Control and Instrumentation

The typical Control and Instrument Engineer will be expected to be fluent in

electronics, fluid dynamics, material selection, control engineering, and systems
engineering amongst all the usual competencies expected of today's professional
engineer.
In any one day the C&I engineer could be expected to size an orifice plate, hook up a
differential pressure transmitter across the plate, wire it via a hazardous area barrier
into a control system (obviously complete with graphical interface and alarm points
they have specified), configure the control loop, wire the controlled output to a
control valve that they have sized and selected to be suitable for the fluid conditions,
and of course ensure there is instrument air available to actuate the valve. And for
good measure they will have to ensure the emergency shut down system has an
appropriately high integrity level to drive the valve closed when required.
With all these demands it is no surprise then that Control and Instrumentation is
often regarded as the "black art" of many an engineering house. However, we all
know that to be good at their job the instruments man must be able to put their
hands on the right information, quickly. This site aims to help you maintain the
mystique.

ATEX
What is Atex?

ATEX is the common name given to the EU directive 94/9/EC, Equipment and
Protective Systems intended for use in Potentially Explosive Atmospheres.
The word ATEX is derived from the French "ATmospheres EXplosibles".
What is the intent of the ATEX Directive?

To enable the free trading of ATEX products within the European Economic Area by
removing the need for separate documentation and testing for each individual
European market. Manufacturers may use a single CE mark on their products to show

compliance with this (and any other relevant) Directive.

What does ATEX apply to?

The ATEX directive applies to both electrical and mechanical equipment intended for
use in potentially explosive atmospheres. These include:
- equipment and protective systems for use within potentially explosive atmospheres;
- devices for use outside potentially explosive atmospheres, but which are required
for, or contribute to the safe functioning of equipment and protective systems located
inside such atmospheres; and
- components relating to the above.
To what industries does ATEX apply?

ATEX applies to any industrial location where there is a potential for an explosive
atmosphere to exist, e.g. mines, factories, agricultural silos, oil and gas platforms,
water and other chemical processing environments.
To whom does ATEX apply?

If you design, manufacture or sell any equipment or protective system intended for
use in potentially explosive atmospheres within the EU, then you will need to comply
with the ATEX Directive 94/9/EC.
How do I know if a product complies with ATEX?

The ATEX Directive sets a number of technical and quality objectives that must be
complied with to the satisfaction of a notified body, but once these have been met, a
manufacturer can mark his product with a CE Mark and is entitled to display the
distinctive ex mark.
What other marking can be shown?

The following marking should be shown on all ATEX compliant equipment.

- CE Mark
- Ex-marking symbol followed by ATEX data
- Name and address of manufacturer
- Series or type, serial number
- Year of construction
- All further information essential to the safe use
Marking, especially on small components can be an issue.

Show me an example of the CE, EX and Atex data marking

9876

II 2 G

What does the ATEX data mean?

The ATEX Directive identifies two groups of equipment.

- Group 1 equipment is intended for use in mining applications. Divided into
categories M1 and M2. M1 identifies equipment that must continue to operate when a
potentially explosive atmosphere is present. M2 identifies equipment that does not
operate when a potentially explosive atmosphere is present.
- Group 2 is intended for all other situations. Divided into categories 1,2 and 3.
Category 1 equipment is intended for use in Zone O situations. Category 2 equipment
is intended for use in Zone 1 situations. Category 3 equipment is intended for use in
Zone 2 situations.
What are Zones?

Zoned areas are areas where there is a risk of flammable material being released to
atmosphere. The subscripts 0, 1 and 2 describe the probability of a flammable material
being released to atmosphere in explosive concentrations.
And the G?

G means the item has been tested for potentially explosive atmospheres due to the
presence of gas
D means the item has been tested for potentially explosive atmospheres due to the
presence of dust.

Armoured Cable Glands

Why Do We Use Cable Glands?

- To firmly secure cable entering a piece of equipment

- To maintain the ingress protection of the piece of equipment (minimum of IP54 for 'e'
and 'n' type enclosures. Where the enclosure wall thickness is less than 6mm a sealing
washer or thread sealant will be required to maintain IP54 protection)
- To maintain earth continuity between a piece of equipment and any armouring in the
cable
- To ensure containment of an internal explosion in flameproof equipment
Is There a British Standard for Cable Glands?

The Code of Practice for selection, installation and inspection of cable glands used in
electrical installations is covered in BS 6121-5 1989 Mechanical cable glands.
Selecting Cable Glands

Items to consider when selecting a cable gland for a particular installation include:
- Possibility of electrolytic action between the gland and the enclosure. Shortened
lifetime for the glands and the cable entries can result if incompatible materials
selected. The most common materials used are brass, stainless steel and plastic.
Material choice will influence cost.
- Degree of Ingress Protection required. See our page on IP ratings.
- Certification of gland for use in Hazardous areas
- Normal or barrier gland required
- Size of cable being terminated
- Size of cable entry on piece of equipment
What is a Barrier Gland?

