low melting point,
easily molded into
desired shape and
size
Low resistant to
chemical attacks
Brittle
Resistant chemical
attack and durable
High melting point
Good insulator to
heat
High refractive
index
High density
Attractive
glittering
appearance

Uses
Lens
Telescope mirrors
Laboratory
apparatus
Drinking glass,
bottles
Electric bulbs
Window glass

Cooking utensils
Laboratory
glassware such as
conical flaks and
boiling tube
Lenses and prisms
Decorative
glassware and art
object
Imation jewellery

14

 CERAMICS
1. Traditional silicate ceramics are made by heating aluminosilicate clay such as kaolin to
a vary high temperature.
2. Ceramics have many special properties that make them one of the most useful materials
in our everyday life. That:
a. Are hard, strong but brittle
b. Have high melting point and remain stable at high temperature
c. Are heat and electric instrument
d. Are resistant to corrosion and wear
e. Are chemically not reactive
f. Do not readily deform under stress
3. Ceramic play important role in our daily life. They are uses as
a. Construction materials
i. Ceramic are strong and hard, uses to make roof tiles, bricks cement, sinks, and
toilet bowls.
ii. They are also used to make refractory bricks because high resistant to heat.
b. Decorative items
i. To make pottery, china plates, and porcelain vases since they do not tarnish
easily and are durable.
ii. They are used to make bathroom fixture such as floor and wall tiles.
c. Electrical insulator
i. Ceramic are used to make electrical insulator in electrical items such as toasters,
fridges and electrical plug.
Materials
Oxide ceramic
Alumina,AL2O3
Beryllia, BeO
Zirconia, ZiO
Non-oxide
ceramics
Boron
carbide,B4C3
Silicon nitride,
Si3, n4
Metals
Aluminium
Steel

Melting point/

Density/G cm-3

Elastic
modulus/ GPa

Hardness/ mohs

2054
2574
2710

3.97
3.01
5.68

380
370
210

9
8
8

2350
2830

2.50
3.16

280
400

9
9

1900

3.17

310

660
1515

2.70
7.86

70
205

3
5

15

 WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1. A composite materials (or composite) is a structure of materials that is formed by two
or more different substances such as metal, glass, ceramic and polymer.
2. Some common composite materials are:
a. Reinforces concrete
b. Superconductor
c. Fibre optic
d. Fibre glass
e. Photochromic glass

REINFORCES CONCRETE

1. Concrete is hard, fireproof, waterproof, comparatively cheap and easy to maintain. It is

more important construction materials.
2. The reinforces is a combination of concrete and steel.

SUPERCONDUCTOR
1. Metal such as copper and aluminium are good conductor of electricity, but 20% of the
electric energy is lost in the form of heat during transmission.
2. Super conductor are materials that have no resistance to the flow of electricity at a
particular temperature. Hence, 100% electricity transmission is possible.
3. One of the most dramatic properties of a superconductor is its ability to levitate a
magnet. Superconductor are used to build magnetically levitate high-speed train (at
about 552 km/h).
4. Superconductor are used to make chips for smaller and faster supercomputer.
Superconductor also play an important role in high speed data processing in internet
communication.

FIBRE OPTIC
1. Fibre optic is a composite material that in used to transmit signals for light wave.
2. Fibre optic is used in
a.
Telecommunicate where the telephone substation are liked by fibre optic cables.
b.
Domestic cable television network
c.
Closed circuit television security system.
3. Fibre optic also used in medical fields. It is used in a number of instrument which
enable the investigation for internal body part without having to perform surgery.

16

 FIBRE GLASS
1. Fibre glass is glass in the form of fine threads. Molten gas is dropped onto a refractory
rating disc when the glass flies off the disc glass to form fibre.
2. Fibre glass is strong than steel, do not burnt, stretch or rot, resistant to fire and water but
is brittle.
3. When fibre glass added to a plastic, a new composite material fibre glass reinforces
plastic is formed.
4. Fibre glass reinforces plastic has more superior properties than glass and plastic. It is
a. Extremely strong
b. Light weigh
c. Resistant to fire and water
d. Can be molded, shaped and twisted

PHOTOCHROMIC GLASS
1. When 0.01 to 0.1% of silver chloride (a type of photochromic substances) and a small
amount of copper (II) chloride are added to molten silicon dioxide, photochromic glass
is formed.
2. The photochromic glass has a special properties. It darken when exposed to strong
sunlight or ultraviolet.
3. Photochromic glass is suitable for making sunglasses.

17