Olympic Dai So

TRNG I HC BCH KHOA H NI
VIN TON NG DNG & TIN HC
BI XUN DIU
Bi Ging
OLYMPIC SINH VIN MN I S
NH THC, H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH, MA TRN V NH X
TUYN TNH ,
A THC
Tm tt l thuyt, cc v d, bi tp v li gii
Dresden (Germany) - 2012
MC
Mc lc .
LC
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chng 1 . Ma trn - nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1
Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc . . .
1.2
Cc nh thc c bit . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
nh thc con v phn ph i s . . . . . . . .
2.1
Cc nh ngha v tnh cht . . . . . . .
2.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Phn b Schur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
Cc nh ngha v tnh cht . . . . . . .
3.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chng 2 . Khng gian vct - nh x tuyn tnh
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5
5
6
11
13
13
14
16
16
17
. 19
Khng gian i ngu - Phn b trc giao . . . . .

1.1
Khng gian i ngu . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Phn b trc giao . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ht nhn v nh - Khng gian thng . . . . . .
2.1
Ht nhn v nh . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Khng gian thng . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C s ca khng gian vct - c lp tuyn tnh .
3.1
Bi ton i c s . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
Cc tnh cht ca hng ca ma trn . . .
4.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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19
19
21
21
22
22
23
24
25
25
25
27
27
28
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MC LC
Chng 3 . Dng chnh tc ca ma trn v ton t tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . 31
1
2
Vt ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cu trc ca t ng cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
Tr ring v vct ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
T ng cu cho ho c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3
a thc ti tiu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
Dng chun ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1
Dng chun Jordan ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2
Dng chun Frobenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Biu din ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
Rt gn mt ma trn v ma trn dng ng cho n gin . . .
4.2
Biu ma trn di dng ta cc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3
Biu din Schur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4
Biu din Lanczos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chng 4 . Cc ma trn c dng c bit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Ma trn i xng - Ma trn Hermitian .

1.1
Cc nh ngha v tnh cht . . .
1.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ma trn phn xng . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ma trn trc giao - Php bin i Cayley
3.1
3.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ma trn chun tc . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1
4.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ma trn lu linh . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1
5.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ton t chiu - Ma trn ly ng . . . .
6.1
6.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ma trn i hp . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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31
32
32
33
34
35
40
40
41
42
43
43
43
44
44
44
. 45
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45
45
46
47
47
47
48
48
48
50
50
50
52
52
52
54
54
54
57
MC LC
Ma trn hon v (hay cn gi l ma trn giao hon) . . .
8.1
nh ngha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chng 5 . Cc bt ng thc ma trn . . . . . . . . . .
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58
58
58
. 59
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59
59
60
61
61
62
. 63
Cc bt ng thc cho ma trn i xng v Hermitian .

1.1
Cc nh l c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Cc bt ng thc cho tr ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
Cc bt ng thc c bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2
Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chng 6 . a thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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MC LC
CHNG
MA
TRN
- NH
THC
1. NH THC
1.1 Cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc
nh thc ca mt ma trn vung A = (aij )1n cp n l tng lun phin
(1) a1(1) a2(2) . . . an(n) ,
tng trn c ly qua tt c cc php hon v Sn . nh thc ca ma trn A c

k hiu l det A hoc | A|, nu det A 6= 0 ta ni A l ma trn kh nghch (khng suy bin).
Cc tnh cht sau y thng c s dng tnh nh thc ca mt ma trn. Cc bn
c th kim chng hoc chng minh chng mt cch d dng.
1. Nu i ch hai hng (hoc hai ct) ca ma trn A th nh thc ca n i du. Ni
ring, nu ma trn A c hai hng (ct)ging nhau th det A = 0.
!
A C
2. Nu A, B v C l cc ma trn vung cng cp th det
= det A. det B.
0 B
n
3. det A = (1)i + j Mi,j , Mij l nh thc ca ma trn thu c t A bng cch b

j =1
i hng th i v ct th j ca n. Cng thc ny cn c gi l cng thc khai trin

nh thc theo hng. Cc bn c th t vit cng thc khai trin nh thc theo ct
mt cch tng t.

1 a12 . . . a1n
1 a12 . . . a1n
1 1 + 1 1 a12 . . . a1n

..
..

..
..
..
..
..
..
..
4.
. . . . .
. . . . . + .
.
. . . . . = .

+ a

a
... a
a
... a
... a
n n
n n
n2
nn
n2
nn
n2
nn
Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

5. det( AB) = det A det B.
6. det( A T ) = detA.
1.2 Cc nh thc c bit

nh thc Vandermonde
Ma trn Vandermonde cp n l ma trn vung cp n c dng
1
1
...
1
1
a2 . . . a n 1 a n
a1
2
a22 . . . a2n1 a2n

Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) = a1
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
1
n 1
a1n1 a2n1 . . . ann
1 an
nh l 1.1. Chng minh rng det Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) =
16i < j6n
(a j ai ). T suy ra h
Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).X = 0 ch c nghim tm thng khi v ch khi a1 , a2 , . . . , an i mt phn

bit.
Mt ng dng th v ca nh thc Vandermonde l bi ton sau:
Bi tp 1.1. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Khi
An = 0 tr( Ak ) = 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n
Chng minh. Nu An = 0 th A l mt ma trn ly linh, do A ch c cc tr ring
bng 0, nn Ak cng ch c cc tr ring bng 0 vi mi k. Suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Gi s cc gi tr ring ca A l 1 , 2 , . . . , n . Khi t tr( Ak ) = 0, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n ta
c h phng trnh:
1 + 2 + . . . + n = 0
2 + 2 + . . . + 2 = 0
n
2
1
(1.1)
.
..
n + n + . . . + n = 0
1
hay
Vn (1 , 2 , . . . , n )(1 , 2 , . . . , n )T = 0.
Ta s chng minh tt c cc gi tr ring ca A bng nhau. Tht vy:

Nu i i mt phn bit th nh thc Vandermonde khc khng, h phng trnh trn
ch c nghim duy nht 1 , 2 , . . . , n = 0. Mu thun.
1. nh thc
Ngc li, khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s 1 = 2 v khng mt gi tr i cn li no

bng nhau. Khi h phng trnh c vit li di dng
Vn1 (2 , . . . , n )(22 , . . . , n )T = 0
Lp lun tng t ta c 2 = . . . = n = 0, mu thun.
Vy tt c cc tr ring ca A bng nhau v do bng 0.
Bi tp 1.2. Chng minh rng vi cc s nguyn k1 < k2 < ... < kn bt k th
l mt s nguyn.
det Vn (k1 , k2 , ..., kn )

det Vn (1, 2, ..., n)
Bi tp 1.3. Cho W l ma trn c c t ma trn V = Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) bng cch thay

hng (a1n1 , a2n1 , ..., ann1 ) bi hng (a1n , a2n , ..., ann ). Chng minh rng
det W = (a1 + a2 + ... + an ) det V.
Bi tp 1.4. Chng minh rng
1
1
...
1
1
a1
a2
...
an 1
an
..
..
..
..
...
det
.
.
.
.
n 2
2
..
a2n2
ann
ann2
a1
1
a2 a3 ...an a1 a3 ...an . . . a1 a2 ...an2 an a1 a2 ...an1
= (1)n1 . det Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an )
Chng minh.
Nu a1 , a2 , . . . , an 6= 0 th nhn ct th nht vi a1 , ct th hai vi a2 , . . . ,
ct th
n vi an ri chia cho a1 a2 . . . an ta c
1
1
...
1
1
a1
a2
...
an 1
an
..
..
..
..
..
.
det
.
.
.
.
..
n 2
n 2
n 2
n
2
.
an 1
an
a2
a1
a2 a3 ...an a1 a3 ...an . . . a1 a2 ...an2 an a1 a2 ...an1
a1
a2 . . . a n 1 a n
2
a1
a22 . . . a2n1 a2n
1
..
..
..
.
..
.
=
. det ..
.
.
.
a1 a2 . . . a n
n1 n1 ..
n 1
n 1
a
a
.
a
a
1
n
2
n 1
1
1
...
1
1
n
1
= (1) . det Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an )
Trng hp c t nht mt trong cc s a1 , a2 , . . . , an bng 0 (xt ring).

Bi tp 1.5. Cho f 1 ( x ), f 2 ( x ), ..., f n ( x ) l cc a
rng vi mi s a1 , a2 , . . . , an ta c

f (a ) f (a ) . . .
1 2
1 1

f 2 ( a1 ) f 2 ( a2 ) . . .

..
..
...

.
.

f n ( a1 ) f n ( a2 ) . . .
thc bc khng qu n 2. Chng minh

=0

f n ( an )
f 1 ( an )
f 2 ( an )
..
.
Chng minh. Gi s f i ( x ) = bi0 + bi1 x + . . . + bi,n2 x n2

b10 b11 . . . b1,n2
f 1 ( a1 ) f 1 ( a2 ) . . . f 1 ( a n )

f 2 (a1 ) f 2 (a2 ) . . . f 2 (an ) b20 b21 . . . b2,n2
= .
.. . .
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
bn0 bn1 . . . bn,n2
f n ( a1 ) f n ( a2 ) . . . f n ( a n )
T ta c iu phi chng minh.

Bi tp 1.6. Cho A = aij v f i ( x ) =
rng

f (x ) f (x ) . . .
1 2
1 1

f 2 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x2 ) . . .

...

...
...

f n ( x1 ) f n ( x2 ) . . .
th

0

0
..
.
.
0
1
a1
..
.
1
a2
..
.
a1n1 a2n1
...
1
1
. . . an 1 an
..
..
..
.
.
.
1
n 1
. . . ann
1 an
a1i + a2i x + ... + ani x n1 vi i = 1, n. Chng minh

= det A.Vn ( x1 , x2 , ..., xn )

f n ( xn )
f 1 ( xn )
f 2 ( xn )
...
Chng minh. Tng t nh bi ?? ta c

1
1
a11 a12 . . . a1,n1 a1n
f 1 ( x1 ) f 1 ( x2 ) . . . f 1 ( x n )

f 2 ( x1 ) f 2 ( x2 ) . . . f 2 ( xn ) a21 a22 . . . a2,n1 a2n x1
x2
. .
= .
.
.
..
.
..
..
..
.
..
..
..
....
.
.
.
.
.
..
..
n 1
n 1
an1 an2 . . . an,n1 ann
x1
x2
f n ( x1 ) f n ( x2 ) . . . f n ( x n )
Suy ra iu phi chng minh.
...
1
1
. . . x n 1 x n
..
..
..
.
.
.
1
n 1
. . . xnn
1 xn
Bi tp 1.7. Chng minh rng vi k1 , k2 , . . . , kn l cc s t nhin khc nhau v a1 , a2 , . . . , an

l cc s dng khc nhau th
1
1
1 ... 1
k1 k1 k1
k
a1 a2 a3 . . . an1
k2 k2 k2
k2
.
.
.
a
a
a
a
det
n
3
2
6= 0
1
..
..
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
.
a1kn a2kn a3kn . . . aknn
1. nh thc
nh thc Cauchy
Ma trn Cauchy l ma trn vung cp n, A = (aij ), aij =
quy np, ta s chng minh
det A =
1
xi + y j .
Bng phng php
i > j ( xi x j )(yi y j )
i,j ( xi + x j )
Trc ht ly mi ct t 1 n n 1 tr i ct cui cng, ta c

aij0 = ( xi + y j )1 ( xi + yn )1 = (yn y j )( xi + yn )1 ( xi + y j )1 vi j 6= n.
a nhn t ( xi + yn )1 mi hng, v yn y j mi ct tr ct cui cng ra khi nh
n
thc ta s thu c nh thc |bij |i,j
=1 , bij = aij vi j 6= n v bin = 1.
Tip theo, ly mi hng t 1 n n 1 tr i hng cui cng. a nhn t xn xi

mi hng tr hng cui cng, v nhn t ( xn + y j )1 mi ct tr ct cui cng, ta s thu
c cng thc truy hi nh thc Cauchy cp n qua cp n 1.
nh thc Frobenius
Ma trn c dng
0 1 0
0 0 1
.. .. . .
.
. .
0 0 0
0 0 0
a0 a1 a2
...
...
..
.
0
0
..
.
0
0
..
.
...
1
...
0
. . . an 2 an 1
c gi l ma trn Frobenius, hay ma trn bn ca a thc

p ( ) = n a n 1 n 1 a n 2 n 2 . . . a0 .
Khai trin nh thc Frobenius theo hng th nht, cc bn c th d dng thu c cng
thc sau:
det(I A) = p()
10
nh thc ca ma trn ba ng cho

n
Ma trn ba ng cho l ma trn vung J = (aij )i,j
=1 , aij = 0 vi |i j| > 1. t
ai = aii , bi = ai,i +1 , ci = ai +1,i , ma trn ba ng cho khi c dng:
a1 b1
0
...
0
0
0
c1 a2 b2 . . . 0
0
0
..
.
0
0
0
a3
0 c2
. .
..
..
..
..
..
.. ..
.
.
.
.
.
..
0 0
.
a
b
0
0
n 2
n 2
0
0
0
.
.
.
c
a
b
n 2
n 1
n 1
0 0
0
...
0
c n 1 an
Khai trin nh thc ca ma trn trn theo hng th k, ta c
k
k = ak k1 bk1 ck k2 vi k 2, k = det(aij )i,j
=1 .
Cng thc truy hi trn khng nh rng nh thc n khng nhng ch ph thuc vo
cc s bi , c j m cn ph thuc vo bi ci . Trong trng hp c bit, k hiu

a
1
0
.
.
.
0
0
0
1

1 a2 1 . . . 0
0
0

..