Barrier glands are similar to normal glands, except a compound sealant material is
used to ensure the inside of the cable is gas tight as well as the outside.
When Should a Barrier Gland be Used?

BS EN60079-14 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres Part 14 Electrical Installations in Hazardous Areas (other than Mines) provides a selection
process for deciding if a barrier gland is required. There are various options to
consider, however if the hazardous gas require IIC apparatus, or if the volume of the
enclosure is greater than 2 litres then it is likely you will need to use a barrier gland.
IIC apparatus is generally associated with Hydrogen.
Gable Gland Sizing

A rough gland sizing table is provided below, however reference should be made to
the British Standard referenced above.

Nominal
Conductor
2
Area (mm )

Number of cores

10

12

19

27

37

48

1.5
2.5
4
6
10
16
25
35
50
70
95
120
150
185
240
300
400

--------20
25
25
25
32
32
40
40
50

20S
20S
20S
20
20
25
25
25
32
32
40
40
50
50
50
63
63

20S
20S
20S
20
25
25
25
32
32
40
40
50
50
50
63
63
75

20S
20S
20
20
25
25
32
32
40
40
50
50
63
63
63
75
--

20S
20
20

20S
20
20

20
25
25

25
25
25

25
25
32

25
32
40

32
41
--

32
40
--

This chart is for guidance only.

Consult relevant British Standards before
making final selection.

CE Marking
What is CE marking?

CE marking identifies a product as conforming to European Directives. When a

manufacturer affixes a CE mark to their product they are declaring compliance with
ALL RELEVANT European Directives.
When did the CE mark start to be used?

CE marking for instruments began on the 1st of January 1996. From then a CE mark
must be carried by all electronic equipment sold within the European Economic Area.
The regulations do not apply retrospectively.
What does a CE mark look like?

The mark is shown in the top left hand corner of this page. This is usually stamped on
to the manufacturers name plate.
What European Directives are relevant to Instrumentation?

- 89/336/EEC (modified by 92/31/EEC, and 93/68/EEC), The Electromagnetic

Compatibility Directive (from Jan 96)

- 72/23/EEC (modified by 93/68/EEC), The Low Voltage Directive (from Jan 97)
- 97/23/EC, The Pressure Equipment Directive, known as PED (from May 2002)
- 94/9/EC, Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for use in Potentially
Explosive Atmospheres, known as ATEX (from 1/7/2003)
Which countries demand a CE mark?

All 27 member countries of the European Union (EU), and the 3 member countries of
EFTA (European Free Trade Association) consider it to be mandatory. It is estimated
that around 70% of all products sold in these countries require to be marked. CE
Marking obtained from one EU country is valid in all other EU count ires, and in the
EFTA countries. It permits free movement of the product within all 28 countries.
Who belongs to the European Union?

Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,

France, Germany, Greece, Holland, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania,
Luxembourg, Malta, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden,
United Kingdom
Who belongs to EFTA ?

As of February 2005; Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland

Who Ensures Compliance?

The law applies to the manufacturer, importer, supplier and the customer.
It is an offence to supply a product, which is not CE marked, regardless of where it is
made. Therefore the manufacturer, importer and supplier must ensure products are CE
marked.
It is also an offence to use unmarked products. Therefore the purchaser must ensure
products are CE marked.
The relevant regulatory body in the country concerned is charged with enforcing the
law. In the UK this falls to the trading standards department of local authorities.
What about spare parts?

Components with no intrinsic function e.g. a circuit board do not require a CE mark.
However, an instrument that is a spare part for a compressor package would require to
be marked (assuming that one or more of the directives mentioned above apply).

ANSI Flange Dimensions

Flange Standards

The most common flange standard in the oil and gas industry is arguably American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) B16.5.
Other standards are used, e.g.
- British Imperial flanges BS 10,
- Metric flanges SABS 1123, BS 4504, DIN 2501,
- Japanese and Korean flanges JIS-B-2212, JIS-B-2214 & KS-B-1503
ANSI B16.5. Flange Dimensions

The following tables provide flange dimensions, diameters and drillings for the most
common sizes and ratings.
ANSI 150#
Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD
1/2"

2 3/8"

1/2"

3 1/2"

1"

3 1/8"

1/2"

4 1/4"

2"

4 3/4"

5/8"

6"

4"

7 1/2"

5/8"

9"

6"

9 1/2"

3/4"

11"

8"

11 3/4"

3/4"

13 1/2"

10"

14 1/4"

12

7/8"

16"

12"

17 "

12

7/8"

19"

14"

18 3/4"

12

1"

21"

ANSI 300#
Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD
1/2"

2 5/8"

1/2"

3 3/4"

