Nakov Dobrikov Programming++Algorithms Ebook 10 Feb 2013

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0.1. .................................... 18
0.1.1. - ................................................................................... 18
0.1.2. .................................................................... 19
0.1.3. ................................................................... 20
0.1.4. ............................................................................... 20
0.1.5. ...................................................................................................... 21
0.1.6. ...................................................................... 21
0.1.7. ........................................................... 22
0.2. ................................................................................................................ 23
0.3. ................................................................................................... 24
0.3.1. ............................................................................. 24
0.3.2. ......................................................................................... 25
0.3.3. ................................................................................................. 25
0.3.4. .................................................................................................................... 26
0.4. = ++........................................................................................... 26
0.4.1. ................................................................................ 26
0.4.2. ................................................................... 27
0.4.3. C? .......................................................................................................................... 28
0.4.4. ............................................................................. 29
0.5. ........................................................................................................................... 29
................................................................................................................................. 29
0.5.1. ................................................................................................................ 29
0.5.2. ........................................................................................................... 30
0.5.3. .................................................................................................... 30
1 ...................................................................... 33
1.1. ........................................................... 33
1.1.1. .............................................................................. 33
- ...........................................................................................................................33
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1.1.3. ................................................................................................................... 44
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1.1.4. ...................................................................................... 52
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1.1.5. , . ........................... 56
1.1.6. ................................................................................ 59
- p- .........................................................61
- p- . .......................63
1.1.7. .................................................................................................................. 65
- .............................................................65
- ....................................................................66
1.2. ............................................................................................................ 67
1.2.1. ....................................................................................................................... 68
1.2.2. ...................................................................................................... 69
1.2.3. - . ........................................................ 74
1.2.4. - ............................................................................................... 76
1.2.5. ....................................... 77
1.3. ................................................................................ 80
1.3.1. ..................................................................................................................... 80
- ...........................................................................................................................81
- .......................................................................................................84
- ...................................................................................................86
1.3.2. .......................................................................................................................... 86
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1.3.3. ..................................................................................................................... 90
1.3.4. ......................................................................................................... 92
- ...........................92
- .........................93
- ...........................94
1.3.5. ............................................................................................. 96
- .....................................................................................................96
1.4. ................................................................................... 97
1.4.1. ............................................................................................ 99
1.4.2. ............................................................................................... 99
1.4.3. O(F): ..........................................................................................100
1.4.4. (F): .........................................................................................102
1.4.5. (F): .........................................................................................103
1.4.6. ..................................................................105
1.4.7. ..........................................................................106
1.4.8. ..................................................................107
- ....................................................................................................... 107
- ....................................................................................... 107
- ................................................................................................ 107
- if- ................................................................................................................... 107
- ................................................................................................................................. 108
- .................................................................................................................. 108
- ....................................................................................... 109
- ................................................................................................... 110
- ............................................................................................................................ 110
1.4.9. .....................................................................................112
- ............................................................. 112
- .............................................................. 114
- ..................................................................................... 114
1.4.10. ........................................................117
- .................................................................................................. 117
- .................................................................................................... 118
- ............................................................................................................... 118
1.4.11. ..............................................................120
1.5. ...............................................................................................................120
1.5.1. ........................................................................................................120
1.5.2. ..................................................................................................................133
- , , .................................................................................... 133
- .................................................................................... 137
- ....................................................................................................... 138
2 ...............................................143
2.1. , , ........................................................................................................144
- .................................................................................................................................... 145
- ............................................................................................................................... 146
- ..................................................................................................................................... 147
2.1.1 () ..................................................................147
- .................................................................................................................................... 147
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2.1.2 () .............................................................................151
- ....................................................................................................... 152
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- ....................................... 154
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2.2. ................................................................................................................158
- ..................................................................................................... 163
- ..................................................................................................... 164
- .................................................................................. 164
- ......................................................................................................................... 168
2.3. ........................................................................................................169
2.3.1. . - .............................................................................172
2.3.2. B- ......................................................................................................................174
2.4. - ........................................................................................................................176
- - ..................................................................................................................... 176
- ............................................................................................................................. 177
2.4.1. - .............................................................................................178
- ................................................................... 178
- .............................................................................................. 178
- - ................................................................................. 179
- - .......................................................... 179
- - .............................................................................. 180
2.4.2. .......................................................................................................184
- ............................................................................................................184
- ............................................................................................................. 184
- ...................................................................................................... 185
- .............................................................................................................. 185
- ..............................................................................................................185
- ........................................................................................ 185
- .................................................................................................. 186
2.4.3. - .......................................................................................186
2.5. ...............................................................................................................192
2.5.1. ........................................................................................................192
2.5.2. ..................................................................................................................196
3 ...........................................................................................................199
3.1. ................................................................................................200
3.1.1. .................................................................................................200
3.1.2. ...........................................................................................201
3.1.3. . .............203
3.1.4. ....................................................................................................206
3.1.5. .............................................................................................207
3.1.6. ...........................................................................................208
3.1.7. .....................................................................213
3.1.8. ........................................................................................215
3.1.9. .........................................................................216
3.1.10. .....................219
3.2. ......................................................................................221
3.2.1. ......................................................................................221
3.2.2. ................................................................................................223
3.2.3. ..................................................................................................226
3.2.4. .....................................................................................229
3.2.5. ......................................................................................232
3.3. ........................................................................................................233
3.3.1. ...............................................................................235
3.3.2. .................................................................................236
3.3.3. ...............................................................................................237
3.3.4. ........................................................237
3.3.5. ..............................................................................................................237
3.3.6. .........................................................................................................238
3.3.7. .........................................................................238
3.3.8. - ...............................................................239
3.3.9. - .............................................................................239
3.3.10. ...............................................................................................239
3.4. ...............................................................................................................240
3.4.1. ........................................................................................................240
3.4.2. ..................................................................................................................243
4 .................................................................................................................245
4.1. .................................................................................................246
4.1.1. .........................................................248
4.1.2. ...........................................................249
4.2. . ..................................................................251
4.3. .................................................................................................................252
4.4. .......................................................................................................256
4.5. ..............................................................................................258
4.6. ...............................................................................................................260
4.6.1. ........................................................................................................260
4.6.2. ..................................................................................................................261
5 .......................................................................................263
5.1. ...............................................................................................................263
5.2. ........................................................................267
5.2.1. .......................................................................................................267
5.2.2. , .......................................................268
5.2.3. ( ) .............................................268
5.2.4. ............................................269
5.2.5. ........................................................................................269
5.2.6. ...............................................................270
5.3. ............................................................................................................271
5.3.1. ...................................................................................................271
5.3.2. ..............................................................................................274
5.4. , ................................................................276
5.4.1. .......................................277
- - ................................................... 277
- ......................................................................................... 279
- ...................................................... 281
5.4.2. .............................................................................................283
- ............................................................................................. 284
- - ............................................................................................... 284
- .......................................................................................................... 285
- ........................................................................................... 288
- ...................................................................................................... 290
- ................................................................ 293
- ........................................................... 293