.
0
0
0
0
1
a

3
.
..
..
..
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
( a1 . . . a n ) .
.
.
.
.
.
.

..
0
. an 2
1
0
0
0

0
0
. . . 1 a n 1 1
0

0
0
0
...
0
1 a n
ta c cng thc truy hi thng qua lin phn s sau:
( a1 a2 . . . a n )
= a1 +
( a2 a3 . . . a n )
a2 +
1
a3 +
..
.+
1
a n1 + a1n
nh thc ca ma trn khi

!
A11 A12
, A1 1 v A2 2 l cc ma trn vung cp m v cp n tng
Gi s A =
A21 A22
ng. t D l mt ma trn vung cp m v B l ma trn c n m.
nh l 1.2.

DA

A11
A12

11 DA12
= | D |.| A| v

= | A |.
A21
A21 + BA11 A22 + BA12
A22
1. nh thc
11
1.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 1.8. Cho A l mt ma trn phn xng cp n l. Chng minh rng det A = 0.
Bi tp 1.9. Chng minh rng nh thc ca mt ma trn phn xng cp n chn khng
thay i nu ta cng thm vo mi phn t ca n vi mt s c nh.
Bi tp 1.10. Tnh nh thc ca mt ma trn phn xng cp 2n chn tha mn tnh
cht cc phn t trn ng cho chnh bng 1.
n
|i j| . Tnh det A.
Bi tp 1.11. Cho A = (aij )i,j
=1 , vi aij = a

1 1 0
0

x
h 1 0

Bi tp 1.12. Cho 3 = 2
v n c nh ngha tng t cho n > 3.
x hx h 1

x3 hx2 hx h
Chng minh rng n = ( x + h)n .
a b
nu i 6= j
i j
n
Bi tp 1.13. Cho C = (cij )i,j=1, vi cij =
. Tnh det C.
x
nu i = j
i
Bi tp 1.14. Cho ai,i +1 = ci vi i = 1, . . . , n, cc phn t khc ca ma trn A bng 0.

Chng minh rng nh thc ca ma trn I + A + A2 + . . . + An1 bng (1 c)n1 , vi
c = c1 . . . c n .
n
1
Bi tp 1.15. Tnh det(aij )i,j
=1 , vi aij = (1 xi y j ) .
Bi tp 1.16. Tnh
Bi tp 1.17. Tnh

1 x 1 . . . x n 2 ( x 2 + x 3 + . . . + x n ) n 1
1

.. ..
.
.
.
.

. . . . .
.
.

1 x . . . x n 2 ( x + x + . . . + x
n
1
n
2
1
n 1 )
n

1 x1 . . . x n 2 x2 x3 . . . x n
1

.. ..
...
...

. . . . .

1 x . . . x n 2 x x . . . x
n
2
1
n
1
n
Bi tp 1.18. Tnh | aik |0n , vi aik = ink (1 + 2i )k .
r
r (r +1)/2 vi r n.
Bi tp 1.19. Cho aij = Cin
j . Chng minh rng | aij |1 = n
12
Bi tp 1.20. Cho k1 , . . . , kn Z, tnh
| aij|1n ,
aij =
1
(k i + j i )!
vi ki + j i 0
vi ki + j i < 0
Bi tp 1.21. Cho sk = p1 x1k + . . . + pn xnk , v ai,j = si + j . Chng minh rng
| aij |0n1 = p1 . . . pn i > j ( xi x j )2 .

Bi tp 1.22. Cho s = x1k + . . . + xnk . Tnh

s
s1
. . . s n 1
0

s1
s2
...
sn
.
.
..
.
..
.
...
.

sn sn+1 . . . s2n yn
Bi tp 1.23. Cho aij = ( xi + y j )n . Chng minh rng

1

y
..
.

| aij |0n = C1n C2n . . . Cnn i >k ( xi xk )(yk yi ).

Bi tp 1.24. Cho bij = (1)i + j aij . Chng minh rng | aij|1n = |bij|1n .
k+i
Bi tp 1.25. Cho n (k) = | aij |0n , aij = C2j
. Chng minh rng
n (k) =
k ( k + 1) . . . ( k + n 1)
n 1 ( k 1 ).
1.3 . . . (2n 1)
n
n (n +1)/2 .
Bi tp 1.26. Cho Dn = | aij|0n , aij = C2j
1 . Chng minh rng Dn = 2
Bi tp 1.27. Cho A =
A11 A12
A21 A22
v B =
B11 B12
B21 B22
, A11 , B11 , A22 , B22 l cc ma
trn vung cng cp v rank A11 = rank A, rank B11 = rank B. Chng minh rng

A
A
A
B
11
12
12 11
.
= | A + B|.| A11 |.| B22 |

A21 B22 B21 B22
2. nh thc con v phn ph i s
13
2. NH THC CON V PHN PH I S

2.1 Cc nh ngha v tnh cht
nh ngha 1.3. Ma trn m cc phn t ca n l giao ca p hng v p ct ca ma trn
vung A c gi l ma trn con cp p ca A. nh thc tng ng c gi l nh thc
con cp p. K hiu

! ai1 k1 ai1 k2 . . . ai1 k p

i1 . . . i p
..
..
A
= ...
.
.
...
k1 . . . k p

ai p k 1 ai p k 2 . . . ai p k p
Nu i1 = k1 , . . . , i p = k p th nh thc con c gi l nh thc con chnh cp p.
nh ngha 1.4. nh thc con khc 0 c bc cao nht c gi l nh thc con c s v

cp ca n c gi l hng ca ma trn A.
!
i1 . . . i p
nh l 1.5. Nu A
l mt nh thc con c s ca A, th cc hng ca ma
k1 . . . k p
trn A l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng i1 , . . . , i p ca n, v cc hng i1 , . . . , i p ny c lp
tuyn tnh.
H qu 1.6. Hng ca mt ma trn bng s cc hng (ct) c lp tuyn tnh ln nht
ca n.
nh l 1.7 (Cng thc Binet - Cauchy). Gi s A v B l cc ma trn c n m v
m n tng ng v n m. Khi
det AB =
1 k1 < k2 < ...< k n m
Ak1 ...kn Bk1 ...kn ,
Ak1 ...kn l nh thc con thu c t cc ct k1 , . . . , kn ca A v Bk1 ...kn l nh thc con

thu c t cc hng k1 , . . . , kn ca B.
K hiu Aij = (1)i + j Mij , Mij l nh thc ca ma trn thu c t ma trn A bng
cch b i hng th i v ct th j, n c gi l phn b i s ca phn t aij . Khi ma
trn adj A = ( Aij )T c gi l ma trn lin hp ca ma trn A. Ta c cng thc sau:
A. adj( A) = det A.I
nh l 1.8. Ton t adj c cc tnh cht sau:
14
1. adj AB = adj B. adj A

2. adj XAX 1 = X (adj A)X 1
3. Nu AB = BA th (adj A) B = B(adj A).
nh l 1.9.

A p+1,p+1 . . . A p+1,n
A11 . . . A1p

..
. = | A | p1 .
.
.
.
.
.

.
...
...
.
.
.

A

A
...
Ann
p1 . . . A pp
n,p+1
H qu 1.10. Nu A l ma trn suy bin th rank(adj A) 1.

nh l 1.11 (Jacobi). Gi s 1 p < n v =
k. Khi
i1 . . . i n
j1 . . . kn
l mt php hon v bt

A
A

i p+1 ,j p+1 . . . Ai p+1 ,jn
i1 j1 . . . Ai1 j p

.

. = (1) | A| p1 .
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Ain ,j p+1 . . . Ain jn
Ai p j1 . . . Ai p j p
nh l 1.12 (Chebotarev). Cho p l mt s nguyn t v e = exp(2i/p). Khi tt c

p1
cc nh thc con ca nh thc Vandermonde (aij )i,i =0 l khc khng, aij = eij .
nh l 1.13 (Cng thc khai trin Laplace). C nh p hng i1 , i2 , . . . , i p ca A vi
i1 < i2 < . . . < i p . Khi
!
!
i
.
.
.
i
i
.
.
.
i
p
n
1
p
+
1
(1)i + j A
.A
,
det A =
j1 . . . j p
j p + 1 . . . jn
j1 < ...< j p ,j p+1 < ...< jn ,i p+1 < ...<in
i = i1 + . . . + i p , j = j1 + . . . + j p .
!
!
i
.
.
.
i
i
.
.
.
i
n
p
p+1
1
i lng (1)i + j A
c gi l phn b i s ca nh thc con A
.
j p + 1 . . . jn
j1 . . . j p
2.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 1.28. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng
| A + I | = n +
Sk n k ,
k=1
Sk l tng ca tt c Ckn cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca A.
2. nh thc con v phn ph i s
15
Bi tp 1.29. Chng minh rng

a
x1
11 . . . a1n

.
.. . . . ... vdots
= xi y j Aij ,

xn
an1 . . . ann
i,j

y1 . . . y n
0
Aij l phn b i s ca phn t aij .
Bi tp 1.30. Chng minh rng tng ca cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca A T A bng

tng bnh phng cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca A.
Bi tp 1.31. Cho A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n. Tnh
1
I A C
0 I B
0 0 I
Bi tp 1.32. Tm mt v d mt ma trn vung cp n m cc phn b i s ca n u

bng 0, ngoi tr phn t nm hng i v ct j.
Bi tp 1.33. Cho x v y l cc ct c di n. Chng minh rng
adj( I xy)T = xy T + (1 y T x ) I.
Bi tp 1.34. Cho A l mt ma trn phn xng. Chng minh rng adj( A) l mt ma trn
phn xng nu n l v i xng nu n chn.
Bi tp 1.35. Cho A l mt ma trn phn xng cp n vi cc phn t trn ng cho
chnh bng 1. Tnh adj A.
Bi tp 1.36. Tm tt c cc ma trn A c cc phn t khng m sao cho tt c cc phn
t ca ma trn A1 cng khng m.
Bi tp 1.37. Cho e = exp(2i/n) v A = (aij )1n vi aij = eij . Tnh A1 .
Bi tp 1.38. Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn Vandermonde V .
16
3. PHN B S CHUR
!
A B
Cho P =
l mt ma trn khi, A, D l cc ma trn vung. tnh nh
C D
thc ca ma trn P, ta c th phn tch P di dng sau:
!
!
!
!
A B
A 0
I Y
A
AY
=
=
(1.2)
C D
C I
0 X
C CY + X
Nu A l mt ma trn kh nghch th cc phng trnh B = AY v D = CY + X c nghim
ln lt l Y = A1 B v X = D CA1 B.
nh ngha 1.14. Ma trn D CA1 B c gi l phn b Schur ca ma trn kh nghch
A trong P, v c k hiu l ( P| A).
D dng nhn thy rng
Mt khc,
det P = det A det( P| A).