1"

3 1/2"

5/8"

4 7/8"

2"

5"

5/8"

6 1/2"

4"

7 7/8"

3/4"

10"

6"

10 5/8"

12

3/4"

12 1/2"

8"

13"

12

7/8"

15"

10"

15 1/4"

16

1"

17 1/2"

12"

17 3/4"

16

1 1/8"

20 1/2"

14"

20 1/4"

20

1 1/8"

23"

ANSI 600#
Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD
1/2"

2 5/8"

1/2"

3 3/4"

1"

3 1/2"

5/8"

4 7/8"

2"

5"

5/8"

6 1/2"

4"

8 1/2"

7/8"

10 3/4"

6"

11 1/2"

12

1"

14"

8"

13 3/4"

12

1 1/8"

16 1/2"

10"

17"

16

1 1/4"

20"

12"

19 1/4"

20

1 1/4"

22"

14"

20 3/4"

20

1 3/8"

23 3/4"

ANSI 900#
Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD
2" *

6 1/2"

7/8"

8 1/2"

4"

9 1/4"

1 1/8"

11 1/2"

6"

12 1/2"

12

1 1/8"

15"

8"

15 1/2"

12

1 3/8"

18 1/2"

10"

18 1/2"

16

1 3/8"

21 1/2"

12"

21"

20

1 3/8"

24"

14"

22"

20

1 1/2"

25 1/4"

* 2" Class 1500 is used for 2" Class 900

ANSI 1500#
Pipe NB Bolt PCD No. of Bolts Bolt Size Flange OD
2"

6 1/2"

7/8"

8 1/2"

4"

9 1/2"

1 1/4"

12 1/4"

6"

12 1/2"

12

1 3/8"

15 1/2"

8"

15 1/2"

12

1 5/8"

19"

Flange Class Equivalents

The above tables reveal the following equivalences:

- Classes 300 & 600 for sizes 1/2", 3/4" and 1"
- Classes 900 to 1500 for sizes 1/2" to 2 1/2"

Ingress Protection
What does IP stand for?

IP is an acronym for Ingress Protection

Why is Ingress Protection Important?

Liquid and/or solid particle ingress into electrical equipment may not only be harmful
to the equipment, it may also be dangerous to the operator. Therefore when buying
electrical equipment whether it be an electric motor, a light fiiting or an enclosure, it
is essential to know what degree of ingress protection the item offers.
So how is Ingress Protection quoted?

An "IP" number, or as it is commonly known, an IP rating is used to specify the

environmental protection offered. The IP rating is composed of two numbers, the first
referring to the protection against solid object ingress and the second against liquid
ingress. The higher the number the better the protection.
Are there standards covering these ratings?

The applicable European standards for ingress protection are:

- BS EN 60529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures
- IEC 529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures
What are the numerical codes?
Ingress Protection Classification
First Number

Second Number

IP Protection Provided

IP Protection Provided

0 No Protection

0 No Protection

Protected against solid

1 objects up to 50mm e.g.
accidental touch by hands

Protected against vertically

1 falling drops of water e.g.
condensation

Protected against solid

2 objects up to 12mm e.g.
fingers

Protected against direct

2 sprays of water up to 15 deg
from the vertical

Protected against solid

3 objects over 2.5mm e.g.
tools
4

Protected against direct

3 sprays of water up to 60 deg
from the vertical

Protected against water

Protected against solid
4 sprayed from all directions objects over 1mm e.g. wires
limited ingress permitted

Protected against dust 5 limited ingress (no harmful

deposit)

Protected against low

pressure jets of water from
5
all directions - limited
ingress permitted

Totally protected against

dust

Protected against strong jets

of water e.g. for use on
6
shipdecks - limited ingress
permitted

Protected against the affects

7 of immersion between 15cm
and 1m
Protected against long
8 periods of immersion under
pressure
What do they use outside Europe?

In North America, the NEMA classification is used. NEMA (National Electrical

Manufacturers Association) is a US trade association representing the interests of
electroindustry manufacturers of products used in the generation, transmission and
distribution, control, and end-use of electricity.
How does the IP and NEMA systems compare?

The IEC and NEMA degrees of protection can not be fully compared as equivalent
ratings. The NEMA Standard includes tests for environmental conditions such as
mechanical damage, corrosion, rusting, ice formation, etc. However the follwoing
table can be used as a guide:
NEMA Enclosure
IEC
Type Number Classification
1

IP 10

IP 11

IP 54

3R

IP 14

3S

IP 54

4 and 4X

IP 56

IP 52

6 and 6P

IP 67

Does NEMA produce standards?

NEMA Standard Publication 250 and UL 40 Standard Publication both provide

further information on ingress protection ratings used in the US.

Pipe Schedules
What is a pipe schedule?