- - ....................................................................................... 294
- - ............................................... 297
5.4.3. ...............................................................................................................................297
- ............................................................ 297
- .............................................................................................. 300
5.4.4. . .............................................300
5.4.5. .............................................................................................................303
5.4.6. ...........................................................................................................................306
- ............................................................................................................. 307
- ............................................................................ 311
- ...................................................................................................... 312
5.5. . .........................................312
5.5.1. . ...................................................313
5.5.2. .........................................................................................314
5.5.3. .................................................................................................317
5.5.4. ..................................................................................................318
5.5.5. ..............................................................................................320
5.5.6. ..................................................................................322
5.5.7. .....................................................324
5.5.8. ......................................325
5.6. .............................................................................................326
5.6.1. ........................................................................................326
5.6.2. .........................................328
5.6.3. . .....................................330
5.6.4. k- ........................................................................333
5.7. .........................................................................334
5.7.1. ....................................................................................334
- ....................................................................................................... 334
- ............................................................................................................ 338
- ........................................................................... 340
5.7.2. ..............................................................................................340
- .................................................................................. 341
5.7.3. ............................................................................................343
5.7.4. ..................................................................................................................................346
5.7.5. , .......................................................................................348
- p- p- .......................................................................................................... 350
5.7.6. . ................................................353
5.8. ..............................................................................................354
5.8.1. . .................................................................354
- .................................................................. 355
- ................................................................... 355
5.8.2. ..................................................................................................355
5.9. ...............................................................................................................357
5.9.1. ........................................................................................................357
5.9.2. ..................................................................................................................363
6 . NP- ..........................................369
6.1. .............................................................................................369
6.1.1. .....................................................................................................369
6.1.2. ....................................................................................................370
6.1.3. ..........................................................................................................370
6.1.4. ..........................................................................................................................370
6.2. NP- ................................................................................................................373
6.3. .............................................................................................................374
6.3.1. ......................................................................376
6.3.2. .....................................................................................................380
6.3.3. - ....................................................................383
6.3.4. ...........................................................................................................385
6.3.5. ............................................................................................388
6.3.6. ...........................................................................391
6.3.7. ................................................................................................395
6.4. ...........................................................................398
6.4.1. ( ).............................................................398
6.5. ......................................................................................401
6.5.1. "X"- "O".....................................................................................................402
6.5.2. .........................................................................405
6.5.3. - ....................................................................................................406
6.5.4. - ...................................................408
6.6. ...............................................................................................................409
6.6.1. ........................................................................................................409
6.6.2. ..................................................................................................................413
- NP- ................................................................................................................ 413
- ........................................................................................................... 425
7 .......................................................................................427
7.1. K- ......................................................................427
7.2. .............................................................................................................................434
7.3. .......................................................................................445
7.4. ....................................................................................................450
7.5. ................................................................................................456
7.6. .........................................458
7.7. .................................................................................461
7.8. .............................................................................................464
7.9. ..........................................................................................466
7.10. ......................................................471
7.11. .......................................................................................................474
7.12. .............................................................................................................475
7.12.1. ......................................................................................................475
7.12.2. ................................................................................................................478
8 .........................................................................481
8.1. .............................................................................................................................481
8.2. ...........................................................................484
8.2.1. .....................................................................................................484
8.2.2. ..........................................................................................................495
8.2.3. ..............................................................................................497
8.2.4. . ...............................................504
8.2.5. ............................................................508
8.2.6. - ........................................................................................513
8.2.7. - ........................................................................517
8.2.8. ...................................................................................522
8.2.9. .................................................................................................526
8.3. ..............................................................................................528
8.3.1. .......................................................................................................528
8.3.2. .................................................................................................532
8.3.3. .............................................................................................................533
8.3.4. .................................................537
8.3.5. .....................................................539
8.3.6. .................................................................................540
8.3.7. ..........................................................................................542
8.3.8. ...........................................................543
8.3.9. ............................................................................................................548
8.3.10. .................................................................................................549
8.4. .................................................................551
8.4.1. .............................................................................................................552
8.4.2. ...............................................................................................................553
8.4.3. .......................................................................................................555
8.4.4. ....................................................559
8.4.5. ............................................................................................561
8.4.6. ...................................................................................................564
8.4.7. ............................................................................................565
8.4.8. .............................................................................................................568
8.4.9. ....................................................................................................571
8.4.10. .........................................................................................574
10
8.4.11. .............................................................................................................576
8.4.12. - ............................................................................................................579
8.4.13. ..............................................................................................582
8.5. ...............................................................................................................584
8.5.1. ........................................................................................................584
8.5.2. ..................................................................................................................591
9 ..................................595
9.1. ...............................................................................................................595
9.1.1. ...........................................................................................................596
9.1.2. ........................................................................598
9.1.3. .................................................................601
9.1.4. ...................................................................................604
9.1.5. .......................................................................................605
9.1.6. .....................................................................................607
9.1.7. ...............................................................................................608
9.1.8. . . ...........................................................610
9.2. .......................................................................................................616
9.2.1. ......................................................................617
- .......................................................................................... 618
9.2.2. ..........................................................................621
9.2.3. ..................................................................................................622
9.3. ........................................................................627
9.3.1. .........................................................................................628
9.4. ...............................................................................................................629
9.4.1. ........................................................................................................629
9.4.2. ..................................................................................................................633
10 ..............................................................................................637
10.1. ............................................................................................................................637
10.2. ........................................................................................................638
10.3. ................................................................................640
10.3.1. ...............................................................................................640
10.3.2. ................................................................................641
10.3.3. ........................................................................................643
10.3.4. ...........646
10.3.5. .................................................................................................646
10.3.6. .....................................................................................................648
10.3.7. .............................................................................................649
10.3.8. . .........................650
10.3.9. ............................................................................653
10.3.10. : PackBits ..............................................................655
10.4. ....................................................................................................656
10.4.1. - ......................................................................................656
10.4.2. ...............................................................................................660
10.4.3. .............................................................................671
10.4.4. K ......................................................................................................672
10.4.5. ............................................................................................673
10.5. ..............................................................................................681
10.5.1. ....................................................................683
11
10.5.2. ......................................................................................................686
10.5.3. : MNP-5...................................................................688
10.6. .......................................................................................................690
10.6.1. .....................................................................................................................691
10.6.2. ...........................................................................................................695
10.6.3. .............................................................................................696
10.6.4. ....................................................................697
10.6.5. LZ77. ..........................................................698
10.6.6. LZSS. ..............................................................................................698
10.6.7. FLZ. LZ77 ......................................................................................699
10.6.8. LZW. ................................................................................700
10.6.9. GIF. CompuServe .....................................................................706
10.6.10. ....................................................................707
10.6.11. ................................................................................708
10.6.12. LZW ..................................................................................................709
10.7. ..............................................................................................710
10.7.1. ..................................................................................710
10.7.2. JPEG ..............................................................................................................................711
10.7.3. . MPEG .......................................................713
10.7.4. ......................................................................................................................715
10.7.5. .......................................................................................716
10.8. .............................................................................................................717
10.8.1. ......................................................................................................717
10.8.2. ................................................................................................................725
...........................................................................................................................727
......................................................................................................733
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.
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, .
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- .
0.5.2.
,
http://www.nakov.com/algoplus-bugs/submit-bug.php:
(20), (15), (12), (12),
(6), (5), (3), (3),
(3), (3), (3), (2),
(2), (2), (2), (2), (2),
(2), (2), (2), (2),
(2), (2), Ka (1), (1), (1),
(1), (1), (1), (1),
(1), (1), (1), (1),
(1), (1), (1) (1) .
0.5.3.