A
AY
C CY + X
A 0
C X
I Y
0 I
nn phng trnh (??) c th c vit di dng sau:

!
!
!
A 0
I A 1 B
I
0
P=
=
C P| A
0
I
CA1 I
Tng t, nu D l ma trn kh nghch, th
!
!
A BD 1 C 0
I BD 1
P=
0
I
0
D
A 0
0 P| A
(1.3)
0
D 1 C I
I A 1 B
0
I
nh l 1.15.
1. Nu | A| 6= 0 th | P| = | A|.| D CA1 B|;

2. Nu | D | 6= 0 th | P| = | A BD 1 C|.| D |.
3. P1 =
A1 + A1 BX 1 CA1 A1 BX 1
X 1 CA1
X 1
, X = ( P| A).
(1.4)
(1.5)
3. Phn b Schur
17
nh l 1.16. Nu A v D l cc ma trn vung cp n, det A 6= 0, v AC = CA, th

| P| = | AD CB|.
Ch 1.17. nh l ?? vn ng nu | A| = 0, tht vy, xt ma trn Ae = A + eI . D
dng thy rng ma trn Ae s kh nghch vi mi e nh! Hn na nu AC = CA th
Ae C = CAe .
nh l 1.18. Gi s u l mt hng, v l mt ct, v a l mt s bt k. Khi

A v

= a| A| u(adj A)v.

u a
A11 A12 A13
nh l 1.19 (Emily Haynsworth). Cho A = A21 A22 A23 , B =

A31 A32 A33
( A11 ) l cc ma trn vung, v B, C l cc ma trn kh nghch. Khi :
A11 A12
A21 A22
,C =
( A| B) = (( A|C)|( B|C)).
3.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 1.39. Cho u v v l cc hng c di n v A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng
minh rng
| A + uT v| = | A| + v(adj A)uT
Bi tp 1.40. Cho A l mt ma trn vung. Chn minh rng

I A

= 1 M12 + M22 M32 + . . .
T
A
I
Mk2 l tng bnh phng ca tt c cc nh thc con cp k ca A.
18
CHNG
KHNG
GIAN VCT
- NH
X TUYN TNH
1. KHNG GIAN I NGU - PHN B TRC GIAO

1.1 Khng gian i ngu
nh ngha 2.1. Vi mi khng gian vct V trn trng K, khng gian tuyn tnh V
m cc phn t ca n l cc nh x tuyn tnh trn V , ngha l, nh x f : V K sao
cho
f (1 v1 + 2 v2 ) = 1 f (v1 ) + 2 f (v2 ) vi mi 1 , 2 K v v1 , v2 V,
c gi l khng gian i ngu vi khng gian V .
nh l 2.2. Cho V l khng gian clit n chiu, chng minh iu kin cn v nh

x f : V R tuyn tnh l tn ti vct a c nh ca V f ( x ) =< a, x >, x V
Ch 2.3. Khi khng gian V c th c coi nh ng nht vi khng gian V .
Chng minh. iu kin : D dng chng minh nh x f ( x ) =< a, x >, x V l
nh x tuyn tnh vi mi vect a c nh c chn trc.
iu kin cn: Gi s f : V V l mt nh x tuyn tnh bt k.

(a) Nu f 0 th ta chn vect a = 0 tho mn yu cu bi ton.
(b) Nu f 6 0. Ta s chng minh dimKer f = n 1. Tht vy, v f 6 0 nn tn

ti t nht mt vect y V, y 6 Ker f . C nh mt vect y nh vy, khi vi
f (x)
f (x)
mi x V, t = f (y) , z = x y = x f (y) y th f (z) = 0 z Ker f .
Ta c x = z + y , tc l mi vect x V tha nhn phn tch thnh tng ca
2 vect, mt vect thuc Ker f v mt vect thuc spany. iu c ngha l
19
20
Chng 2. Khng gian vct - nh x tuyn tnh

V = Ker f + spany v suy ra dimKer f = n 1.
By gi gi s V c phn tch thnh tng trc giao V = Ker f + (Ker f ) th
dim (Ker f ) = 1 , tc (Ker f ) = span (y0 ) , trong ky0 k = 1 . t a =
f (y0 ) y0 (Ker f ) , ta s chng minh vect a tho mn yu cu bi ra, tc
l f ( x ) =< a, x >, x V. Tht vy: Vi mi x V, do V = Ker f + (Ker f ) =
Ker f + span (y0 ) nn x = y0 + y, y Ker f . Khi :
f ( x ) = f ( y0 ) + f ( y )
= f ( y0 )
= < f ( y0 ) y0 , y0 >
= < a, y0 >
=< a, y0 >

=< a, y0 + y > < a, y >= 0 do a (Ker f ) , y (Ker f )
=< a, x >
Vi mi c s e1 , e2 , . . . , en ca khng gian V, t ei (e j ) = ij , khi e1 , . . . , en s l c s ca

V . Mi phn t f V khi c th c biu din di dng
f =
f (ei )ei .
Do , nu c nh c s e1 , e2 , . . . , en ca khng gian V, chng ta c th xy dng c mt

ng cu g : V V bng cch t g(ei ) = ei .
Vi mi nh x tuyn tnh A : V1 V2 ton t i ngu A : V2 V1 xc nh bi
( A f 2 )(v1 ) = f 2 ( Av1 ) vi mi f 2 V2 v v1 V1 . thun tin hn, ta k hiu f (v) bi
< f , v >, khi nh ngha ca ton t A c th c vit li nh sau:
h A f 2 , v1 i = h f 2 , Av1 i
Gi (aij )1n l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh A trong cp c s {e } ca V1 v {e } ca V2 ,

Ae j = i aij ei . Tng t, gi (aij )1n l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh A trong cp c
s {e } ca V2 v {e } ca V1 .
B 2.4.
(aij ) = (aij )T
Gi s {e } v {e } l hai c s khc nhau ca khng gian vct V, A l ma trn chuyn
t c s {e } sang {e }, B l ma trn chuyn c s t {e } sang c s {e }.
B 2.5.
AB T = I.
H qu 2.6. Cc c s {e } v {e } cm sinh cng mt ng cu V V khi v ch khi A
l mt ma trn trc giao, ngha l AAT = I .
1. Khng gian i ngu - Phn b trc giao
21
1.2 Phn b trc giao

nh ngha 2.7. Vi mi khng gian con W V, khng gian
W = { f V | < f , w >= 0 vi mi w W },
c gi l phn b trc giao ca khng gian con W .

W l mt khng gian vct con ca V v dimW + dimW = dimV, bi v nu e1 , . . . , en
l mt c s ca V sao cho e1 , . . . , ek l mt c s ca W th khi ek+1 , . . . , en l mt c s
ca W .
B 2.8.
1. Nu W1 W2 th W2 W1 ,
2. (W ) = W ,
3. (W1 + W2 ) = W1 W2 v (W1 W2 ) = W1 + W2 ,
4. Nu V = W1 W2 th V = W1 W2 .
nh l 2.9. Nu A : V V l mt ton t tuyn tnh v AW W th A W W .
Trong khng gian cc ma trn c m n, tch trong (tch v hng) gia hai ma trn X, Y
c xc nh nh sau:
tr(XY T ) = xij yij .
i,j
nh l 2.10. Cho A l mt ma trn c m n. Nu vi mi ma trn X c n m ta c

tr( AX ) = 0 th A = 0.
1.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 2.1. Cho ma trn A vung cp n tha mn tnh cht tr( AX ) = 0 vi mi ma trn
X c vt bng 0. Chng minh rng A = I.
Bi tp 2.2. Cho A v B l cc ma trn c m n v k n tng ng, sao cho nu AX = 0
th BX = 0 vi X l mt vct ct no . Chng minh rng B = CA, C l mt ma trn
c k m.
22
2. HT NHN V NH - KHNG GIAN THNG

2.1 Ht nhn v nh
nh ngha 2.11. Cho A : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh t khng gian vct V ti
khng gian vct W . Khi
Ker( A) := { x | x V, A( x ) = 0}
c gi l ht nhn ca A.
Im( A) := {y|y W, x V, A( x ) = y} = { A( x )| x V }
c gi l nh ca A.
nh l 2.12. Cho A : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi
1. Ker( A) l mt khng gian vct con ca V .

2. Im( A) l mt khng gian vct con ca W .
3. dimKerA + dim Im A = dimV.
4. Nu B = {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } l mt c s ca V th
Im( A) = span{ A(e1 ), A(e2 ), . . . , A(en )}.
A
Cho U V W l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Khi

nh l 2.13.
dim(Im A KerB) = dim Im A dim Im BA = dimKerBA dimKerA.

nh l 2.14.
KerA = (Im A) v Im A = (KerA) .
H qu 2.15. rank A = rank A .
Ch 2.16. . Nu V l mt khng gian Euclide th V c th ng nht vi V , v
V = Im A (Im A) = Im A KerA = = A KerA.
2. Ht nhn v nh - Khng gian thng
23
nh l 2.17 (Fredholm). Cho A : V V l mt ton t tuyn tnh. Xt bn phng

trnh sau:
(1) Ax = y vi x, y V,
(2) A f = g vi f , g V ,
(3) Ax = 0,
(4) A f = 0.
Khi
1. hoc l cc phng trnh (1) v (2) c nghim vi mi v phi, v trong trng hp
ny nghim l duy nht
2. hoc l cc phng trnh (3) v (4) c cng s cc nghim c lp tuyn tnh x1 , . . . , xk
v f 1 , . . . , f k v trong trng hp ny cc phng trnh (1) (v (2) tng ng) c
nghim nu v ch nu f 1 (y) = . . . = f k (y) = 0 (tng ng g( x1 ) = . . . = g( xk ) = 0).
nh l 2.18. Phng trnh (2) c nghim khi v ch khi mt trong cc iu kin tng
ng sau c tha mn
a) Tn ti cc ma trn Y v Z sao cho C = AY v C = ZB;

!
B
b) rank A = rank( A, C) v rank B = rank
C
nh l 2.19. Cho rank A = a. Khi tn ti cc ma trn kh nghc L v R sao cho
LAR = Ia , Ia l ma trn cp n c a phn t trn ng cho bng 1, v cc phn t
cn li bng 0.
2.2 Khng gian thng

Nu W l mt khng gian vct con ca khng gian V th V c th c phn thnh
lp cc tp con nh sau:
Mv = { x V | x v W }.
Nhn xt rng Mv = Mv0 nu v ch nu v v0 W. Khi trn tp thng
V/W = { Mv |v V },
ta c th xy dng mt cu trc tuyn tnh bng cch t Mv = Mv v Mv + Mv0 =
Mv+v0 . Ch rng Mv v Mv+v0 khng ph thuc vo cch chn v v v0 .
nh ngha 2.20. Khng gian V/W c gi l khng gian thng ca V modulo W
24
thun tin ngi ta thng k hiu lp Mv bi v + W. nh x

p : V V/W, p(v) = Mv ,
c gi l php chiu chnh tc t V ln V/W. Hin nhin, Kerp = W v Im p = V/W.
B 2.21. dim(V/W ) = dimV dimW
Chng minh. Nu e1 , . . . , ek l mt c s ca W v e1 , . . . , ek , ek+1 , . . . , en l mt c s ca V
th p(e1 ) = . . . = p(ek ) = 0 v p(ek+1 ), . . . , p(en ) l mt c s ca V/W.
nh l 2.22.
1. (U/W )/(V/W )
= U/V nu W V U ;
2. V/V W
= (V + W )/W nu V, W U .
2.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 2.3. Cho A l mt ton t tuyn tnh. Chng minh rng
dimKerA
n +1
= dimKerA +
dim(Im Ak KerA)
k=1
v
dim Im A = dim Im A
n +1
dim(Im Ak KerA).
k=1
3. C s ca khng gian vct - c lp tuyn tnh
25
3. C S CA KHNG GIAN VCT - C LP TUYN