Pipes are designed to carry fluid, therefore their internal diameter is their critical
dimension. This critical dimension is referred to as the nominal bore, commonly
appreviated as NB. Obviously, for pipes containing pressurised fluids the wall
thickness, and by implication the pipe's strength, is important. Wall thickness is
expressed in "schedules", refered to as pipe schedules.
What Standards Govern Pipe Sizes?

In the oil and gas and related down stream industries the the most common standards
are
- ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, and
- ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe
Does Pipe Schedule Change With Pipe Size?

For all pipe sizes the outside diameter remains relatively constant. Therefore any
variation schedule i.e. wall thickness, affects only the inside diameter. As the schedule
number increases, the wall thickness increases, and the actual bore is reduced.
Pipe Schedule Charts

The wall thickness associated with a particular schedule depends on the pipe size as
can be seen from the charts below for some of the more common sized carbon steel
pipes encountered.
Abbreviations used: NB - nominal bore, STD - Standard, EH - Extra Heavy, DBL EH
- Double Extra Heavy.
2"NB

OD = 2.375 inch (60.32 mm)

40
80
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100
STD
EH
ID (ins) 2.245 2.157 ----- 2.067 --- 1.939 --ID (mm) 57.02 54.79 ----- 52.5 --- 49.25 ---

120
-----

DBL
EH
--- 1.689 1.503
--- 42.9 38.18

140

160

3" NB

OD = 3.5 inch (88.9 mm)

40
80
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100
STD
EH
ID (ins) 3.334 3.260 ----- 3.068 --- 2.900 --ID (mm) 84.68 82.8 ----- 77.93 --- 73.66 ---

120
-----

DBL
EH
--- 2.624 2.300
--- 66.65 58.42

140

160

4" NB

OD = 4.5 inch (114.3 mm)

40
80
DBL
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100 120 140 160
STD
EH
EH
ID (ins) 4.334 4.260 ----- 4.026 --- 3.826 --- 3.624 --- 3.438 3.152
ID (mm) 110.08 108.2 ----- 102.26 --- 97.18 --- 92.05 --- 87.33 80.06

6" NB

OD = 6.625 inch (168.275 mm)

40
80
DBL
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100 120 140 160
STD
EH
EH
ID (ins) 6.407 6.357 ----- 6.065 --- 5.761 --- 5.501 --- 5.189 4.897
ID (mm) 162.74 161.47 ----- 154.05 --- 146.33 --- 139.73 --- 131.8 124.38

8" NB

OD = 8.625 inch (219.1 mm)

40
80
DBL
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100 120 140 160
STD
EH
EH
ID (ins) 8.407 8.329 8.125 8.071 7.981 7.813 7.625 7.439 7.189 7.001 6.813 6.375
ID (mm) 213.54 211.56 206.38 205 202.72 198.45 193.67 188.95 182.6 177.83 173.05 161.93

10" NB

OD = 10.750 inch (273 mm)

40
80
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100 120 140 160
STD
EH
ID (ins) 10.482 10.42 10.25 10.136 10.02 9.750 9.564 9.314 9.064 8.750 8.500
ID (mm) 266.24 264.67 260.35 257.45 254.5 247.65 242.93 236.58 230.23 222.25 215.9

12" NB

DBL
EH
-----

OD = 12.750 inch (323.85 mm)

40
80
DBL
Schedule 5
10
20
30
60
100 120 140 160
STD
EH
EH
ID (ins)
11.938
11.376
12.42 12.39 12.25 12.09
11.626
11.064 10.75 10.50 10.126 --12.000
11.750

ID (mm)

315.47 314.7 311.15 307.1

303.22
288.95
295.3
281.03 273.05 266.7 257.2
304.8
298.45

---

Relief Valve Orifice Sizes

What is a Relief Valve?

Relief Valves are mechanical devices designed to operate if an over-pressure situation

occurs - they are used to safeguard the plant. Generally, they are the last line of
defence; following on from ESD and operator intervention.
So what is a Relief Valve orifice?

The American Petroleum Institute has developed a series of inlet size, orifice, outlet
size combinations for various pressure classes of flanged relief valves. These
combinations have been widely adopted by engineers throughout the oil and gas and
allied industries.
Central to these combinations are a series of fourteen standard orifice sizes each
denoted by a letter ranging from D through to T. Each letter refers to a specific
effective orifice area.
What do the orifices denote?

The valve sizing engineer (usually a process or instrument engineer) determines the
controlling relieving rate from all possible scenarios, then the required relief valve
orifice size is determined using the appropriate equation given in API. Knowing the
required relief valve orifice size, an actual orifice size equal to or greater than the
calculated orifice size is chosen from a the standard range. The maximum flow
through this actual orifice will be the valves capacity.
What are the standard orifice sizes?