. , , , . , , , (, ) ( ).
:
http://www.facebook.com/groups/168112146541301
:
panayot.dobrikov@sap.com; dobrikov@gmail.com
nakov@cs.berkeley.edu; preslav.nakov@gmail.com
- ,
.
-
:
http://www.programirane.org
:
;
, ; ; ; ;
; - .
0 - ,
31
1

" :
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1.1.
,
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A, B, C, ... . , ,
- ( ).
,
A a1, a2, ..., an
:
A = {a1, a2, ..., an}
, ai, i = 1,2,...,n, A aiA,
aiA. ( A - n),
|A|. n = 0, . -,
( 1.1.1.):
1 -
34
, (a, b, ) ,
, , .
A
a
1.1.1. .
, ,
[,-1973]. ,
-.
1.1. A B, A B. B ( 1.1.1.). , B , A
() B. B.
B
A
(a)
()
()
()
1.1.1. (), (), () () .

1.2. C A B,
a , aA aB. C = AB.
1.3. C = AB A B C,
, A B.
1.4. C = A\B A B C,
, A, B.
1.5. , .
.
-, .
, ,
. ():
{a, a, b} {a, b, b} {a, b, a} {a, b} {b, a}
1.6. , , .
1.7. n- , n- ().
1 -
35
n- , .
, (a, b, c) (a, c, b) ..
:
1. A = {1,2,4,5,7} B = {2,3,4,5,6}. :
AB, AB, A\B, B\A.
2. A B , AB = A.
B?
3. A B : AB = (AB) \ (AB).
A = {1,2,4,5,7} B = {2,3,4,5,6}.
4. , A B = B A.
: AB, AB, A\B, B\A, AB?
-
, . (
3 "" : , ),
.
. , , , .
1.8. ( N) , 0, 1, 2, 3, ....
, .
- :
, .
, N - , .
, n-
.
1.9. Z :
..., 3, 2, 1 ( ), 0 (), 1, 2, 3, ... ( ).
,
[-1995]. - ,
,
.
. ANSI C (American National Standards Institute [ANSIC])
( 1.1.1. Borland C DOS), , :
|short| |int| |long|
int ( , DOS
2 , Windows 4).
, unsigned, ,
: (unsigned)(-1).
1 -
36
char
unsigned char
short int
int
long int
unsigned short int
unsigned long int
128, ..., 127

0, ..., 255
32768, ..., 32767
32768, ..., 32767
2147483648, .., 2147483647
0, ..., 65535
0, ..., 4294967295
8
8
16
16
32
16
32
1.1.1a. Borland C DOS.

1.1.1a. ,
.
, . , ( ) , ( . overflow)
.
1.10. p/q, p q q . Q.
1.11. , :
x = n + 0,d1d2d3... ,
n , di 0 9. 0,d1d2d3...
. ,
d1 d 2
d
d
d
d
1
kk x n 1 2 kk k
10 100
10
10 100
10 10
kN, k 0.
, di .
(.. ) . 1/3 = 0,333333..... 3
. 1/3 = 0,(3) .
- , 1/7 = 0,(142857).
, , ..
p/q (p,qN, q > 0),
:
= 3,1415926535 ....
, 355/113, ,
( 6 )
. 22/7.
:
, [-1995]. , -
IEEE (Institute of Electrical & Electronics
Engineers). , .
1.1.1. Borland C DOS.
float
double
long double
3,4.1038 , ..., 3,4.1038

1,7.10308 , ..., 1,7.10308
3,4.104932 , ..., 1,1.104932
32
64
80
1 -
37
1.1.1. Borland C.
,
( . underflow):
( ,
).
: 1/3
.
, , - ( > 0) ,
( ), - ,
0.
:
, , .
- .
m n , m 0. q r (0 r <
m) , n = q.m + r. q n/m, r
. r , , m n (n
m) m|n. ( )
/ %. "",
:
q = n / m;
r = n % m;
1.12. (n m) % z = 0, , n m z
n m (mod z).

n. : ( )
n 10. , n . ,
n , , n
:
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned n = 4242;
int main(void) {
unsigned digits;
for (digits = 0; n > 0; n /= 10, digits++);
printf(" %u %u\n", n, digits);
return 0;
}
digits.c
:
1. m n, (m,n) : (7,3), (7,3),
(7,3), (7,3), (3, 7), (3,7), (3,7), (3,7).
2. m n (m 0) n = q.m + r, 0 r < m, (q, r ). [-1995]
3. .
?
1 -
38
-
a1, a2, ... , an. S = a 1 + a 2 + ... + an -
:
n
S ai ,
i 1
a ,
1i n
i 1..n
R(x), i
:
S ai
i:R ( x )
C Sn n :
unsigned sum(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, s = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) s += i;
return s;
}
sum1.c
a[] n :
int sum(int a[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
int s = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) s += a[i];
return s;
}
sum2.c

:
Sn
n.(n 1)
2
,
.
:
n
a .b
(1)
j 1 i 1
a1 .b1 a1 .b2 a1 .bm a n .b1 ... a n .bm
a1 .(b1 ... bm ) a 2 .(b1 ... bm ) a n .(b1 .. bm ) (a1 ... a n ).(b1 ... bm )

n
j 1
i 1
a j . bi
, :
unsigned i, j;
int result = 0;
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
for (i = 1; i <= m; i++)
result += a[i] * b[j];
, , :
1 -
39
(2)
ij
i:R ( x ) j:S ( x )
(3) ai ai
R( x)
S ( x)
ij
j:S ( x ) i:R ( x )
i
S ( x )|| R ( x )
i
S ( x )&& R ( x )
S(x)||R(x) S(x)&&R(x) , S R, i j.
:
P = 1.a2.a3.....an , ,
n
P ai , P ai P ai
i 1
1i n
i 1..n
a[], n , :
int mult(int a[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
int s = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) s *= a[i];
return s;
}
mult.c
:
1. .
2. (1), (2) (3) .
3. , (1), (2) (3).
4. (1), (2) (3), :
i 1..n
i n..m
ai a n
,1nm
i 1..m
- , , n-
1.13. x , y , :
xy = x.x. ... .x
(y )
y < 0, xy = 1 / x-y.
(x 0):
xy = xy-1.x
xy = xy+1/x
xy1+y2 = xy1.xy2
xy1.y2 = (xy1)y2
xy y :
double power(double x, unsigned y)
{ double res = x;
unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i < y; i++) res *= x;
return res;
1 -
40
power.c
- ( 7.5.) , - xy.
xn = y (n , n > 1), x n- y
x n y . , y n- y .
n = 2, y y
y . ,
:
p
xq xp
q
- , x y (x > 1). y
y = d,d1d2d3 ... :
d
d
d1 d 2
kk
10 100
10
xy x
d
d1 d 2
1
kk k
10 100
10 10
, xy
, k.
, , - . y = bx b 1, b >
0, y > 0 x. y b
logb y. (x > 0, y > 0, b > 0, b 1, c
> 0, c 1):
x b logb x log b b x
(1)
log b ( xy ) log b x log b y
(2)
log b x y y. log b x
(3)
log b x
log c x
log c b
(4)
- , 2
log x log2 x. ln x
log x: H e = 2,71828... ( 1.1.6.)
:
1. - , .
2. (1), (2) (3) , .
- .
n, nN ( n!) 1 n:
n
n! 1.2...n i ,
i 1
0! = 1.
C n! :
unsigned long factoriel(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
unsigned long r = 1;
1 -
41
for (i = 2; i <= n; i++) r *= i;

return r;
}
fact.c
-
.
,
.
:
1, n 0
n!
n.(n 1)!, n 0
n Sn :
0, n 0
Sn
S n 1 n, n 0
- ( 1.2.),
.
:
1. x y (xR, yN).
2. -
.
-
(
).
m n (mn) : .. ,
m n (n 1, m 1). m = n .
aij : ,
, ( 1.1.1.).
Amn =
11
12
...
1n
a21
22
...
a2n
am2
...
amn
m1
1.1.1. mn.
, , , 22, 33, 44 , (
) . - [Ayres-1962].
:
int A[m][n];
1 -
42
- ,
struct data, :
struct data {
int a;
int b;
...
} A[m][n];