TNH
3.1 Bi ton i c s
Cho A l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V W trong cp c s e = {e1 , . . . , en } ca
V v e = {e1 , . . . , en } ca W. Gi s e0 = eP v e0 = eQ l cc c s khc ca V v W. Khi
A0 = Q1 AP
l ma trn ca f trong cp c s e0 v e0 . c bit, nu V = W v P = Q th A0 = P1 AP.
nh l 2.23. Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh A, a thc c trng
|I A| = n + an1 n1 + . . . + a0
khng ph thuc vo cch chn c s ca khng gian V .
nh l 2.24 (Green, 1973). . Cho x1 , . . . , xn v y1 , . . . , yn l hai c s ca khng gian V ,
1 k n. Khi k vct ca y1 , . . . , yn c th hon i c vi cc vct x1 , . . . , xk sao cho
chng ta vn thu c 2 c s khc ca khng gian V .
nh l 2.25 (Aupetit, 1988). Cho T l mt ton t tuyn tnh trn khng gian V sao
cho vi mi V cc vct , T, . . . , T n l c lp tuyn tnh. Khi cc ton t tuyn
tnh I, T, . . . , T n l c lp tuyn tnh.
3.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 2.4. Trong V n cho cc vct e1 , . . . , em . Chng minh rng nu m n + 2 th tn
ti cc s 1 , . . . , m khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho i ei = 0 v i = 0.
Bi tp 2.5. Mt t hp tuyn tnh li ca cc vct v1 , . . . , vm l mt vct bt k
x = t1 v 1 + . . . + t m v m ,
ti 0 v ti = 1. Chng minh rng trong mt khng gian vct thc n chiu, bt k

t hp tuyn tnh li ca m vct cng l mt t hp tuyn tnh li ca khng nhiu hn
n + 1 vct cho trc.
Bi tp 2.6. Chng minh rng nu | aii | > k6=i | aik | vi mi i = 1, . . . , n th A = (aij )1n l
mt ma trn kh nghch.
26
Bi tp 2.7.
a) Cho cc vct e1 , . . . , en+1 trong mt khng gian Euclide n chiu, sao cho
(ei , e j ) < 0 nu i 6= j, chng minh rng mi n vct rt ra t h n + 1 vct trn u
l mt c s ca V .
b) Chng minh rng nu e1 , . . . , em l cc vct trong R n sao cho (ei , e j ) < 0 vi i 6= j th

m n + 1.
4. Hng ca ma trn
27
4. HNG CA MA TRN
nh ngha 2.26. Cho A l mt ma trn c m n. Hng ca ma trn A l cp cao nht
ca cc nh thc con khc khng ca n.
4.1 Cc tnh cht ca hng ca ma trn

B 2.27.
1. rank( A) min{m, n}. Nu A l ma trn vung cp n th A kh nghch khi v ch khi

rank( A) = n.
2. rank( A + B) rank( A) + rank( B).
nh l 2.28. (nh l Sylvester) Cho A, B l cc ma trn c m n v n p tng ng.
Khi
rank( AB) = rank( B) dim(Im B KerA)
Ni ring,
rank( A) + rank( B) n rank( AB) min{rank( A), rank( B)}

Chng minh. Ch rng nu A l ton t tuyn tnh trn khng gian vct n chiu th
n = dim Im A + dimKerA
v nu A l ma trn ca ton t tuyn tnh A th
rank( A) = dim Im A.
By gi xem A nh l nh x tuyn tnh trn khng gian vct con Im B. Khi nh ca
n l Im AB v ht nhn ca n l Im B KerA. Do ta c
dim Im AB + dim(Im B KerA) = dim Im B.
Cui cng, ch rng bt ng thc cn chng minh c suy ra trc tip t ng thc
trn v bt ng thc sau:
dim Im A + dimKer(Im B KerA) dim Im A + dimKerA = n.
nh l 2.29 (Bt ng thc Frobenius).
rank( AB) + rank( BC) rank( B) + rank( ABC)
28
B 2.30. Hng ca ma trn A bng c nh nht ca cc ma trn B, C, sao cho A = BC.

Chng minh. Nu A = BC v c nh nht ca cc ma trn B, C bng k. Khi ta cn
chng minh
rank( A) min{rank B, rank C} k.
nh l 2.31 (Flanders, 1962). Cho r m n v Mn,m l khng gian cc ma trn c
n m. Gi s U l khng gian vct con ca Mn,m tha mn hng ln nht ca cc phn
t ca U bng r. Khi
dimU nr.
!
B11 B12
, B21 B12 = 0.
B 2.32. Nu B U th B =
B21 0
B 2.33. Nu B, C U th B21 C12 + C21 B12 = 0.
4.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 2.8. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. CMR tn ti k n sao cho r ( Ak ) = r ( Am )
vi mi m k. Ni ring r ( An ) = r ( An+1 ).
Bi tp 2.9. Gi s cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A c phn thc m. Chng minh rng
tn ti ma trn xc nh dng C sao cho AT C + CA = I.
Bi tp 2.10. Cho aij = xi + y j . Chng minh rng rank(aij )1n 2.
Bi tp 2.11. Cho A l mt ma trn vung c hng bng 1. Chng minh rng
| A + I | = 1 + tr A.
Bi tp 2.12. Chng minh rng rank( A A) = rank A.
Bi tp 2.13. Cho A l mt ma trn kh nghch. Chng minh rng nu rank
rank A th D = CA1 B.
A B
C D
Bi tp 2.14. Cho A1 , A2 l cc ma trn c cng c, v V1 , V2 l khng gian vct sinh

bi cc hng ca A1 , A2 tng ng, W1 , W2 l khng gian vct sinh bi cc ct ca A1 , A2
tng ng. Chng minh rng cc iu kin sau l tng ng.
1. rank( A1 + A2 ) = rank A1 + rank A2 ,
4. Hng ca ma trn
29
2. V1 V2 = 0,
3. W1 W2 = 0.
Bi tp 2.15. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn c cng c v B T A = 0 th
rank( A + B) = rank A + rank B.
Bi tp 2.16. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cp l. Chng minh rng nu AB = 0 th
t nht mt trong hai ma trn A + AT v B + B T l suy bin.
30
CHNG
DNG
CHNH TC CA MA TRN V TON

T TUYN TNH
1. VT CA MA TRN
nh ngha 3.1. Vt ca ma trn A l tng ca cc phn t trn ng cho ca n, c

k hiu l tr A.
D thy
tr AB =
aij bji = tr BA.

i,j
Do ,
tr PAP1 = tr P1 AP = tr A,
ngha l, hng ca ma trn ca ton t tuyn tnh khng ph thuc vo cch chn c s
ca khng gian.
Nu A l ton t tuyn tnh trn khng gian Euclidean th:
nh l 3.2. Cho e1 , . . . , en l mt c s chun tc. Khi
n
tr A =
( Aei , ei ).
i =1
31
32
Chng 3. Dng chnh tc ca ma trn v ton t tuyn tnh
2. C U TRC CA T NG CU
2.1 Tr ring v vct ring
Gi s V l mt khng gian vct, f : V V l mt t ng cu ca V. Vic nghin
cu f trn ton khng gian V i khi gp kh khn, v V qu ln. Ngi ta mun trnh
iu bng cch hn ch f ln mt s lp khng gian con no U ca V.
nh ngha 3.3. Khng gian vct con U ca V c gi l mt khng gian con n nh
i vi f (hay mt khng gian con f n nh nu f (U ) U .
i khi ngi ta ni U l mt khng gian con n nh (nu f r).

i vi t ng cu f : V V, cc khng gian con sau y l n nh: {0}, V, Ker f , Im f .
Nu c cc khng gian con n nh U1 , U2 sao cho V = U1 U2 th f |U1 v f |U2 u l
cc t ng cu. Khi vic nghin cu f trn V c th quy v vic nghin cu f i trn Ui .
Ni r hn, nu f 1 c ma trn l A trong c s {e1 , e2 , . . . , em } ca U1 v f 2 c ma trn l B
trong c s {em+1 , . . . , en } ca U2 th f c ma trn
"
#
A 0
0 B
trong c s {e1 , e2 , . . . , en } ca V.
Sau y ta xt mt trng hp ring c bit th v, c nhiu ng dng trong C hc,
Vt l. l trng hp cc khng gian con n nh mt chiu.
nh ngha 3.4. Gi s f l mt t ng cu ca khng gian vct V . Nu c vct 6= 0
v v hng R sao cho f () = , th c gi l mt gi tr ring ca f cn c
gi l mt vct ring ng vi tr ring .
nh ngha 3.5. Gi s l mt tr ring ca t ng cu f : V V . Khng gian vct
Ker( f idV ) gm tt c cc vct ring ng vi tr ring v vct khng c gi l
khng gian con ring ca f ng vi tr ring .
nh ngha 3.6. a thc bc n mt n X vi h s thc
Pf (X ) = det( f X idV )
c gi l a thc c trng ca t ng cu f .
a thc bc n mt n X vi h s thc
PA (X ) = det( A X idV )
c gi l a thc c trng ca ma trn A. Nghim ca a thc ny c gi l gi tr

ring ca A.
2. Cu trc ca t ng cu
33
Mnh 3.7. Gi s U l mt khng gian con n nh vi t ng cu f : V V . Gi

f : V/U V/U, f [] = [ f ()] l ng cu cm sinh bi f . Khi , a thc c trng ca
f bng tch cc a thc c trng ca f |U v f .
nh l 3.8. Cho A, B l cc ma trn vung cp n. Khi a thc c trng ca AB v
BA l trng nhau.
H qu 3.9. Cho A, B l cc ma trn c m n. Khi cc a thc c trng ca AB T v
B T A khc nhau bi nhn t nm .
nh l 3.10. Cho ma trn vung A c tng ca cc phn t trn mi ct ca n bng 1,
v gi s ( x1 , . . . , xn )T l vct ring ca A tha mn x1 + . . . xn 6= 0. Khi gi tr ring
tng ng vi vct ring ny bng 1.
nh l 3.11. Nu tng ca cc gi tr tuyt i ca cc phn t trn mi ct ca ma trn
A khng vt qu 1, th tt c cc gi tr ring ca n cng khng vt qu 1.
2.2 T ng cu cho ho c
nh ngha 3.12. T ng cu f ca khng gian vct V c gi l cho ho c nu
c mt c s ca V gm ton cc vct ring ca f . Ni cch khc f cho ho c nu ma
trn ca n trong mt c s no ca V l mt ma trn cho.
Gi A l ma trn ca f trong mt c s no ca V. T nh ngha ta suy ra f cho ho
c khi v ch khi tn ti ma trn C kh nghch sao cho C1 AC l mt ma trn cho.
nh ngha 3.13. Ma trn A ng dng vi mt ma trn cho c gi l ma trn cho
ho c.
nh l 3.14. Gi s t ng cu f : V V c tnh cht f 2 = f . Khi f cho ho c.
nh l 3.15 (iu kin cn v cho s cho ho). T ng cu f ca khng gian
vct n chiu V cho ho c nu v ch nu hai iu kin sau y c tho mn:
(i) a thc c trng ca f c nghim trong R:

Pf (X ) = (1)n (X 1 )s1 (X 2 )s2 . . . (X m )sm
(ii) rank( f i idV ) = n si (vi i = 1, 2, . . . , m), y si l bi ca i xem nh nghim

ca a thc c trng.
34
Ch 3.16. Trn trng s phc C hu ht cc ton t tuyn tnh u cho ha c, ch

c cc ton t c tr ring bi l c th khng cho ha c, v cc ton t nh vy s to
thnh mt tp hp c o 0. Ni ring, tt c cc ton t unita v Hermitian u cho
ha c, v tn ti mt c s trc giao bao gm cc vct ring ca n. iu ny l do nu
AW W th AW W .
Ch thm rng cc vct ring ca ton t unita c di bng 1, v | Ax | = | x |. Cc
tr ring ca ton t Hermitian l thc v ( Ax, x ) = ( x, Ax ) = ( Ax, x ).
nh l 3.17. Cho A l mt ma trn trc giao, khi tn ti mt c s trc giao sao cho!
cos sin
.
ma trn ca A trong c s c dng ng cho khi vi cc khi 1, hoc
sin cos
2.3 a thc ti tiu

nh ngha 3.18. a thc c bc nh nht trit tiu ma trn A v c h s cao nht bng
1 c gi l a thc ti tiu ca A.
Ch 3.19. a thc ti tiu ca ton t tuyn tnh c nh ngha bng a thc ti tiu
ca ma trn ca n trong mt c s no , v khng ph thuc vo cch chn c s ca
khng gian.
nh l 3.20. Mi a thc trit tiu A u chia ht cho a thc ti tiu ca n.
nh ngha 3.21. a thc p c gi l trit tiu vct v V ng vi ton t tuyn tnh
A : V V nu p( A)v = 0. a thc trit tiu vct v c bc nh nht v c h s cao nht
bng 1 c gi l a thc ti tiu ca v.
nh l 3.22. Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh A : V V , tn ti mt vct v V sao cho a
thc ti tiu ca n ng vi A trng vi a thc ti tiu ca ton t A.
nh l 3.23 (Cayley - Hamilton). Mi ma trn u l nghim ca a thc c trng
ca n.
nh l 3.24 (Farahat, Lederman, 1958). a thc c trng ca ma trn A cp n trng
vi a thc ti tiu ca n khi v ch khi vi mi vct ( x1 , . . . , xn ) tn ti cc ct P v Q c
di n sao cho xk = Q T Ak P.
nh l 3.25 (Greenberg, 1984). Cho p A (t) l a thc c trng ca ma trn A, v X l
ma trn giao hon vi A. Khi p A (X ) = M( A X ), M l mt ma trn giao hon vi
A v X .
35
2.4 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.1. Chng minh rng cc h s ca a thc c trng ca ma trn A c th c
m t nh sau:
det( A I ) = ()n + c1 ()n1 + . . . + cn
trong ck l tng ca tt c cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca ma trn A. (Mt nh thc

con c gi l chnh nu cc ch s hng v ch s ct ca n trng nhau).
Bi tp 3.2. Gi s l nghim bi p ca a thc c trng ca ma trn A vung cp n.
a. Chng minh rng s chiu ca khng gian ring ng vi gi tr ring khng ln

hn p.
b. t r = rank( A I ). Chng minh rng 1 n r p.
Bi tp 3.3. Chng minh rng cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A1 bng bng nghch o
ca cc gi tr ring ca A (k c bi).
Chng minh.
det( A
I ) = () . det( A