The full list of letters and corresponding effective area is shown below:
Relief Valve Orifice Sizes
Letter
Bore Dimensions
in2
cm2
D
0.110
0.71
E
0.196
1.26
F
0.307
1.98
G
0.503
3.24
H
0.785
5.06
J
1.287
8.30

K
L
M
N
P
Q
R
T

1.838
2.853
3.600
4.340
6.380
11.050
16.000
26.000

11.85
18.40
23.23
28.00
41.16
71.29
103.22
167.74

Tempearature Classification
What is Temperature Classification?

Temperature classification (also known as temperature class, or T class) defines the

maximum surface temperature that a product destined for use in a potentially
hazardous atmosphere is allowed to operate at, relative to an ambient temperature of 20C to +40C.
According to the type of protection used on the product e.g. Exd, Exe etc, the
temperature corresponds either to the maximum temperature of the external surface of
the product, or to the maximum temperature of the internal surface of the product.
Generally, Temp-class is based on fault conditions or, at the very least, worst case
normal operating conditions.
Why is Temperature Class Important?

All flammable gases have an auto-ignition temperature. If a flammable mixture of the

gas is exposed to a component above the auto-ignition temperature then the mixture
will ignite. Therefore, when selecting equipment, the Temperature class must be
below the auto-ignition temperature of the potentially explosive atmosphere where it
will be installed.
If several different flammable materials may be present within a particular area, the
material that gives the lowest auto ignition temperature dictates the overall area
classification.
T-Class and Equipment Marking

The ATEX directives typically require all products certified suitable for use in a
hazardous area, e.g. instruments, enclosures, luminaries etc to be marked with their
temperature class. Look out for a T number at the end of the protection concept
marking on the products label e.g. EEx de IIB T3 indicates that this explosion proof
apparatus has a temperature classification of T3 which corresponds to a maximum
surface temperature of 200C.

Temperature Class for Group I Applications

"T" classes do not apply to group I applications. Equipment for use in the mining
industry has either a rigid 150C or 450C limit.
Temperature Class for Group II Applications
Temperature Classification
Max. Surface North American European
Temp C
450

T1

T1

300

T2

T2

280

T2A

---

260

T2B

---

230

T2C

---

215

T2D

---

200

T3

T3

180

T3A

---

165

T3B

---

160

T3C

---

135

T4

T4

120

T4A

---

100

T5

T5

85

T6

T6

The Atlantic Divide

North American and Canadian standards differ from European standards with smaller
temperature ranges allowed in Europe. See table above.

Temperature Conversion
Kelvin (K)

The Kelvin scale, called after the Scot - Lord Kelvin (William Thompson
1824-1907), is the fundamental temperature scale. It is physically

impossible to have anything colder than zero Kelvin, even although the
conversion calculator below allows you to enter negative values of K.
Enter your value of K and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius,
Fahrenheit and Rankine are displayed.
Kelvin

to Celsius
=(K+273.15)

to Fahrenheit
=(K+273.15)*1.8+32

to Rankine
=(K*9/5)

Rankine ( R)

Enter your value of R and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius,

Fahrenheit and Kelvin are displayed.
Rankine

to Celsius
=(R*5/9)-273.15

to Fahrenheit
=R-459.67

to Kelvin
=R*5/9

Fahrenheit ( F)

Gabriel Fahrenheit, an instrument maker in Amsterdam, used mercury

as the fluid in a thermometer. He calibrated the thermometer to read 212
for the boiling temperature of water and to read 32 for the freezing point
of water. This has become known as the Fahrenheit scale. Enter your
value of F and press convert. The equivalent in Celsius, Kelvin and
Rankine are displayed.
Fahrenheit

to Celsius
=(F-32)/1.8

to Kelvin
=(F-32)/1.8-273.15

to Rankine
=F+459.67

Celsius ( C)

Enter your value of C and press convert. The equivalent in Fahrenheit,

Kelvin and Rankine are displayed.
Celsius

to Fahrenheit
=(C*1.8)+32

to Kelvin
=C+273.15

to Rankine
=(C*1.8)+491.67

Thermocouple Types
What is a Thermocouple?

A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which
produce a small voltage when heated (or cooled). This voltage is measured and used
to determine the temperature of the heated metals. The voltage for any one
temperature is unique to the combination of metals used.
Are There Standards Governing Types of Thermocouple?

British Standards Specification, BS 1041, Temperature Measurement provides

guidance for the selection and use of devices for measuring temperature.
ASTM Standard E230 provides specifications for the common industrial grades,
including letter designations.
Why are there different types?

Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals, usually refered to by

a letter, e.g. J, K etc. Each combination has a different temperature range and is
therefore more suited to certain applications than others. Although it is worth noting
that the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the
thermocouple.
Summary of Thermocouple Types

Type

Conductor
Combination
Platinum 30% Rhodium /
Platinum 6% Rhodium

Temperature Range
F
C
2500 to 3100 1370 to 1700

Nickel-chromium / Constantan
32 to 1600
E
Iron / Constantan
32 to 1400
J
K Nickel-chromium / Nickel-aluminum 32 to 2300

0 to 870
0 to 760
0 to 1260

Nicrosil / Nisil

Platinum 13% Rhodium /

Platinum
Platinum 10% Rhodium /
Platinum

Copper / Constantan

32 to 2300

0 to 1260

1600 to 2640 870 to 1450

1800 to 2640 980 to 1450
-75 to +700 -59 to +370

Type B

Type B thermocouples can be used up to 1600C with short term excursions up to

1800C. They have a low electrical output, therefore are rarely used below 600C. In
fact the output is virtually negligible up to 50C, therefore cold junction compensation
is not usually required with this type.
Type E

Type E thermocouples are often referred to as Chromel-Constantan thermocouples.

They are regarded as more stable than Type K, therefore often used where a higher
degree of accuracy is required.
Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel.
Type J

Type J thermocouples degrade rapidly in oxidising atmospheres above 550C. Their

maximum continuous operating temperature is around 750C though they can with
stand short duration excursions to 1000C. They are generally not used below ambient
temperature due to condensation forming on the wires leading to rusting of the iron.
Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel.
Type K

Type K are the most widely used thermocouples in the Oil & Gas, and refining
industries due to their wide range and low cost. They are occasionally referred to as
Chromel-Alumel thermocouples. Note that above about 750C oxidation leads to drift
and the need for recalibration.
Type N

Type N thermocouples can handle higher temperatures than type K, and offer better
repeatability in the 300 to 500C range. They offers many advantages over Type R &
S at a tenth of the cost, therefore prove to be popular alternatives.
Type R

Type R thermocouples cover similar applications as Type S but offers improved

stability and a marginal increase in range. Consequently, Type R tend to be used in
preference to Type S.

Type S

Type S thermocouples can be continually at temperatures up to 1450C. They can

with stand short duration excursions up to 1650C. They need protection from high
temperature atmospheres to prevent metallic vapour ingress to the tip resulting in
reduction of emf generated. Protection commonly offered is high purity recrystallised
alumina sheath. For most industrial applications, thermocouples are housed in a
thermowell.
Type T

Type T thermocouples are rarely used in industrial applications, and lend themselves
more to use in laboratory situations.

Valve Leakage
Types of Leakage

There are two types of leakage from a valve, namely; fugitive emissions from the
valve to atmosphere, and leakage through the valve but contained within the piping
system.
Fugitive emissions can both be detrimental to the environment and a potential safety
hazard. Valves are considered to be the major contributors to fugitive emission losses.
Leakage through the valve can also be a safety hazard, and can be detrimental to the
process.
Reasons that Valves Leak

Common causes of valve leakage include:

- Valve is not fully closed. This can be due to various reasons, including;
- Valve seat is prevented from closing fully due to dirt, rust, or line debris
- Insufficient actuator travel
- The seat is damaged, e.g. scored
- The seal is damaged
Standards for Acceptable Rates of Valve Leakage

There are many standards for leakage rates e.g. DIN EN 917 covers Thermoplastics
valves, BS 6364 covers cryogenic valves, however the three standards used most in
the oil and gas, and petrochemical industry are API 598, ANSI FCI 70-2 and MSSSP-61. Seee below for further details.
American Petroleum Institute

The Americam Petroleum Institute standard 598 covers the testing and inspection
requirements for gate, globe, check, ball, plug & butterfly valves. It has acceptable

leakage rates for liquid as well as gas testing. All valves built to the various API
standards are required to meet API-598 leakage criteria prior to shipment from the
manufacturer or supplier.
API598 states for shell and backseat tests, no visible leakage is permitted. If the fluid
is a liquid, there shall be no visible evidence of drops or wetting of the external
surfaces (no visible leakage through the body, body liner, if any, and body-to-bonnet
joint and no structural damage). If the test fluid is air or gas, no leakage shall be
revealed by the established detection method. For both the low-pressure closure test
and the high-pressure closure test, visual evidence of leakage through the disk, behind
the seat rings, or past the shaft seals (of valves that have this feature) is not permitted
(Plastic deformation of resilient seats and seals is not considered structural damage).
The allowable rate for leakage of test fluid past the seats, for the duration of the tests,
is listed in the following table:
All Metal-Seated Valves (except
Check Valves)

Metal-Seated
Check Valves

Liquid Test
(drops/min.)

Gas Test
(bubbles/min.)

Liquid Test Gas Test

(drops/min.) (bubbles/min.)