/ -
. - ( 1.1.1.).
11
12
...
1n
11
12
...
1 n
a21
22
...
a 2n
a21
22
...
a2 n
am2
...
amn
m1
a m2
...
m1
a mn
a)
1.1.1. : () () .
/*
for (i = 0; i <
for (j = 0; j
scanf("%d",
/*
for (i = 0; i <
for (j = 0; j
scanf("%d",
*/
m; i++)
< n; j++)
&A[i][j]);
*/
n; i++)
< m; j++)
&A[j][i]);
/* */
for (i = 0; i < m; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
printf("%.3d", A[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
matrix.c

Amn Bmn Cmn , cij = aij + bij ( i = 1, 2,...,
m, j = 1, 2, ..., .n), 1.1.1.
11
12
...
1n
a21
22
...
a2n
b11
b12
...
b1n
b21
b22
...
b2n
m1
am2
...
amn
...
1n+ b1n
a21+ b21
22+ b22
...
a2n+ b2n
am2+ bm2
...
amn+ bmn
...
12+ b12
Cmn =
11+b11
b m1
bm2
...
bmn
m1+bm1
1.1.1. .
for (i = 0; i < m; i++)
1 -
43
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)

C[i][j] = A[i][j] + B[i][j];
summat.c

Amn Bnp Cmp, :
cij aik .bkj , i = 1,2,...,m j = 1,2,...,p.

n
k 1
-, m.p.n
. n > m n > p, n3.
for (i = 0; i < m; i++)
for (j = 0; j < p; j++) {
C[i][j] = 0;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
C[i][j] += A[i][k] * B[k][j];
}
multmat.c

, , . , nlog 7 ( n2,81) , . , , 7.6., .
:
1. unsigned a[MAX][MAX].
void fillMatrix(unsigned a[][MAX], unsigned n),
a[][] :
0
1
2
3
4
20
0
5
6
7
19
18
0
8
9
17
16
15
0
10
14
13
12
11
0
2. unsigned a[MAX][MAX]. , , n = 5 :
1
2
3
4
5
16
17
18
19
6
15
24
25
20
7
14
23
22
21
8
13
12
11
10
9
1.1.2.
: a1, a2, ..., an. P = a 1.a2..an.
, ai = i, i = 1,2,...,n, P = 1.2 ... n = n!.
1 -
44
,
1.1.1., .
n!. n! ,
-. 10! e 3628800, . 20!
C.
- , ,
, :
P 1 log a , [x] -
10 i
n
i 1
, - x.
, ,
P [1+log10(P)], :
log P = log(a1.a2. an) = log a1 + log a2 + + log an.
n!
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
const unsigned long n = 123;
int main(void)
{
double digits = 0;
unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
digits += log10(i);
/* [x] , unsigned long */
printf(" %lu! %lu\n", n, (unsigned long)digits+1);
return 0;
}
digitsnf.c
:
, P
[1+log10(P)].
1.1.3.

.
, ..
1.14. ,
1 , 1 . , .
:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37,
( 300 . ...), .
,
, ( ).
( RSA [RSA-78])
.
, , .
55,
5 11. 4853 (211 23),
1 -
45
, .
100
, ,
, (, ,
).
, :
[a, b]?
?
n- ?
(x) ,
x, (x)
. (
6.2.), (x), (
, ln x loge x):
( ) (x) x / ln(x a),
, - x.
- = 1.
. n- [n.ln(n)]. -
[n(ln(n) + ln(ln n 1))].
. x 1/ln(x).
,
[Primes-1][Primes-2]:

1. n > 2 .
2. n > 17 .
3. -
.
4. n > 5 .
5. .
. n2+m2 n2+m2+1.
. n2+1.
. () n2 (n+1)2 .
:
1. (x) , -?
2. .
3. .
-
, , :
[2,
p
2
1] p , , , p .
1 -
46
,
, ,
- .
(). p , (p1)! 1 (mod p).
(p1)!, -
1 .
1:

p x, x >
-
p (). , ,
p , , p p = x.y, y <
p , ..
p . :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
const unsigned n = 23;
char isPrime(unsigned n) /* 1, , 0 */
{ unsigned i = 2;
if (n == 2) return 1;
while (i <= sqrt(n)) {
if (n % i == 0) return 0;
i++;
}
return 1;
}
int main(void) {
if (isPrime(n))
printf(" %u .\n", n);
else
printf(" %u .\n", n);
return 0;
}
prime.c
: , p ,
, [2, p ]
( , ). ,
k ( Pi, i = 1,2,,k),
[2, (Pk )2] . C:
#include <stdio.h>
/* , */
#define K 25
unsigned prime[K] = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43,
47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97};
/* , *
prime[] */
char checkprime(unsigned n)
1 -
47
{ unsigned i = 0;
while (i < K && prime[i] * prime[i] <= n) {
if (n % prime[i] == 0) return 0;
i++;
}
return 1;
}
int main(void)
{ if (checkprime(n))
printf(" %u . \n", n);
else
printf(" %u . \n", n);
return 0;
}
preproc.c
:
1. ,
. (p1)!, ,
p?
2. , , p , ,
[2, p ].
- .
: , - n.

- n . n , k
- k .
, , -
, " ".
(275-195 . . .) ,
. ,
.
, ,
, [, , -1995]
[, , -1980]. ,
, , . , .
1 -
48
1.1.3. .
: ,
( ).
:
2 n :
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, ... , n
2. ,
:
(2), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, ... , n
-, :
3. , 3:
(2), (3), 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, ... , n
, 5 5-:
(2), (3), 4, (5), 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, ... , n
"" , i . ,
,
. -
:

1)
2)
3)
4)
sieve[] . -, ,
1. - i,
(.. ). i = 2.
i, sieve[i] 0. i e .
M 1 sieve[k], k = i, 2i, 3i, , (n/i).i (..
i ).
i n, 2, .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 30000
/* n */
1 -
49