1
). det A I .
Bi tp 3.4. Chng minh rng cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A2 bng bng bnh phng
ca cc gi tr ring ca A (k c bi).
Chng minh. Gi s 1 , 2 , . . . , n l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A (k c bi). Khi
det( A I ) = (1 )(2 ) . . . (n )
det( A + I ) = (1 + )(2 + ) . . . (n + )
Nhn hai v ca cc ng thc trn vi nhau ta c
det( A2 2 I ) = (21 2 )(22 2 ) . . . (2n 2 )
thay 2 bi trong ng thc trn ta c
det( A2 I ) = (21 )(22 ) . . . (2n )
suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Bi tp 3.5. Chng minh rng cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A p bng lu tha p ca cc
gi tr ring ca A (k c bi).
36
Chng
bi tp trn, gi 1, e1 , e2 , . . . , en1 l cc cn bc p khc nhau
minh. Tng t nh
2k
2k
ca 1 ek = cos p + i sin p . Ta c
det( A I ) = (1 )(2 ) . . . (n )
det( A e1 I ) = (1 e1 )(2 e1 ) . . . (n e1 )
..
.
det( A e p1 I ) = (1 e p1 )(2 e p1 ) . . . (n e p1 )
Nhn cc v ca p phng trnh trn vi nhau ta c
p
det( An p I ) = (1 p )(2 p ) . . . (n p )
Thay p bi trong ng thc trn ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
Bi tp 3.6. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n vi cc phn t trong mt trng ng
i s K. Gi 1 , 2 , . . . , n l cc gi tr ring (k c bi) ca ma trn A. Chng minh rng
nu f (X ) l mt a thc vi cc h s trong K th
det f ( A) = f (1 ) f (2 ) . . . f (n ).
Chng minh. Theo bi ra,
n
det( A I ) =
( i ).
i =1
j =1
j =1
Gi s f () = a0 ( i ), khi f ( A) = a0 ( A i I ). Vy
det f ( A) =
a0n
det( A j I )
j =1
s n
= a0n (i mu j )
j =1 i =1
"
= a0 ( i j )
i =1
n
j =1
= f ( i )
i =1
Bi tp 3.7. Chng minh rng nu PA () = (i )si l a thc c trng ca A th

i =1
a thc c trng ca f ( A) vi f l mt a thc l Pf ( A) () = ( f (i ))si .

i =1
37
Chng minh. p dng bi tp ?? vi hm s g( x ) = f ( x ) , gi s PA () = det( A

n
I ) = (i ). (k c bi), ta c
i =1
det g( A) =
g ( i )
i =1
hay
n
Pf ( A) () = det( f ( A) I ) =
( f ( i ) )
i =1
Bi tp 3.8. Chng minh rng nu 1 , 2 , . . . , n l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A v

f (X ) l mt a thc th f (1 ), f (2 ), . . . , f (n ) l cc tr ring ca ma trn f ( A).
Chng minh. L mt h qu trc tip ca bi tp ??.
Bi tp 3.9. Chng minh rng nu 1 , 2 , . . . , n l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A v
g( x )
f ( x ) = h(x) l mt phn thc hu t xc nh khi x = A (ngha l det h( A) 6= 0), khi
det f ( A) = f (1 ) f (2 ) . . . f (n ) v f (1 ), f (2 ), . . . , f (n ) l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn
f ( A ).
Chng minh. p dng ng thc det f ( A) =
??, ??, ??.
det( g( A)
v s dng cc kt qu ca bi tp
det(h( A)
Bi tp 3.10. Chng minh rng nu A, B l cc ma trn vung cng cp th cc a thc

c trng ca AB v BA trng nhau.
Chng minh.
i) Nu A l ma trn khng suy bin th AB v BA l cc ma trn ng
dng nn c cng a thc c trng.
ii) Nu A suy bin th 0 l mt gi tr ring ca A. Chn m ln sao cho Ak = A 1k I
khng suy bin vi mi k m. (k t m ln no , 1k , k m khng phi l gi tr
ring ca A). Khi Ak B v BAk c cng a thc c trng. Cho k ta c iu
phi chng minh.
Bi tp 3.11. Cho P l mt ma trn hon v. Chng minh rng Pn = I; P T = P1 . Tm
cc gi tr ring ca P.
Bi tp 3.12.
a) C tn ti hay khng cc ma trn vung cng cp A v B sao cho AB BA = I ?
38
b) Chng minh rng nu AB BA = A th | A| = 0.

Bi tp 3.13. Tm tr ring v vct ring ca ma trn A = (aij ) vi aij = i / j .
Bi tp 3.14. Chng minh rng mi ma trn vung A u l tng ca hai ma trn kh
nghch.
Bi tp 3.15. Chng minh rng cc tr ring ca ma trn ph thuc lin tc vo cc phn
t ca n. Ni r hn, cho trc ma trn A = (aij ). Khi vi mi e > 0, tn ti > 0 sao
cho nu | aij bij | < v l mt tr ring ca A, th tn ti mt tr ring ca B = (bij )
sao cho | | < e.
Bi tp 3.16. Tng ca cc phn t trn mi hng ca ma trn kh nghch A bng s.
Chng minh rng tng ca cc phn t trn mi hng ca A1 bng 1/s.
Bi tp 3.17. Chng minh rng nu hng u tin ca ma trn S1 AS c dng (, 0, 0, . . . , 0),
th ct u tin ca ma trn S l mt vct ring ca ma trn A ng vi vct ring .
Bi tp 3.18. Cho f () = |I A|, A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng
n
f 0 () = |i Ai |, Ai l ma trn thu c t A bng cch b i hng th i v ct
th j.
i =1
Bi tp 3.19. Cho 1 , . . . , n l cc tr ring ca ma trn A. Chng minh rng cc tr

ring ca ma trn adj A l i 6=1 , . . . , i 6=n .
Bi tp 3.20. Vct x c gi l i xng (phn i xng, tng ng) nu cc ta ca
n tha mn ( xi = xni ) (tng ng (xi = xni )). Cho A = (aij ) l mt ma trn i xng
tm (aij = an j,n j). Chng minh rng trong cc vct ring ca A ng vi cc tr ring,
tn ti hoc l mt vct ring i xng, hoc l mt vct ring phn i xng.
Bi tp 3.21. Cho ma trn A vung, phc cp n c cc phn t ai,ni +1 = xi c th khc
0, cn cc phn t cn li bng 0. Tm iu kin ca { x1 , . . . , xn } sao cho ma trn A cho
ha c.
Bi tp 3.22 (Drazin, Haynsworth, 1962).
a) Chng minh rng ma trn A c m vct
ring c lp tuyn tnh tng ng vi cc tr ring thc khi v ch khi tn ti ma
trn vung S xc nh khng m c hng bng m sao cho AS = SA .
b) Chng minh rng ma trn A c m vct ring c lp tuyn tnh tng ng vi cc

tr ring tha mn || = 1 khi v ch khi tn ti ma trn vung S xc nh khng
m c hng bng m sao cho ASA = S.
39
Bi tp 3.23. Cho A l mt ma trn cp n v

f 1 ( A) = A (tr A) I, f k+1 ( A) = f k ( A) A
1
tr( f k ( A) A) I.
k+1
Chng minh rng f n ( A) = 0.

Bi tp 3.24. Cho A v B l cc ma trn cp n. Chng minh rng nu tr Am = tr Bm vi
mi m = 1, . . . , n th cc tr ring ca A v B l trng nhau.
Bi tp 3.25. Cho A l mt ma trn kh nghch v a thc c trng ca n trng vi a
thc ti tiu. Chng minh rng a thc ti tiu ca A1 bng p(0)1 n p(1 ).
Bi tp 3.26. Cho ( x i )ni l!a thc ti tiu ca ma trn A. Chng minh rng a
A I
thc ti tiu ca ma trn
l ( x i )ni +1 .
0 A
40
3. D NG CHUN CA MA TRN
3.1 Dng chun Jordan ca ma trn
nh l 3.26. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung thc v A = P1 BP, P l mt ma
trn phc. Khi tn ti ma trn thc Q sao cho A = Q1 BQ.
iu c ngha l tp hp tt c cc ma trn c dng A = P1 BP vi P l mt ma trn
phc th khng ln hn tp hp tt c cc ma trn c dng A = Q1 BQ vi Q l mt ma
trn thc.
Mt khi Jordan c r r l mt ma trn c dng
1 0 ... ... 0
0 1 . . . . . . 0
.. .. . . . . . . ..
.
.
. .
. .
Jr () =
0 0 0 . . . 1 0
0 0 0 . . . 1
0 0 0 ... 0
nh ngha 3.27. Mt ma trn Jordan l mt ma trn khi c cc khi Jordan trn ng
cho.
Mt c s Jordan ca ton t tuyn tnh A : V V l mt c s ca khng gian V sao
cho ma trn ca n trong c s l mt ma trn Jordan.
nh l 3.28 (Jordan). Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh A : V V trn C, tn ti mt c
s Jordan, v ma trn Jordan ca n c xc nh duy nht, sai khc hon v cc khi
Jordan ca n.
Ch 3.29. Dng chun Jordan ca mt ma trn c s dng mt cch rt thun tin
trong vic thc hin php tnh ly tha mt ma trn. C th hn, nu A = P1 JP th
An = P1 J n P. tnh ly tha ca khi Jordan Jr () = I + N , ta c cng thc khai trin
Newton:
Jn =
Ckn k N nk ,
k=0
Ch 3.30. C s Jordan lun lun tn ti trn cc trng ng i s. Trn R khng

phi lc no cng tn ti c s Jordan. Tuy nhin trn trng s thc cng tn ti mt
dng Jordan, l thc ha dng chun Jordan trn trng s phc.
3. Dng chun ca ma trn
41
nh l 3.31. Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh A trn trng s thc, lun tn ti mt c s m

ma trn ca n trong c s cho c dng ng cho khi vi cc khi Jm1 (t1 ), . . . , Jmk (tk )
tng ng vi tr ring thc ti v cc khi Jn1 (1 ), . . . , Jns (s ) tng ng vi tr ring phc
i v i , Jn () l ma trn c 2n 2n thu c t khi
! Jordan Jn () bng cch thay
a b
.
th mi phn t c dng a + ib ca n bi ma trn
b a
Ch 3.32. T dng chun Jordan, mi ton t tuyn tnh A trn C u c th c
phn tch di dng A = As + An , As l cho ha c, v An l lu linh, hn na
As An = An As .
nh l 3.33. Cc ton t As v An l xc nh duy nht, hn na As = S( A) v An =
N ( A), S v N l cc a thc no .
nh l 3.34. Cho A l mt ton t tuyn tnh kh nghch trn trng s phc C. Khi
A c th biu din di dng A = As Au = Au As , As l ton t cho ha c v Au
l mt ton t ly n (ton t ly n l tng ca ton t ng nht v ton t ly linh).
Biu din ny l duy nht.
Chng minh. Nu A kh nghch th As cng kh nghch. Khi A = As + An = As Au ,
1
1
Au = A
s ( As + An ) = I + As An .
3.2 Dng chun Frobenius