Valve
Size

All Resilient
Seated Valves

<= 2"

0 (b)

0 (b)

(c)

(d)

2.5" 6""

12

24

(c)

(d)

8" 12""

20

40

(c)

(d)

>= 14"" 0

28

56

(c)

(d)

where
(a) 1 milliliter is considered equivalent to 16 drops
(b) There shall be no leakage for the minimum specified test duration. For liquid test,
0 drop means no visible leakage per minimum specified test duration. For gas test, 0
bubble means less then 1 bubble per minimum specified test duration.
(c) The maximum permissible leakage rate shall be 0.18 cubic inch (3 cubic
centimeters) per minute per inch of nominal pipe size.
(d) The maximum permissible leakage rates shall be 1.5 standard cubic feet (0.042
cubic meter) of gas per hour per inch of nominal pipe size.
(e) For check valves larger than NPS 24, the allowable leakage rate shall be per
agreement between purchaser and manufacturer.
Manufacturers Standardisation Society

The US based Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS) of the Valve and Fittings
Industry is a non-profit technical association organised for development and
improvement of industry, national and international codes and standards for, amongst
other things, valves.

Section 5 of their Pressure Testing of Steel Valves, MSS-SP-61 1999 relates to seat
closure tests, and defines the following leakage rates:
- GATE, GLOBE, BALL VALVES: 10 cc/hr per inch of nominal pipe diameter.
(Example: A 6" globe valve is allowed to leak 60 cc/hr in a test)
- CHECK VALVES: 40 cc/hr per inch of nominal pipe diameter
All shutoff or isolation valves specified to MSS-SP-61 must pass the above standards.
The seat closure test must be performed at a fluid (liquid or gas) pressure no less than
1.1 times the 1000F (380C) rating rounded to the next 5 psi (0.5 bar).
American National Standards Institute

ANSI FCI 70-2 supercedes ANSI B16.104 and specifies six different seat leakage
classifications; class 1 to class VI.
Class I is also know as dust tight and can refer to metal or resilient seated valves.
Class IV is also known as metal to metal. It is the kind of leakage rate you can expect
from a valve with a metal shut-off disc and metal seat.
Class Vl is known as a soft seat classification. Soft Seat Valves are those where the
seat or shut-off disc or both are made from some kind of resilient material such as
Teflon.
Leakage
Class

II

Maximum Leakage
Allowable

---

0.5% of rated capacity

Test
Medium

---

Test
Pressure

Test
Procedure

---

No test
required,
as long as
purchaser
and vendor
both agree.

45-60 psig
Air or
or max.
water at operating
50-125F differential
(10-52) whichever
is lower

Pressure
applied to
valve inlet
with outlet
open to
atmosphere
or
connected
to a low
head loss
measuring
device full
normal
closing
thrust
provided
by

actuator.
III

0.1% of rated capacity

As above As above

As above

IV

0.01% of rated capacity

As above As above

As above

VI

0.0005 ml per minute of water per inch of port

diameter per psi differential

Not to exceed amounts shown in following table

based on port diameter.

Pressure
applied to
valve inlet
after filling
entire body
cavity and
connected
Max
piping with
service
water and
pressure
stroking
drop
valve plug
Water at
across closed. Use
50 to
valve plug,
net
125F (10
not to
specified
to 52C)
exceed
max
ANSI
actuator
body
thrust, but
rating.
no more,
even if
available
during test.
Allow time
for leakage
flow to
stabilize.

50 psig or
max rated
Air or
differential
nitrogen
pressure
at 50 to
across
125 F
valve plug
(10to52C)
whichever
is lower.

Actuator
should be
adjusted to
operating
conditions
specified
with full
normal
closing
thrust
applied to
valve plug
seat. Allow
time for
leakage
flow to
stabilize

and use
suitable
measuring
device.

CONTROL VALVE SEAT LEAKAGE CLASSIFICATIONS

Nominal Port Diameter Nominal Port Diameter Leak Rate Leak Rate
Inches
mm
ml/min
bubbles/min
3

76

0.9

102

1.7

11

152

27

203

6.75

45

10

254

63

12

305

11.5

81

Bubbles per minute as tabulated are a suggested alternative based on a suitable

calibrated measuring device, in this case a 0.25-inch OD X 0.032-inch wall tube
submerged in water to a depth of from 1/8 to 1/4 inch. The tube end shall be cut
square and smooth with no chamfers or burrs. The tube axis shall be perpendicular to
the surface of the water. Other measuring devices may be constructed and the number
of bubbles per minute may differ from those shown as long as they correctly indicate
the flow in milliliters per minute.

Straight Length Requirements for Vortex

Meters
Why are straight lenghts important?

Like most flow devices, a Vortex flow meter requires a well developed and
symmetrical flow velocity profile, free from any distortions or swirls if it is to give
good accuracy and repeatability. To achieve good accuracy and repeatability it is
standard practice to place the meter some distance from sources of turbulence.
Common sources of turbulence include pumps, valves, changes in line direction (i.e.
bends), changes in line size etc.
How are straight lenghts defined?