char sieve[MAXN];
void eratosten(unsigned n)
{ unsigned j, i = 2;
while (i <= n) {
if (sieve[i] == 0) {
printf("%5u", i);
j = i * i;
while (j <= n) {
sieve[j] = 1;
j += i;
}
}
i++;
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) sieve[i] = 0;
eratosten(n);
return 0;
}
sieve.c
:
2
59
137
3
61
139
5
67
149
7
71
151
11
73
157
13
79
163
17
83
167
19
89
173
23
97
179
29
101
181
31
103
191
37
107
193
41
109
197
43
113
199
47
127
53
131
- .
( sieve[N]) , .
preproc.c
prime[], k ,
[2, (Pk )2] . :
, . ,
2 [3, 22] 3
. -, 3,
[4, 32] 5 7, .
, prime[] ,
[2, n] . :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 10000
/* n */
unsigned primes[MAXN], pN = 0;
char isPrime(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i = 0;
while (i < pN && primes[i] * primes[i] <= n) {
if (n % primes[i] == 0) return 0;
i++;
}
return 1;
1 -
50
}
void findPrimes(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i = 2;
while (i < n) {
if (isPrime(i)) {
primes[pN] = i;
pN++;
printf("%5u", i);
}
i++;
}
}
int main(void) {
findPrimes(n);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
rproc.c
, n ,
. [a,b] a (a>>1), - .
2, 3 5.
:
n = 30.q+r, r [0..29] r[0, 1, 2, ..., 14, 15].
30.q = 2.3.5.q
30 8. . .
4k/15 , :
30.q1, 30.q7, 30.q11, 30.q13
.
:
1. : 3) k = i2, i .
. .
2. .
3. , 4 .
-
( ) P (P>1)
() P1q1. P2q2. .Pnqn, P1 < P2 <
< Pn P , a qi . [-1995].
:
520 = 23.51.131
64 = 26
2345 = 51.71.671
1 -
51
A , ( 2 1.1.5.), :
P.
1) i = 2.
2) k = 0. P i, k .
3).
3) k > 0, ik .
4)
4) P > 1, i 2).
, . :
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned n = 435; /* , */
int main(void) {
unsigned how, i, j;
printf("%u = ", n);
i = 1;
while (n != 1) {
i++;
how = 0;
while (0 == n % i) {
how++;
n = n / i;
}
for (j = 0; j < how; j++)
printf("%u ", i);
}
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
numdev.c
:
.
- ,
: a1, a2, ..., an. ,
P = a 1.2. ... .an.
1.1.2., . ,
: , , 2 5,
, 2, , 5.
, , :
1) i (i = 1, 2,..., n) ai ai = 2Mi.5Ni.bi, bi % 2 0, bi % 5
0.
2)
M i Ni
P = 2i 1.. n .5i 1.. n .c , (c ), a

, :
25, 4, 20, 11, 13, 15
i 1
i 1
Mi Ni .
1 -
52
:
20.52.1, 22.50.1, 22.51.1, 20.50.11, 20.50.13, 20.51.3,
4 . :
25.4.20.11.13.15 = 4290000.
- .

.
n!.
[log 5 n ]
n . - ,
k
k 1 5
2 5 n .
#include <stdio.h>
int main(void) {
unsigned zeroes = 0, p = 5;
while (n >= p) {
zeroes += n / p;
p *= 5;
}
printf(" %u! %u\n", n, zeroes);
return 0;
}
factzero.c
:
1. ,
.
2. , .
3. , n!
1.1.4.
-
1.15. ,
2p1, p e .
39 p, 2p1 :
2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89, 107, 127, 521, 607, 1279, 2203, 2281, 3217, 4253, 4423, 9689, 9941,
11213, 19937, 21701, 23209, 44497, 86243, 110503, 132049, 216091, 756839, 859433, 1257787, 1398269,
2976221, 3021377, 6972593, 13466917
37 p 37
. ( 1999 2001 .),
38- 39-, ,
-. p. .. - .
: , . ,
. 23- 1963 .,
,
1 -
53
"2112131 " (
1.1.4.).
- , , :
2134669171 8107892 (??39- M )
269725931 2098960 (??38- M )
230213771 909526 (37- M )
229762211 895932 (36- M )
213982691 420921 (35- M )
- , . ,
(
-).
- : , ""
38- , $50000.
$250000 [Primes-3].
1.1.4. 211213-1 .
:
p = 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, = 2p 1 .
, .
1870 , - ,
( e -
[Guinier-1991]).
(LucasLehmer Test, 1930) :
:
1 = 4
n+1 = (En )2 2
:
4, 14, 194, 37634, .
(-). m = 2p 1 ( p )
, :
(Ep1) % (2p 1) = 0
.
.
:
1. n ,
-.
2. n ,
-. .
3. 2n1 , n ?
1 -
54
- .
1.16. n ,
( n ).
3 :
6 = 1 + 2 + 3,
28 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14,
496 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 31 + 62 + 124 + 248.
:
8128, 33550336, 8589869056,
, ( n = 1,
2, 3, ), 5-
. :
. () 2p1 , 2p1.(2p1) .
n : pi n
( 10 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89). ,
n,
. ,
: 2
. number[]:
.
: number[k-1] ( k ),
number[k-2] .. k- number[0].
, number[], :
i = 0; number[i]++;
while (10 == number[i]) { number[i] = 0; number[++i]++; }
if (i == k) k++;
2,
, .. 9, , while(10 == number[i]), .
, :
unsigned i, carry = 0, temp;
for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {
temp = number[i] * 2 + carry;
number[i] = temp % 10;
carry = temp / 10;
}
if (carry > 0) number[k++] = carry;
, 10 , mPrimes[]:
#include <stdio.h>
#define MN 10
unsigned mPrimes[MN] = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 13, 17, 19, 31, 61, 89 };
unsigned k, number[200];
void doubleN(void)
{ unsigned i, carry = 0, temp;
1 -
55
for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {

temp = number[i] * 2 + carry;
number[i] = temp % 10;
carry = temp / 10;
}
if (carry > 0)
number[k++] = carry;
}
void print(void)
{
unsigned i;
for (i = k; i > 0; i--)
printf("%u", number[i-1]);
printf("\n");
}
void perfect(unsigned s, unsigned m)
{
unsigned i;
k = 1; number[0] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < m; i++)
doubleN(); /* 2^i */
number[0]--; /* {2,4,8,6} */
for (i = 0; i < m - 1; i++)
doubleN();
printf("%2u-o = ", s);
print();
/* */
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i <= MN; i++)
perfect(i, mPrimes[i - 1]);
return 0;
}
perfect.c
:
1-o
2-o
3-o
4-o
5-o
6-o
7-o
8-o
9-o
10-o
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
6
28
496
8128
33550336
8589869056
137438691328
2305843008139952128
2658455991569831744654692615953842176
191561942608236107294793378084303638130997321548169216
: - (,
). , ,
(- ). , ,
300 .
:
1. , ( 1
) 2. , 6 : 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 = 2.
1 -
56
2. , ,
( 1 ) 2. ?
1.1.5. , .
1.17. n- .
k-
:
n
n.(n 1)...(n k 1)
C kn
k (k 1)...1
k
()
, C k n -
k
n

, n,
. .
n , (*) :
n
n!
C kn
(**)
k!(n k )!
k
, ,
n k ( 1.3.3.) (?).
, (a+b)n, :
n
n
n
n
n
a bn a nb0 a n1b1 ... a 0b n a nibi
0
1
n
i
i 0

, [Knuth1/1968]. .
1.1.5. C k , 0 k n < 10.
n
n
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
n
0

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
n
1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
n
2

0
0
1
3
6
10
15
21
28
36
n
3

0
0
0
1
4
10
20
35
56
84
n
4

0
0
0
0
1
5
15
35
70
126
n
5

0
0
0
0
0
1
6
21
56
126
n
6

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
7
28
84
n
7

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
36
n
8

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
9
n
9

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1.1.5. .
, - 1.1.5., :
1 -
57
n n
1
0 n
n n
k
n
(1)
(2)
n n 1 n 1

k k k 1
(3)
1.1.5. - ,
:
n=0
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
4
1
2
1
3
6
10
1
4
10
1
5
...
1.1.5. .
1 ( (1) (2)),
( (3)). n-
, (n1)- . C k n
n
, n- k-
C k . , i
n
i1, .
:
lastLine[], n k C k
n
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 1000
const unsigned k = 3;
unsigned long lastLine[MAXN + 1];
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j;
lastLine[0] = 1;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
lastLine[i] = 1;
for (j = i - 1; j >= 1; j--)
lastLine[j] += lastLine[j - 1];
}
printf("C(%u,%u) = %lu\n", n, k, lastLine[k]);
return 0;
}
pascalt.c
1 -
58
, (*)
.
(**) n! k!(nk)!,
, : n = 100 k =
2 100! 2!.98! ( 150 ), C 2 4950.
100
2 C k ( )
n
1)
2)
3)
C 3 . (*) 7
, .
: 7! = 1.2.3...7 =
1.2.3.22.5.(2.3).7 = 24.32.51.71.
: 3!.(73)! = 1.2.3. 1.2.3.22 = 24.32.
4 2 1 1
1 1
: 2 .3 .5 .7 5 .7 .
4 2
2 .3
4)