Dng chun Jordan ch l mt trong s nhiu dng chun khc nhau ca ma trn ca
nh x tuyn tnh. Mt trong nhng dng chun khc c gii thiu trong mc ny l
dng tun hon, hay cn gi l dng chun Frobenius.
Mt khi Frobenius hay khi tun hon l mt ma trn c dng
0 0 0 ... 0
a0
a1
1 0 0 . . . 0
0 1 0 . . . 0
a
(3.1)
2
..
.. .. . . . . . .
.
.
.
. .
.
0 0 0 . . . 1 an 1
Nu A : V n V n v Ae1 = e2 , . . . , Aen1 = en th ma trn ca A i vi c s e1 , . . . , en l

mt khi Frobenius.
nh l 3.35. Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh A : V V trn trng s thc hoc phc, tn

ti mt c s ca V m ma trn ca A trong c s l ma trn c dng ng cho
khi vi cc khi Frobenius.
42
B 3.36. a thc c trng ca khi Frobenius (??) trng vi a thc ti tiu ca n,

n 1
v bng n + ak k .
k=0
3.3 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.27. Chng minh rng A v A T l cc ma trn ng dng.
Bi tp 3.28. Cho (i ), i = 1, . . . , n l mt php hon v bt k v P = ( pij ), pij = i( j) .
Chng minh rng ma trn P1 AP thu c t ma trn A bng cch php hon v cc
ct v cc hng ca n. Ma trn P c gi l ma trn hon v tng ng vi .
Bi tp 3.29. Cho ma trn A c m tr ring phn bit, m > 1. t bij tr( Ai + j ). Chng
minh rng |bij |0m1 6= 0 v |bij |0m = 0
Bi tp 3.30. Chng minh rng rank A = rank A2 nu v ch nu tn ti lim ( A + I )1 A.
0
Bi tp 3.31. Cho A l mt khi Jordan. Chng minh rng tn ti mt vct v sao cho
cc vct v, Av, A2 v, . . . , An1 v to nn mt c s ca khng gian V . Khi ma trn ca A
trong c s l ma trn c dng khi Frobenius.
Bi tp 3.32. Vi mi khi Frobenius A tn ti mt ma trn i xng S sao cho A =
SA T S1 .
4. Biu din ma trn
43
4. B IU DIN MA TRN
4.1 Rt gn mt ma trn v ma trn dng ng cho
n gin
Nhn xt rng php bin i A 7 XAX 1 bo ton vt ca ma trn A. Chnh v vy
m cc phn t trn ng cho ca ma trn XAX 1 khng th ty . nh l sau y cho
php chng ta rt gn ng cho ca ma trn A 6= I v dng n gin (0, 0, . . . , 0, tr A).
nh l 3.37 (Gibson, 1975). Cho A 6= I . Khi ma trn A ng dng vi ma trn
ng cho diag(0, 0, . . . , 0, tr A).
nh l 3.38. Cho A l mt ma trn phc bt k. Khi tn ti ma trn unita U sao cho
cc phn t trn ng cho ca ma trn U AU 1 l bng nhau.
nh l 3.39 (Marcus, Purves, 1959). Mi ma trn vung A khc 0 u ng dng vi
mt ma trn m tt c cc phn t trn ng cho ca n u khc 0.
4.2 Biu ma trn di dng ta cc

Cng ging nh mi mt s phc z = a + bi u c th c biu din di dng
z = |z|.ei , mi ma trn S u c th c biu din di dng A = SU, trong S l mt
ma trn Hermitian v U l mt ma trn unita.
nh l 3.40. Mi ma trn vung A trn R (hoc C) u c th biu din c di dng
A = SU , S l mt ma trn symmetric (Hermitian) xc nh khng m, v U l mt
ma trn trc giao (unita). Nu A kh nghch th phn tch trn l duy nht.
Ch 3.41. Tng t, chng ta cng c th xy dng c mt phn tch A = U1 S1
S1 l ma trn symmetric (Hermitian) v U1 l ma trn trc giao (unita). Khi S = S1
khi v ch khi AA = A A, ngha l A l mt ma trn chun tc.
nh l 3.42. Mi ma trn vung A u c th biu din c di dng A = UDW ,
U v W l cc ma trn unita v D l mt ma trn ng cho.
nh l 3.43. Cho A = S1 U1 = U2 S2 l cc biu din ca ma trn kh nghch A di
dng ta cc. Khi U1 = U2 .
44
4.3 Biu din Schur

nh l 3.44 (Schur). Mi ma trn vung A trn trng s phc C u c th c biu
din di dng A = UTU , U l ma trn unita v T l ma trn tam gic, hn na, A
l chun tc nu v ch nu T l ma trn ng cho.
4.4 Biu din Lanczos

nh l 3.45 (Lanczos, 1958). Mi ma trn thc c m n c hng p > 0 u c th c
biu din di dng A = XY T X v Y l cc ma trn c m p v n p vi cc ct
trc giao v l ma trn ng cho c p p.
4.5 Bi tp
Bi tp 3.33. Chng minh rng vi mi ma trn vung A khc 0 u tn ti ma trn X
sao cho cc ma trn X v A + X c cc tr ring khc 0 u khc nhau.
Bi tp 3.34. Chng minh rng mi php bin i tuyn tnh trn R n l t hp ca mt
php bin i trc giao v mt php co gin dc theo hng vung gc (vi cc h s phn
bit).
Bi tp 3.35. Cho A : R n R n l mt ton t co, ngha l | Ax | | x |. Coi R n l khng
gian con ca R2n . Chng minh rng A l hn ch ln R n ca t hp ca php mt php
bin i trc giao trn R2n v mt php chiu ln R n .
Bi tp 3.36 (Phn tch Gauss). Gi s mi nh thc con | aij |1 , p = 1, . . . , n ca ma
trn A vung cp n bng 0. Chng minh rng A c th biu din di dng A = T1 T2 ,
T1 l ma trn tam gic di v T2 l mt ma trn tam gic trn.
p
Bi tp 3.37 (Phn tch Gram). Chng minh rng mi ma trn kh nghch X c th

biu din c di dng X = UT , U l mt ma trn trc giao v T l mt ma trn
tam gic trn.
Bi tp 3.38 (Ramakrishnan, 1972). Cho B = diag(1, e, . . . , en1 ), e = exp( 2i
n , v
n
C = (cij )1 , cij = i,j1 ( y j 1 c xem nh l modulo n). Chng minh rng mi
ma trn M vung cp n trn C c biu din duy nht di dng M = nk,l=10 akl Bk Cl .
Bi tp 3.39. Chng minh rng mi ma trn phn xng A c th c biu din di
dng
A = S1 S2 S2 S1 ,
S1 v S2 l cc ma trn i xng.
CHNG
CC
MA TRN C DNG C BIT
1. MA TRN I XNG - MA TRN HERMITIAN

nh ngha 4.1. Ma trn thc A c gi l i xng nu A = A T .
Ma trn phc A c gi l Hermitian nu A = A, A = A T .
Cc tnh cht n gin:
1. Cc gi tr ring ca ma trn Hermitian u thc.
2. Mi ma trn Hermitian A u c th c phn tch di dng U DU, U l ma
trn unita v D l ma trn ng cho.
3. Ma trn A l ma trn Hermitian khi v ch khi ( Ax, x ) R vi mi vct x.
Mi ma trn i xng A c mt dng ton phng q( x ) = x T Ax v dng song tuyn tnh
B( x, y) = x T Ay tng ng.
nh ngha 4.2. Trong trng hp thc, nu A l mt ma trn i xng, th dng ton
phng x T Ax c gi l xc nh dng nu x T Ax > 0 vi mi x 6= 0. Ma trn A khi
c gi l ma trn xc nh dng, v vit A > 0.
Trong trng hp phc, nu A l mt ma trn Hermitian, th dng Hermitian (hay cn
gi l dng na song tuyn tnh) x Ax c gi l xc nh dng nu x Ax > 0 vi mi
x 6= 0. Ma trn A khi c gi l ma trn xc nh dng, v vit A > 0.
45
46
Chng 4. Cc ma trn c dng c bit
Ch 4.3. Nu A l mt ma trn Hermitian, gi s U l ma trn tha mn A = U DU,

D l mt ma trn ng cho. Khi x Ax = (Ux ) D (Ux ). Khi bng php i bin
y = Ux, dng Hermitian c th biu din di dng sau:
i y i y i = i | y i | 2 .
Khi nu A xc nh dng th vt ca n, 1 + . . . + n v nh thc ca n 1 . . . n u
dng.
nh l 4.4 (Tiu chun Sylvester). Cho A = (aij ) l mt ma trn Hermitian. Khi
A xc nh dng khi v ch khi tt c cc nh thc con chnh ca n u dng.
nh l 4.5. Nu A l mt ma trn xc nh khng m, v x l mt vct sao cho x Ax =
0. Khi Ax = 0.
nh l 4.6. Cho A l mt ma trn xc nh dng, B l mt ma trn Hermitian. Khi
AB l mt ma trn cho ha c, v s cc tr ring dng, m v bng 0 ca n bng vi
s cc gi tr tng ng ca B.
nh l 4.7. Mi ma trn cho ha c vi cc tr ring thc u c th biu din c
di dng tch ca mt ma trn xc nh dng v mt ma trn Hermitian.
1.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.1. Chng minh rng mi ma trn Hermitian c hng bng r u c th biu
din c di dng tng ca r ma trn Hermitian c hng bng 1.
Bi tp 4.2. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma trn xc nh dng, th adj A cng l
mt ma trn xc nh dng.
Bi tp 4.3. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma trn Hermitian khc 0 th rank A
(tr A)2
.
tr( A2 )
Bi tp 4.4. Cho A l mt ma trn xc nh dng cp n. Chng minh rng
Z
e x
T Ax
dx = ( )n | A|1/2 ,
Bi tp 4.5. Chng minh rng nu hng ca mt ma trn i xng (Hermitian) bng r

th n c r nh thc con chnh khc 0.
Bi tp 4.6. Cho S l mt ma trn i xng kh nghch cp n c tt c cc phn t u
dng. Hi phn t ln nht khc 0 c th ca ma trn S1 bng bao nhiu?
2. Ma trn phn xng
47
2. MA TRN PHN XNG

nh ngha 4.8. Ma trn thc A c gi l phn xng nu A T = A.
Ch rng ma trn phn xng cp n l c nh thc bng 0.
nh l 4.9. Nu A l mt ma trn phn xng th A2 l mt ma trn i xng, xc nh
khng dng.
H qu 4.10. Cc tr ring khc 0 ca ma trn phn xng l thun o.
nh l 4.11. iu kin x T Ax = 0 tha mn vi mi x khi vo ch khi A l mt ma trn
phn xng.
B 4.12. Hng ca mt ma trn phn xng l mt s chn.
nh ngha 4.13. Ton t tuyn tnh A trn khng gian Euclidean c gi l phn xng
nu ma trn ca n trong mt c s trc chun no l phn xng.
!
0 i
nh l 4.14. t i =
. Vi mi ton t tuyn tnh phn xng A, tn ti mt
i
0
c s trc chun sao cho ma trn ca n trong c s trc chun c dng
diag(1 , 2 , . . . , k , 0, . . . , 0).
2.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.7. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma trn phn xng th I + A l mt ma trn
kh nghch.
Bi tp 4.8. Cho A l mt ma trn phn xng, kh nghch. Chng minh rng A1 cng
l mt ma trn phn xng.
Bi tp 4.9. Chng minh rng mi nghim ca a thc c trng ca ma trn AB,
A v B l cc ma trn phn xng cp 2n, u c bi ln hn 1.
48
3. MA TRN TRC GIAO - PHP BIN I CAYLEY

nh ngha 4.15. Ma trn thc A c gi l trc giao, nu AA T = I .
Nhn xt rng nu A l mt ma trn trc giao, th cc hng (v cc ct) ca n l mt h
trc chun. Hn na, ma trn A trc giao khi v ch khi ( Ax, Ay) = ( x, y) vi mi x, y.
Nu A l mt ma trn trc giao, th n cng l mt ma trn unita, do cc tr ring
ca n c gi tr tuyt i bng 1.
Cc tr ring ca ma trn trc giao nm trn vng trn n v c tm l gc ta , cc
tr ring ca ma trn phn xng nm trn trc o. Trong gii tch phc, php bin i
z
f (z) = 11
+ z bin vng trn n v thnh trc o v f ( f (z)) = z, v th, chng ta hy vng
rng php bin i
f ( A) = ( I A)( I + A)1
s bin mt ma trn trc giao thnh ma trn phn xng. Php bin i ny c gi l
php bin i Cayley. t A# = ( I A)( I + A)1 , d dng thy rng ( A# )# = A.
nh l 4.16. Php bin i Cayley bin mi ma trn phn xng thnh ma trn trc giao
v bin mi ma trn trc giao A vi | A + I | 6= 0 thnh ma trn phn xng.
nh l 4.17 (Hsu, 1953). Vi mi ma trn vung A, tn ti ma trn J = diag(1, . . . , 1)
sao cho | A + J | 6= 0.
3.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.10. Chng minh rng nu p() l a thc c trng ca mt ma trn trc giao
vung cp n th
n p ( 1 ) = p ( ).
Bi tp 4.11.!Chng minh rng mi ma trn unita cp 2 vi nh thc bng 1 u c
u v
dng
, |u|2 + |v|2 = 1.
v u
Bi tp 4.12. Cho A l mt ma trn trc giao vung cp 3 v c nh thc bng 1. Chng
minh rng
a) (tr A)2 tr( A)2 = 2 tr A.