Most manufacturers provide the user with minimum distances for their particular
products. These distances, refered to as straight lenghts, are indicated in Pipe
Diameters (D). For example, 10 D means place the flow meter ten times the pipe's

inside diameter away from the source of turbulence. Because turbulence both
upstream and downstream can reduce accuracy, manufacturesrs provide straight
length requirements for up and downstream of the meter.
Installing a Vortex Meter

Different manufacturers claim differing requirements, with fewer straight lengths

being marketed as an advantage for the end user.
Ideally the flow transmitter should be sited with as many upstream and downstream
straight pipe lengths as possible, preferably more than recommended by the
manufacturer, but definately not less.
Obtaining the necessary straight lengths can be difficult, especially in compact plants.
Therefore it is worth remembering that Vortex meters can be installed vertically,
horizontally, or at any angle, as long as they are kept flooded.
If you are compensating for pressure and temperature then allow 3 to 4 pipe diameters
between the meter and downstream pressure taps, and thermowells should be small
and located 5 to 6 D downstream of the meter.
As a general rule of thumb straight lengths should be about the same as that required
for an orifice installation with a beta ratio of 0.7 - see the table below
Source of Turbulence Upstream Diameters Downstream Diameters
Line reduces in size

15 D

5D

Line increases in size

35 D

5D

Single 90? bend

30 D

5D

Two 90 bends
in same plane

30 D

5D

Two 90 bends
in different planes

40 D

5D

Fully open valve

35 D

5D

Wire Sizes
Cables Wires and Conductors

A wire is a single rod of metal with a small ratio of diameter to length.

A conductor is a wire suitable for carrying an electric current.
A stranded conductor is a conductor made up of a group of wires. These wires are
usually twisted together.
A cable is either a single stranded conductor or a combination of conductors insulated
from one another (a mutlti-core cable). Cables in the oil and gas and petrochem
industries are generally always insulated and often protected with an armoured sheath.
In general, stranded conductors are more flexible and less susceptible to fatigue-

failure than solid wires.

Cable Sizing

Wires can carry only a limited amount of current safely. If the current flowing through
a wire exceeds the current-carrying capacity of the wire, excess heat is generated. This
heat may be great enough to burn off the insulation around the wire and start a fire.
An increase in the diameter, or cross section, of a wire conductor decreases its
resistance and increases its capacity to carry current.
Other reasons for choosing an increased cross sectional area of wire is to limit volt
drop along its length.
Limitations

Wires and cables are made in standard diameters. When selecting cables it is common
select the next standard size up from that calculated.
The terminals (e.g. Weidmuller, Phoenix etc) into which the cable or wire will
terminate are made to accomadate a range of sizes. Be aware of any limitations this
may place on your selection.
Dimensions

Wire diameters are often specified in American Wire Gausge (AWG) rather than in
mm or inches. The charts below give dimensions of common diameters and the
corresponding AWG.
Solid Bare Copper Wire

Stranded Tinned Copper Wire

AWG Nominal Cross

Diam
Section
(mm)
(mm2)

AWG Stranding Nominal Cross

Diam
Section
No/AWG (mm)
(mm2)

10

2.6

5.23

12

7/20

2.44

3.61

11

2.3

4.155

12

19/25

2.36

3.07

12

2.05

3.29

12

65/30

2.41

3.27

13

1.83

2.63

14

7/22

1.85

2.26

14

1.63

2.07

14

19/26

1.85

1.93

15

1.45

1.651

14

42/30

1.85

2.06

16

1.29

1.3

16

7/24

1.52

1.42

17

1.15

1.039

16

19/29

1.47

1.216

18

1.02

0.816

16

65/34

1.5

1.3

19

0.912

0.653

18

7/26

1.22

0.891

20

0.813

0.514

18

19/30

1.24

0.957

21

0.724

0.412

18

42/34

1.2

0.819

22

0.643

0.322

18

65/36

1.2

0.845

23

0.574

0.259

20

7/28

0.89

0.504

24

0.511

0.203

20

19/32

0.94

0.612

25

0.455

0.163

20

42/36

0.914

0.533

26

0.404

0.127

22

7/30

0.762

0.352

27

0.361

0.102

22

19/34

0.787

0.38

28

0.32

0.08

24

7/32

0.61

0.226

29

0.287

0.064

24

19/36

0.61

0.239

30

0.254

0.051

24

42/40

0.584

0.201

31

0.226

0.04

26

7/34

0.483

0.14

32

0.203

0.032

26

19/38

0.508

0.153

33

0.18

0.025

28

7/36

0.381

0.071

34

0.16

0.02

28

19/40

0.406

0.093

35

0.142

0.016

30

7/38

0.305

0.056

36

0.127

0.013

37

0.114

0.01

38

0.102

0.008

39

0.089

0.006

40

0.079

0.005