: 51.71 = 35.
2.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 500
unsigned long n = 7;
unsigned long k = 3;
unsigned long pN, primes[MAXN], counts[MAXN];
void modify(unsigned long x, unsigned how)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < pN; i++)
if (x == primes[i]) {
counts[i] += how;
return;
}
counts[pN] = how;
primes[pN++] = x;
}
void solve(unsigned long start, unsigned long end, unsigned long inc)
{ unsigned long prime, mul, how, i;
for (i = start; i <= end; i++) {
mul = i;
prime = 2;
while (mul != 1) {
for (how = 0; mul % prime == 0; mul /= prime, how++);
if (how > 0)
modify(prime, inc * how);
prime++;
}
}
}
unsigned long calc(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
1 -
59
unsigned long result = 1;

for (i = 0; i < pN; i++)
for (j = 0; j < counts[i]; j++)
result *= primes[i];
return result;
}
int main(void) {
printf("C(%lu,%lu)= ", n, k);
pN = 0;
if (n - k < k) k = n - k;
solve(n - k + 1, n, 1); /* (nk+1),...,n */
solve(1, k, -1);
/* 1,...,k */
printf("%lu\n", calc());
return 0;
}
cnk.c
( , ..
)
C k , , ,
n
.
: "" :
n n
k n k
, .
:
1. (1), (2) (3), . , (1) :
n
n!
n!
C 0n
1
0!(n 0)! 0! n!
0
n
n!
n!
C nn
1
n
n
!
(
n
n
)!
n
!0!

2. (1), (2) (3).
3. 1 (pascalt.c) C k
n
lastLine[] n+1 , - n,
. : ,
, 1 i, 1 k,
- . , k
n, (2) C n k , C k .
n
1.1.6.
-
.
, - -
1 -
60
.
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 9, (
,
- , .).
, , .
( 10 ). , ( 0 1) ( ) . , p p < 0,
.
, .
0 1. 11(10) 1011(2) (
, .).
16 . ,
0 9 , A, B, C, D, E
F, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 15. 254(10)
FE(16).
, e = 2,718281828... ( .
n
1
an 1 n). -
n
.
e (
),
3 2.
, 3 - e.
. 0 0 V, 1 5 V. . , , ,
1960 . , 1, 0 1.
, 16 2 (16=24).
0 15 4 ( 0 1). - 8 .
, 0 255, .. 256 .
256 = 162,
.
- (4 ),
,
. - ,
10101000110111(2) . :
10 | 1010 | 0011 | 0111
:
0010 | 1010 | 0011 | 0111

2A37(16).
,
( ). -
- .
,
. , 153 ,
1 -
61
6. , 1, 5 3, ,
3, 3 , 0, 1 2.
- , -, .
, .. , . 123 3 3, 34 30. ( 1.1.7.),
.
- : . -. , -
p, p . anan-1...a0 (p), i (1 i n) .
:
A = anpn + an-1pn-1 + ... a 1p + a0
,
-.
:
1. 0 1?
2. 17 17 : 2; 8; 16.
3. 17 17 2; 8; 16.
4. ,
: 111, 110100, 1110100101, 10010101, 10101010101 10111110101.
5. , : 11, 11001, 1010101, 111111, 1010101000, 10101101000 11010111000.
6. ?
7. 17 17 .
- p-
,
p- : A p
, A 0, ,
(?). 29
( ):
29:2=14:2=7:2=3:2=1:2=0
1
0
1
1
1
: 29(10) = 11101(2).
convert()
:
char getChar(char n) /* , n */
{ return (n < 10) ? n + '0' : n + 'A' - 10; }
void reverse(char *pch)
{ char *pEnd;
for (pEnd = pch + strlen(pch) - 1; pch < pEnd; pch++, pEnd--) {
char c = *pch;
*pch = *pEnd;
*pEnd = c;
1 -
62
}
}
void convert(char *rslt, unsigned long n, unsigned char base)
/* n (n >= 0) */
/* base */
{ char *saveRslt = rslt;
while (n > 0) {
*rslt++ = getChar((char)(n % base));
n /= base;
}
*rslt = '\0';
reverse(saveRslt);
}
base.c
- 1, ,
p.
A p- : A p, . 0,125 :
0,125.2=0,25.2=0,5.2=1,0
0,125(10) = 0,001(2). A
p- () . .
convertLessThan1() A (0 < 1) cnt
, .
void convertLessThan1(char *rslt,
double n,
unsigned char base,
unsigned char cnt)
/* 0 <= n < 1 base
cnt */
{
while (cnt--) {
/* 0? */
if (fabs(n) < EPS) break;
/* */
n *= base;
*rslt++ = getChar((char)(int)floor(n));
n -= floor(n);
}
*rslt = '\0';
}
base.c
> 1 0 <
1, ,
, . convertReal():
void convertReal(char *rslt, double n,
unsigned char base, unsigned char cnt)
/* n base */
{ double integer, fraction;
1 -
63
/* */
if (n < 0) {
*rslt++ = '-';
n = -n;
}
/* */
fraction = modf(n, &integer);
/* */
convert(rslt, (unsigned long)integer, base);
/* ( ...) */
if ('\0' == *rslt) *rslt++ = '0';
else rslt += strlen(rslt);
*rslt++ = '.';
/* */
convertLessThan1(rslt, fraction, base, cnt);
if ('\0' == *rslt) {
*rslt++ = '0';
*rslt = '\0';
}
}
base.c
:
1. 157 : 3;5;7;14.
2. 0,321 : 3;5;7;14.
3. 157,321 : 3;5;7;14.
4. p- .
5.
p- .
- p- .
p- A,
. , , 12734(8), :
12734(8) = 1.84 + 2.83 + 7.82 + 3.8 + 4 = 5596(10)
, 10 . , 8,
. - ,
n- n
. (1) (2).
(1)
(2)
Pn(x) = a 0xn+a1xn-1+...+a n-1x+an