b) ( aii 1)2 + (aij a ji )2 = 4.
i
i< j
3. Ma trn trc giao - Php bin i Cayley
49
Bi tp 4.13. Cho J l mt ma trn kh nghch. Ma trn A c gi l J - trc giao nu

A T J A = J v J -phn xng nu A T J = J A. Chng minh rng php bin i Cayley bin
mt ma trn J - trc giao thnh mt ma trn J - phn xng v ngc li.
Bi tp 4.14 (Djokovc, 1971). Gi s tt c cc gi tr tuyt i ca cc tr ring ca
ma trn A bng 1 v | Ax | | x | vi mi x. Chng minh rng A l mt ton t unita.
Bi tp 4.15 (Zassenhaus, 1961). Mt ton t unita U bin vct khc khng x thnh
vct Ux trc giao vi x. Chng minh rng mi cung ca vng trn n v cha tt c cc
tr ring ca U c di khng nh hn .
50
4. MA TRN CHUN TC
Ton t tuyn tnh A trn C c gi l chun tc, nu A A = AA . Ma trn ca mt
ton t chun tc trong mt c s trc chun c gi l ma trn chun tc. Hin nhin
nu A l ma trn chun tc th A A = AA .
nh l 4.18. Cc iu kin sau l tng ng:
1. A l ma trn chun tc,

2. A = B + iC, B, C l cc ma trn Hermitian giao hon,
3. A = UU , U l ma trn unita v l ma trn ng cho.
n
i =1
i,j=1
4. |2i | = | a2ij |, 1 , . . . , n l cc tr ring ca A.

nh l 4.19. Nu A l mt ma trn chun tc, th KerA = KerA v Im A = Im A.
H qu 4.20. Nu A l mt ma trn chun tc, th
V = KerA + (KerA) = KerA Im A
nh l 4.21. Ma trn A l chun tc nu v ch nu mi vct ring ca A cng l vct
ring ca A .
nh l 4.22. Nu ma trn A l chun tc, th A c th biu din di dng nh l mt
a thc ca A.
H qu 4.23. Nu A v B l cc ma trn chun tc v AB = BA th A B = BA v
AB = B A, ni ring AB cng l mt ma trn chun tc.
4.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.16. Cho A l mt ma trn chun tc. Chng ming rng tn ti ma trn chun
tc B sao cho A = B2 .
Bi tp 4.17. Cho A v B l cc ton t chun tc sao cho Im A Im B. Chng minh rng
A + B l mt ton t chun tc.
Bi tp 4.18. Chng minh rng ma trn A l chun tc nu v ch nu A = AU , U
l ma trn unita.
4. Ma trn chun tc
51
Bi tp 4.19. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ton t chun tc v A = SU l biu din

trong ta cc ca n th SU = US.
Bi tp 4.20. Cho A, B v AB l cc ma trn chun tc. Chng minh rng BA cng l
mt ma trn chun tc.
52
5. MA TRN LU LINH
nh ngha 4.24. Ma trn A vung cp n c gi l lu linh nu tn ti s nguyn k sao
cho Ak = 0. Nu c thm Ak1 6= 0 th k c gi l bc ly linh ca ma trn A.
nh l 4.25. Bc lu linh ca mt ma trn ly linh bng cp cao nht ca cc khi
Jordan ca n.
nh l 4.26. Cho A l ma trn lu linh, vung cp n. Khi An = 0.
nh l 4.27. a thc c trng ca mt ma trn vung cp n ly linh bng n .
nh l 4.28. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng A ly linh khi v ch
khi tr( A p ) = 0 vi mi p = 1, 2, . . . , n.
nh l 4.29. Cho A : V V l mt ton t tuyn tnh v W l mt khng gian con bt
bin ca V . t A1 : W W v A2 : V/W V/W l cc ton t cm sinh bi ton t A.
Chng minh rng nu A1 v A2 l ly linh th A cng l ly linh.
5.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.21. A l ma trn ly linh nu v ch nu tt c gi tr ring ca A u bng 0.
Bi tp 4.22. Chng minh rng nu A l ma trn ly linh th I A l ma trn kh
nghch.
Chng minh. Ta c
I = I Ak = ( I A)( I + A + A2 + . . . + Ak1 )
Bi tp 4.23. Chng minh rng vi mi ma trn vung A lun c th phn tch A = B + C
vi C l mt ma trn ly linh v B l ma trn cho ha c v BC = CB.
Bi tp 4.24. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp tha mn B l ma trn ly linh
v AB = BA. Chng minh rng det( A + B) = det A
Bi tp 4.25. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp tha mn A2008 = I; B2009 = 0 v
AB + 4A + 2009B = 0. Chng minh rng ( A + B) l ma trn khng suy bin.
5. Ma trn lu linh
53
Bi tp 4.26. (2000) Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp tha mn A1999 =

0; B2000 = 0 v AB = BA. Chng minh rng ( A + B + I ) kh nghch.
Chng minh. Nhn xt rng ( A + B)3999 = 0 nn ( A + B) l ma trn lu linh, suy ra iu
phi chng minh.
Bi tp 4.27. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp tha mn A1999 = I; B2000 = I v
AB = BA. Chng minh rng ( A + B + I ) kh nghch.
Chng minh. Gi s ( A + B + I ) suy bin. Khi tn ti vecto X khc 0 sao cho ( A + B +
I )X = 0. Hay ( A + I )X = BX suy ra ( A + I )1999 X = B1999 X = X, suy ra (( A + I )1999 +
I )X = 0. Theo ga thit ( A2000 I ) x = 0.
Ta s chng minh hai a thc ( x + 1)1999 + 1 v x2000 1 l nguyn t cng nhau. Thy
vy, gi s chng c nghim chung l z. Khi (z + 1)1999 = 1 v z2000 = 1. T suy ra
mun ca z v (z + 1) u l 1. Do , arg z = 2
3 v
z2000 = cos
4000
4
4
4000
+ sin
= cos
+ sin
6= 1
3
3
3
3
Vy tn ti cc a thc P( x ) v Q( x ) P( x )[( x + 1)1999 + 1] + Q( x )( x2000 1) = 1

T suy ra [ P( A)[( A + 1)1999 + 1] + Q( A)( A2000 I )] X = X hay X = 0, mu thun vi
vic chn X. Vy ta c iu phi chng minh
Bi tp 4.28. (IMC) Cho hai ma trn vung cp n, A v B. Gi s tn ti (n + 1) s
t1 , t2 , . . . , tn phn bit sao cho cc ma trn Ci = A + ti B l cc ma trn l linh vi mi
i = 1, ..., n + 1. Chng minh rng A v B cng l cc ma trn ly linh
Bi tp 4.29. Tm cc ma trn A, B sao cho A + B l lu linh vi mi , nhng khng
tn ti ma trn P sao cho P1 AP v P1 BP l cc ma trn tam gic.
54
6. T ON T CHIU - MA TRN LY NG
nh ngha 4.30. Ton t P c gi l ton t chiu (hay lu ng) nu P2 = P.
nh l 4.31. Tn ti mt c s ca khng gian sao cho ma trn ca ton t chiu c dng
diag(1, . . . , 1, 0, . . . , 0).
H qu 4.32. C mt tng ng 1-1 gia ton t chiu v phn tch V = W1 W2 ca
khng gian V . Ni r hn, vi mi phn tch V = W1 W2 , tn ti ton t chiu P tha
mn P(w1 + w2 ) = w1 ; v ngc li, vi mi ton t chiu P c mt phn tch tng ng
V = Im P KerP.
Ton t P khi c th c gi l ton t chiu ln W1 theo hng W2 .
H qu 4.33. Nu P l ton t chiu th rank P = tr P.
H qu 4.34. Nu P l ton t chiu th I P cng l mt ton t chiu, hn na Ker ( I
P) = Im P v Im( I P) = KerP.
nh l 4.35. Ton t chiu P l Hermitian nu v ch nu Im P KerP.
nh l 4.36. Ton t chiu P l Hermitian nu v ch nu | Px | x vi mi x.
Cc ton t chiu Hermitian P v Q c gi l trc giao nu Im P Im Q, ngha l
PQ = QP = 0.
nh l 4.37. Cho P1 , . . . , Pn l cc ton t chiu Hermitian. Khi ton t P = P1 + . . . +
Pn l ton t chiu nu v ch nu Pi Pj = 0 vi mi i 6= j.
nh l 4.38 (Djokovc, 1971). Cho V = V1 . . . Vk , Vi 6= 0 vi mi i = 1, . . . , k.
t Pi : V Vi l cc php chiu trc giao v A = P1 + . . . + Pk . Khi 0 | A| 1, v
| A| = 1 nu v ch nu Vi Vj vi mi i 6= j.
6.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.30. Cho P l mt ton t chiu v V = Im P KerP. Chng minh rng nu
Im P KerP th Pv l hnh chiu trc giao ca v ln Im P.
Bi tp 4.31. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng cc iu kin sau l
tng ng
6. Ton t chiu - Ma trn ly ng
55
a. A l ma trn ly ng.
b. C n = Im A + KerA vi Ax = x vi mi x Im A.
c. KerA = Im( I A)
d. rank( A) + rank( I A) = n
e. Im( A) Im( I A) = {0}
Bi tp 4.32. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng A l ly ng khi v
ch khi rank( A) = tr( A) v rank( I A) = tr( I A).
Bi tp 4.33. Cho P1 v P2 l cc ton t chiu. Chng minh rng
1. P1 + P2 l ton t chiu khi v ch khi P1 P2 = P2 P1 = 0.

2. P1 P2 l ton t chiu khi v ch khi P1 P2 = P2 P1 = P2 .
Bi tp 4.34 (nh l ergodic). Cho A l ma trn unita. Chng minh rng
1 n 1 i
A x = Px,
n n
i =0
lim
P l mt php chiu Hermitian ln Ker( A I ).

Bi tp 4.35. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cp n. Chng minh rng nu AB = A v
BA = B th A, B l cc ma trn ly ng.
Bi tp 4.36. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cp n, ly ng. Tm iu kin cn v
( A + B) l ma trn ly ng.
Bi tp 4.37. Cho A l ma trn ly ng. Chng minh rng ( A + I )k = I + (2k 1) A vi
mi k N.
Bi tp 4.38. (OL) Cho A, B l cc ma trn cng cp, ly ng v AB + BA = 0. Tnh
det( A B).
Bi tp 4.39. Cho A, B l cc ma trn cng cp, ly ng v I ( A + B) kh nghch. CMR
tr( A) = tr( B).
Bi tp 4.40. Cho A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak l cc ton t tuyn tnh trn khng gian vct n chiu
V sao cho A1 + A2 + . . . + Ak = I . Chng minh rng nu cc iu kin sau l tng ng
1. A1 , . . . , Ak l cc ton t chiu.
56
2. Ai A j = 0 vi mi i 6= j.
3. rank A1 + . . . + rank Ak = n.
Bi tp 4.41. Cho A1 , A2 , . . . , Ak l cc ma trn ly ng. Chng minh rng nu A1 +
A2 + . . . + Ak = I th Ai A j = 0 vi mi i 6= j.
7. Ma trn i hp
57
7. MA TRN I HP
nh ngha 4.39. Ton t tuyn tnh (hoc ma trn) A c gi l i hp nu A2 = I .
D dng kim chng rng P l ma trn ly ng nu v ch nu 2P I l ma trn i hp.
nh l 4.40. Tn ti mt c s ca khng gian sao cho ma trn ca ton t i hp c
dng diag(1, . . . , 1).
Ch 4.41. Nu A l ton t i hp th V = Ker( A + I ) Ker( A I ).
nh l 4.42 (Djokovc, 1967). Ma trn A c th biu din c di dng tch ca 2 ma
trn i hp nu v ch nu cc ma trn A v A1 l ng dng.
H qu 4.43. Nu B l mt ma trn kh nghch sao cho X T BX = B th X c th biu din
c di dng tch ca 2 ma trn i hp. Ni ring, mi ma trn trc giao u c th
biu din c di dng tch ca 2 ma trn i hp.
Bi tp 4.42. Chng minh rng A l ma trn i hp nu v ch nu 12 ( I + A) l ma trn
ly ng.
58
8. MA TRN HON V (HAY CN GI L MA TRN GIAO