Pn(x) = an+x(an-1+x(an-2+...+x(a2+x(a1+xa0))...))
calculate():
1 -
64
char getValue(char c) /* c */
{ return (c >= '0' && c <= '9') ? c - '0' : c - 'A' + 10; }
unsigned long calculate(const char *numb, unsigned char base)
/* numb,
base, numb >= 0 */
{ unsigned long result;
for (result = 0; '\0' != *numb; numb++)
result = result*base + getValue(*numb);
return result;
}
base.c
, 1.
. , p.
double calculateLessThan1(const char *numb, unsigned char base)
/* numb (0 < numb < 1),
base */
{ const char *end;
double result;
for (end = numb + strlen(numb) - 1, result = 0.0; end >= numb; end--)
result = (result + getValue(*end)) / base;
return result;
}
base.c
, ,
:
double calculateReal(char *numb, unsigned char base)
/* numb,
base */
{ char *pointPos;
char minus;
double result;
/* */
if ('-' == *numb) {
minus = -1;
numb++;
}
else
minus = 1;
if (NULL == (pointPos = strchr(numb, '.')))
return calculate(numb, base); /* */
/* */
*pointPos = '\0';
result = calculate(numb, base);
*pointPos = '.';
/* */
result += calculateLessThan1(pointPos+1, base);
return minus*result;
1 -
65
base.c
:
1. 126(8); 10101(2); 3F2B(16); 3CB(14).
2. 0,233(8); 0,01(2); 0,34(16); 0,2A(14).
3. 126,233(8); 10101,01(2); 3F2B,34(16); 3CB,2A(14).
4. p-
.
1.1.7.
- , , : .
, . , , , . .
[1;3999] 7
( ): I(1), V(5), X(10), L(50), C(100), D(500)
M(1000). 1989 MCMLXXXIX.
-
. , - -,
. :
XI = 10 + 1 = 11
IX = 10 1 = 9
- .
,
- - .
1.1.7.
1(I)
2(II)
3(III)
4(IV)
5(V)
6(VI)
7(VII)
8(VIII)
9(IX)
10(X)
20(XX)
30(XXX)
40(XL)
50(L)
60(LX)
70(LXX)
80(LXXX)
90(XC)
100(C) 200(CC) 300(CCC) 400(CD) 500(D) 600(DC) 700(DCC) 800(DCCC) 900(CM)
1.1.7. .
1.1.7. . , , . ,
, 3(III), 30(XXX) 300(CCC). 7(VII), 70(LXX)
700(DCC). , , . ,
( )
, ,
, , .
- , . ,
- decimal2Roman().
1 -
66
:
const char *roman1_9[]={"", "A", "AA", "AAA", "AB", "B", "BA", "BAA", "BAAA",
"AC"};
const char *romanDigits[] = {"IVX", "XLC", "CDM", "M" };
A, B C
1.1.7., .
void getRomanDigit(char *rslt, char x, unsigned char power)
{ const char *pch;
for (pch = roman1_9[x]; '\0' != *pch; pch++)
*rslt++ = romanDigits[power][*pch - 'A'];
*rslt = '\0';
}
char *decimal2Roman(char *rslt, unsigned x)
{ unsigned char power;
char buf[10];
char oldRslt[MAX_ROMAN_LEN];
for (*rslt = '\0', power = 0; x > 0; power++, x /= 10) {
getRomanDigit(buf, (char)(x % 10), power);
strcpy(oldRslt, rslt);
strcpy(rslt,buf);
strcat(rslt,oldRslt);
}
return rslt;
}
rom2dec.c
:
1. : 10; 19; 159; 763; 1991; 1979; 1997; 2002.
2. : 0; 10; 0,28; 3,14; 1/7.
3.
.
-
-. -, , . ,
- , , , .
, 2 :
if (value > old) rslt -= 2*old;
19(XIX) I ,
21(XXI) .
:
roman2Decimal() ?
, .
.
.
unsigned roman2Decimal(const char *roman, char *error)
{ unsigned rslt, value, old;
1 -
67
const char *saveRoman = roman;

char buf[MAX_ROMAN_LEN];
old = 1000; rslt = 0;
while ('\0' != *roman) {
switch (*roman++) {
case 'I': value =
1; break;
case 'V': value =
5; break;
case 'X': value =
10; break;
case 'L': value =
50; break;
case 'C': value = 100; break;
case 'D': value = 500; break;
case 'M': value = 1000; break;
default:
*error = 1;
return (unsigned)(-1);
}
rslt += value;
if (value > old)
rslt -= 2*old;
old = value;
}
return (*error = strcmp(saveRoman,decimal2Roman(buf,rslt)))
? (unsigned)(-1) : rslt;
}
dec2rom.c
:
1. : DCLXXXIV, DCCLXIV, LX,
LXX, LXXX, XL, XXL, XXXL.
2.
.
3.
, .
1.1.7.
1.2.
: , . UNIX
"" ( GNU GNU is Not UNIX, WINE
WINE Is Not an Emulator, .).
1.18. , , .
- : ,
.
.
,
, .
.
P , , . -
1 -
68
- : P1 P2, P2 P3, , Pn
P1. , P1, P2, P3, ..., Pn, () .

:
, , , ()
. .
, ,
, ..
( ), . ,
.
"" ,
.. (, , ,
.).
, , .
1.2.1.
, ,
1.1.1. , , ,
:
n = 0 1.
n1 n.

( n 0 ).
C, n!:
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned long fact(unsigned i)
{ if (i < 2) return 1;
return i * fact(i - 1);
}
int main(void) {
printf("%u! = %lu \n", n, fact(n));
return 0;
}
factrec.c
n
( 1.1.1.):
unsigned long sum(unsigned n) {
if (0 == n) return 0;
else return n + sum(n - 1);
}
1 -
69
:
,
, () , -, . ( 1.2.2.)
, :
,
. - n.sizeof(unsigned)
n . : n! 1.1.1. , , .. - .
, n!
- unsigned long,
.
1.2.2.

. ,

, , , , .
1.2.2. .
, ,
. ? ,
1 -
70
, .
, , , ,
, . ,
: ,
, ,
, ( 1.2.2.) ,
.
K ?
:
0,1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,...,
,
0 1, .. :
F0 = 0,
F1 = 1,
Fi = Fi-1 + Fi-2
1.2.2. .
( ),
(Filius Bonaccii, .. ), 1202 .
Liber Abacci ( ) .
,
:
;
;
.
, , 3 ,
5 ( ,
), 8 .. , . ( 1.2.2.).
1 -
71
1.2.2. .
- 1611 . , ,
( 1.2.2.). , - ,
, - ,
.
1.2.2. .
? , - (
, ). -, 1845 .

( 1.2.3.) - .

.

1 5
1,61803
2
- .
A B, :
1 -
72
A A B

B
A
- ,
XIX- : .
,
.
- .
, ,

. ( 1.2.2.)
:
, , , 1, 0. ,
-
.
1.2.2. .
- , n- ,
, - :
unsigned long fib(unsigned n)
{ if (n < 2) return 1;
else return fib(n - 1) + fib(n - 2);
}
fibrec.c
, . , n = 40.
, ( n = 0 1),
. . ,
-
( 1.2.2.).
1 -
73
1.2.2. .
, . , , ..
. , F10
F8 F10 = F9 + F8 F9 = F8 + F7.
- -.
- , , .
( memoization) 8 .
, , : ,
. , :
unsigned long fibIter(unsigned n)
{ unsigned long fn = 1, fn_1 = 0, fn_2;
while (n--) {
fn_2 = fn_1;
fn_1 = fn;
fn = fn_1 + fn_2;
}
return fn_1;
}
fib2.c
,
:
unsigned long fibIter2(unsigned n)
{ unsigned long f1 = 0, f2 = 1;
while (n--) {
f2 = f1 + f2;
f1 = f2 - f1;
}
return f1;
}
fib2.c
, n , - . , n ?
1 -
74
,
( 1.4.8.):
Fn
n
1 1 5
.
5 2
n
1 5

-
n- .
, - , . n , ( 7.3.,
[-1998c]). , 5 .
, , .
n-
8 ( 8.1.), .
:
1. ,
.
2.
n- : .
1.2.3. - .
- ()
.
1.19. a b. , d - b, , a b.
, :
1)
2)
d|a, d|b
d1|a d1|b, d1|d.
: d|a , d
a . :
d1 a b d.
- a b (a,b) (a,b).
: (12, 8) = (8, 12) = (8, 4) = 4, (1, 10) = (7, 10) = 1.
1.20. 1,
.
- :
(a1, a2, ..., an) = ((a1, a2, ..., an1), an)
(a,b), . :
1)
2)
a > b, 4), 2).

a = b , (a,b) b
. a b 3).
1 -
3)
4)
75
b = b a 1).
a = a b 1).
- , ,
, -. (
):

a b, q1 r1. -
b , r1 r2 ..,
:
a = q1.b + r1
b = q2.r1 + r2
r1 = q3.r2 + r3
...
rk1 = qk+1.rk + rk+1, rk+1 = 0
rk . , :
(a, b) = (b, a % b)
b = 0 ( (a, 0) = a)
, ,
b 0 .
( ) - :
unsigned gcd(unsigned a, unsigned b)
{ unsigned swap;
while (b > 0) {
swap = b;
b = a % b;
a = swap;
}
return a;
}
gcditer.c
{ return (0 == b) ? a : gcd(b, a % b);
}
gcdrec.c
, - .
: , .