HON )
8.1 nh ngha
c0
c1
c0
c2
c1
c0
.
..
c n 1
nh ngha 4.44. Ma trn hon v l ma trn c dng C =

c n 2 c n 1
..
.
.
..
c1
c2 c3
0 1 0 ... 0
0 0 1 ... 0
.. .. .. . . ..
. . c gi l ma trn hon v c s.
Ma trn P = . . .
...
1
0 0 0
1 0 0 ... 0
. . . c n 1
. . . c n 2
. . . c n 3
.
...
..
. . . c0
8.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 4.43. Chng minh rng Pn = I; P T = P1 . Tm cc gi tr ring ca P.
Bi tp 4.44. Cho f ( x ) = c0 + c1 x + ... + cn1 x n1. Chng minh rng
a. C = f ( P)
b. Cc gi tr ring ca C l f ( k ), k = 0, 1, ..., n 1. vi l cn bc n ca 1.
n 1
c. det C = f (i )
i =0
Bi tp 4.45. Cho A, B l cc ma trn hon v. Chng minh rng A v B giao hon v AB

cng l mt ma trn hon v.
Bi tp 4.46. Cho A l mt ma trn hon v. Chng minh rng rank( Ak ) = rank( A) vi
mi k.
CHNG
CC
BT NG THC MA TRN
1. CC BT NG THC CHO MA TRN I XNG V

HERMITIAN
1.1 Cc nh l c bn
nh ngha 5.1. Cho A, B l cc ma trn Hermitian. Ta vit A > B (tng ng A B)
nu A B l ma trn xc nh dng (tng ng xc nh khng m).
nh l 5.2. Nu A > B > 0 th A1 < B1 .
nh l 5.3. Nu A > 0 th A + A1 2I.
nh l 5.4. Nu A l ma trn thc v A > 0 th
( A1 x, x ) = max(2( x, y) ( Ay, y)).

y
nh l 5.5. Cho A =
A1 B
B A2
> 0. Khi det A det A1 det A2 .
H qu 5.6 (Bt ng thc Hadamard). Nu A = (aij ) l ma trn xc nh dng, th

det A a11 a22 . . . ann v du bng xy ra khi v ch khi A l ma trn ng cho.
H qu 5.7. Nu X l mt ma trn bt k, th
| det X | | x1i |2 . . . | xni |2 .

i
59
60
Chng 5. Cc bt ng thc ma trn
!
A1 B
> 0 l ma trn xc nh dng, B l mt ma trn
nh l 5.8. Cho A =
B A2
vung. Khi | det B|2 det A1 det A2 .
nh l 5.9. Cho i > 0, i = 1 v Ai > 0. Khi
| 1 A 1 + . . . + k A k | | A 1 | 1 . . . | A k | k .
nh l 5.10. Cho i l cc s phc bt k v Ai 0. Khi
| det(1 A1 + . . . + k Ak )| det(|1 | A1 + . . . + |k | Ak ).
nh l 5.11. Cho A v B l cc ma trn thc xc nh dng, v A1 , B1 l cc ma trn

thu c t ma trn A, B tng ng bng cch xa i cc hng u tin v ct u tin
ca n. Khi
| A|
| B|
| A + B|
+
| A1 + B1 |
| A1 | | B1 |
1.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.1. Cho A v B l cc ma trn vung cp n > 1, A > 0 v B 0. Chng
minh rng | A + B| | A| + | B| v du bng xy ra khi v ch khi B = 0.
Bi tp 5.2. Cho A v B l cc ma trn Hermitian v A > 0. Chng minh rng det A

| det( A + iB)| v du bng xy ra khi v ch khi B = 0.
Bi tp 5.3. Cho Ak v Bk l cc ma trn con cp k pha trn, gc tri ca cc ma trn

xc nh dng A v B sao cho A > B. Chng minh rng
| A k | > | Bk | .
Bi tp 5.4. Cho A v B l cc ma trn thc i xng v A 0. Chng minh rng nu

C = A + iB l ma trn khng kh nghch, th Cx = 0 vi x l mt vct thc khc 0 no
.
Bi tp 5.5. Cho A l ma trn vung cp n v A > 0. Chng minh rng
1
| A|1/n = min tr( AB),
n
gi tr nh nht c ly trn tt c cc ma trn B xc nh dng c nh thc bng
1.
Bi tp 5.6. Cho A l ma trn thc i xng xc nh dng. Chng minh rng
0 x1 . . . x n
x1
0
det
.
.
A
.
xn
2. Cc bt ng thc cho tr ring
61
2. CC BT NG THC CHO TR RING

2.1 Cc bt ng thc c bn
nh l 5.12 (Bt ng thc Schur). Cho 1 , . . . , n l cc tr ring ca ma trn A =
(aij )1n . Khi
n
| i | 2
i =1
i,j=1
| aij |2 ,
v du bng xy ra nu v ch nu A l mt ma trn chun tc.

nh l 5.13. Cho 1 , . . . , n l cc tr ring ca ma trn A = B + iC, B v C l cc
ma trn Hermitian. Khi
n
| Re i |2
i =1
i,j=1
|bij |2 v
| Im i |2
i =1
i,j=1
|cij |2 .
nh l 5.14 (H. Weyl). Cho A v B l cc ma trn Hermitian, C = A + B. Cho cc tr

ring ca cc ma trn trn c xp theo th t tng dn ln lt l 1 . . . n ,
1 . . . n , 1 . . . n . Khi
a) i j + i j+1 vi i j,
b) i j + i j+n vi i j.
!
B C
nh l 5.15. Cho A =
l mt ma trn Hermitian. Gi s cc tr ring ca A
C D
v B c xp theo th t tng dn sau: 1 . . . n , 1 . . . m . Khi
i j i + n m .
nh l 5.16. Cho A v B l cc php chiu Hermitian, ngha l A2 = A v B2 = B. Khi
cc tr ring ca AB l thc v nm trong khong [0, 1].
nh ngha 5.17. Cc gi tr i =
l cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A.
i , i l cc tr ring ca ma trn A A, c gi
Ch 5.18. Nu A l mt ma trn Hermitian xc nh khng m th cc gi tr k d ca

A v cc tr ring ca A l trng nhau. Nu A = SU l phn tch trong ta cc ca
A, th cc gi tr k d ca A trng vi cc tr ring ca ma trn S. Vi ma trn S, tn ti
mt ma trn unita V sao cho S = VV , l ma trn ng cho. Do , mi ma
trn A c th c biu din di dng A = VW , V v W l cc ma trn unita v
= diag(1 , . . . , n ).
62
Chng 5. Cc bt ng thc ma trn
nh l 5.19. Cho 1 , . . . , n l cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A, 1 . . . n , v t

1 , . . . , n l cc tr ring ca ma trn A, vi |1 | . . . |n |. Khi
|1 . . . m | 1 . . . m vi m n.
nh l 5.20. Cho 1 . . . n l cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A v t 1 . . . n l
cc gi tr k d ca ma trn B. Khi
n
| tr( AB)|
i i .
i =1
2.2 Bi tp
Bi tp 5.7 (Gershgorin discs). Chng minh rng mi tr ring ca ma trn (aij )1n nm
trong mt trong cc a sau | akk z| k , k = | akj |.
i 6= j
Bi tp 5.8. Chng minh rng nu U l mt ma trn unita v S 0, th | tr(US)| tr S.

Bi tp 5.9. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn xc nh khng m, th
| tr( AB)| tr A. tr B.
Bi tp 5.10. Cho A v B l cc ma trn Hermitian. Chng minh rng
tr( AB)2 tr( A2 B2 ).
Bi tp 5.11 (Cullen, 1965). Chng minh rng lim Ak = 0 nu v ch nu mt trong cc
iu kin sau c tha mn:
a) gi tr tuyt i ca cc tr ring ca A nh hn 1;
b) tn ti mt ma trn xc nh dng H sao cho H A H A > 0.
Gi tr k d
Bi tp 5.12. Chng minh rng nu tt c cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A l bng nhau,
th A = U , U l mt ma trn unita.
Bi tp 5.13. Chng minh rng nu cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A bng 1 , . . . , n , th
cc gi tr k d ca ma trn adj A bng i 6=1 i , . . . , i 6=n i .
Bi tp 5.14. Cho 1 , . . . , !
n l cc gi tr k d ca ma trn A. Chng minh rng cc tr
0 A
bng 1 , . . . , , 1 , . . . , n .
ring ca ma trn
A 0
CHNG
A
63
THC

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TRNG I HC BCH KHOA H NI

VIN TON NG DNG & TIN HC

Dresden (Germany) - 2012

Chng 1 . Ma trn - nh thc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Khng gian i ngu - Phn b trc giao . . . . .

Ma trn i xng - Ma trn Hermitian .

Cc bt ng thc cho ma trn i xng v Hermitian .

(1) a1(1) a2(2) . . . an(n) ,

tng trn c ly qua tt c cc php hon v Sn . nh thc ca ma trn A c

3. det A = (1)i + j Mi,j , Mij l nh thc ca ma trn thu c t A bng cch b

i hng th i v ct th j ca n. Cng thc ny cn c gi l cng thc khai trin

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

1.2 Cc nh thc c bit

a22 . . . a2n1 a2n

nh l 1.1. Chng minh rng det Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) =

16i < j6n

Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ).X = 0 ch c nghim tm thng khi v ch khi a1 , a2 , . . . , an i mt phn

Ta s chng minh tt c cc gi tr ring ca A bng nhau. Tht vy:

Ngc li, khng mt tnh tng qut, gi s 1 = 2 v khng mt gi tr i cn li no

det Vn (k1 , k2 , ..., kn )

Bi tp 1.3. Cho W l ma trn c c t ma trn V = Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an ) bng cch thay

= (1)n1 . det Vn (a1 , a2 , ..., an )

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

thc bc khng qu n 2. Chng minh

Chng minh. Gi s f i ( x ) = bi0 + bi1 x + . . . + bi,n2 x n2

a1i + a2i x + ... + ani x n1 vi i = 1, n. Chng minh

Chng minh. Tng t nh bi ?? ta c

Bi tp 1.7. Chng minh rng vi k1 , k2 , . . . , kn l cc s t nhin khc nhau v a1 , a2 , . . . , an

Bng phng php

Trc ht ly mi ct t 1 n n 1 tr i ct cui cng, ta c

Tip theo, ly mi hng t 1 n n 1 tr i hng cui cng. a nhn t xn xi

c gi l ma trn Frobenius, hay ma trn bn ca a thc

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

nh thc ca ma trn ba ng cho

Khai trin nh thc ca ma trn trn theo hng th k, ta c

nh thc ca ma trn khi

Bi tp 1.14. Cho ai,i +1 = ci vi i = 1, . . . , n, cc phn t khc ca ma trn A bng 0.

Bi tp 1.18. Tnh | aik |0n , vi aik = ink (1 + 2i )k .

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

Bi tp 1.20. Cho k1 , . . . , kn Z, tnh

Bi tp 1.21. Cho sk = p1 x1k + . . . + pn xnk , v ai,j = si + j . Chng minh rng

| aij |0n1 = p1 . . . pn i > j ( xi x j )2 .

Bi tp 1.23. Cho aij = ( xi + y j )n . Chng minh rng

| aij |0n = C1n C2n . . . Cnn i >k ( xi xk )(yk yi ).

, A11 , B11 , A22 , B22 l cc ma

2. nh thc con v phn ph i s

2. NH THC CON V PHN PH I S

Nu i1 = k1 , . . . , i p = k p th nh thc con c gi l nh thc con chnh cp p.

nh ngha 1.4. nh thc con khc 0 c bc cao nht c gi l nh thc con c s v

1 k1 < k2 < ...< k n m

Ak1 ...kn Bk1 ...kn ,

Ak1 ...kn l nh thc con thu c t cc ct k1 , . . . , kn ca A v Bk1 ...kn l nh thc con

nh l 1.8. Ton t adj c cc tnh cht sau:

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc

1. adj AB = adj B. adj A

H qu 1.10. Nu A l ma trn suy bin th rank(adj A) 1.

nh l 1.12 (Chebotarev). Cho p l mt s nguyn t v e = exp(2i/p). Khi tt c

Sk l tng ca tt c Ckn cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca A.

2. nh thc con v phn ph i s

Bi tp 1.29. Chng minh rng

Aij l phn b i s ca phn t aij .

Bi tp 1.30. Chng minh rng tng ca cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca A T A bng

Bi tp 1.32. Tm mt v d mt ma trn vung cp n m cc phn b i s ca n u

Chng 1. Ma trn - nh thc