, , x y (x, yZ), , :
d = (a,b) = ax + by
:
1. : (10,5); (5,10); (15,25); (25,15); (7,8,9); (3,6,9); (158,128,256);
(64,28,72,18).
1 -
76
2. .
10/15 2/3.
3. , (a1, a2, ..., an) = ((a1, a2, ..., an1), an).
4. .
5. , (a, b) = (b, a % b).
6. ,
a b, x y (x, yZ), (a,b) = ax + by?
7. ,
.
2; 5; 100; 1000 .
8. ( ) a, b c , a, b
c , c > a > b, c a + b 1, - ,
. d , d 0 < d a.
, / .
1.2.4. -
1.21. a b. d (d >
0) , a|d b|d - () a b.
- a b (a,b) [a,b].
: [6, 15] = [15, 6] = 30, [1, 10] = 10, [5,10] = 10, [5, 12] = 60.
,
:
(a1, a2, ..., an) = ((a1, a2, ..., an1), an)
- ,
, :
(a, b)
a.b
(a, b)
- n .
[] , ,
lcm():
#include <stdio.h>
const unsigned A[] = { 10, 8, 5, 9 };
{ return (0 == b) ? a : gcd(b, a % b);
}
unsigned lcm(unsigned a[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned b;
if (2 == n)
return(a[0] * a[1]) / (gcd(a[0], a[1]));
else {
b = lcm(a, n - 1);
return(a[n - 1] * b) / (gcd(a[n - 1], b));
}
}
1 -
77
int main(void)
{ printf("%u\n", lcm(A, n));
return 0;
}
lcm.c
:
360
:
1. : [10,15]; [15,10]; [7,8,9]; [3,6,9]; [158,128,256]; [64,28,72,18].
2. , [a1, a2, ..., an] = [[a1, a2, ..., an1], an].
3. , [a,b] = ab / (a,b).
4. ,
.
2; 5; 100; 1000 .
1.2.5.
C, ,
.
.
: n,
, .
, n = 7892 : 7, 8, 9, 2.
.
, :
n%10 n/10. : . ,
:
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned n = 7892;
int main(void)
{ unsigned dig[20], i, k = 0;
while (n > 0) {
dig[k] = n % 10;
n = n / 10;
k++;
}
for (i = k; i > 0; i--) printf("%u ", dig[i-1]);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
print.c
- . : 7892,
789 2. , n, (!)
n/10 n%10. , ,
1 -
78
.
:
void printN(unsigned n)
{ if (n >= 10) printN(n / 10);
printf("%u ", n % 10);
}
printrec.c
, , n 9, .. n .
.
- . , ,
. -
: n!
, i (
,
):
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned i;
unsigned long fact(void)
{ if (1 == i) return 1;
return --i * fact();
}
int main(void) {
i = n + 1;
printf("%u! = %lu \n", n, fact());
return 0;
}
factrec.c
: "" return --i * fact(); :
factrec.c Borland C DOS, Microsoft Visual
C++ Windows.
: n 10k (1 k n). , n = 5 :
10, 100, 1000, 10000, 100000, 100000, 10000, 1000, 100, 10
.
:
1. ( n) :
#include <stdio.h>
void printRed(unsigned k, unsigned long result)
{ printf("%lu ", result);
if (k < n) printRed(k + 1, result * 10);
printf("%lu ", result);
}
1 -
79
int main(void) {
printRed(1, 10);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
print1.c
2. - k :
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned k = 0;
void printRed(unsigned long result)
{ k++;
if (k < n) printRed(result * 10);
}
int main(void) {
printRed(10);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
print2.c
3. result
, :
#include <stdio.h>
unsigned k = 0;
void printRed(void)
{ k++;
result *= 10;
if (k < n) printRed();
result /= 10;
}
int main(void) {
printRed();
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
print3.c
, (
-), .
:
1 -
80
1.
factrec.c Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual C++ Windows.
?
2. -.
Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual C++ Windows?
?
unsigned i = 1;
printf("%u %u", ++i, i);
:
unsigned i = 1;
printf("%u %u", i, ++i);
3. x
-. Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual
C++ Windows? ?
unsigned x, a = 3, b = 5;
x = a+++b;
4.
.
1.3.
, , () .

. ( )
.
, :
, .. ,
52 , 5 ,
( : ).
- ,
9.
- : , . ,
( )
.
1.3.1.
1.22. n- A = {a1, a2, ..., an}.
n-, A, A ,
.
Pn, |Pn|.
, |Pn| = n!
, e {a, b, c} 3 , (.. n-) :
1 -
81
(a, b, c)
(a, c, b)
(b, a, c)
(b, c, a)
(c, a, b)
(c, b, a)
, ,
1 n.
( n-
n ).
-
:
1:
,
n1
n1 . :
/* i */
void permute(i) {
if (i >= n) { /*
*/
printPerm();
} else
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (!used[k]) {
/* k */
used[k] = 1;
/* k */
position[i] = k; /* i k */
permute(i+1);
used[k] = 0;
/* k */
}
}
permute() : , "" . i- , , (i+1)- . used[], : , used[k] == 1, used[k] == 0, (..

""). i == n
, .
, n! n
(n ):
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
char used[MAXN];
unsigned mp[MAXN];
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%u ", mp[i] + 1);
printf("\n");
}
1 -
82
void permute(unsigned i)
{ unsigned k;
if (i >= n) { print(); return; }
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
if (!used[k]) {
used[k] = 1; mp[i] = k;
permute(i+1); /* if ( )
{ permute(i+1); } */
used[k] = 0;
}
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
permute(0);
return 0;
}
permute.c
:
1
1
2
2
3
3
2
3
1
3
1
2
3
2
3
1
2
1
-, if.
, , , , . ( 6) ,
.
: , , : ki i- ,
.
1 i 10
i ki
20
, . ,
,
20, - ,
.
- . ,
(i1, i2, , in) (j1, j2, ,jn) k (1 k < n)
, ip = jp, p = 1, 2, , k1 ik < jk . -,
:
- , -.
: k+1
k, . used[]. , [-1998]:
2:
1) n = 1 : (1).
1 -
83
(p1, p2,, pk ), k (1 k < n) .

(k+1) 1,2, , (k+1)- :
2)
(pk+1,p1,p2,,pk )
(p1, pk+1,p2,,pk )
(p1,p2,,pk , pk+1)
, 2) k , k+1 .
- 2. , .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
unsigned a[MAXN];
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%u ", a[i] + 1);
printf("\n");
}
void permut(unsigned k)
{ unsigned i, swap;
if (k == 0) print();
else {
permut(k - 1);
for (i = 0; i < k - 1; i++) {
swap = a[i]; a[i] = a[k-1]; a[k-1] = swap;
permut(k - 1);
swap = a[i]; a[i] = a[k-1]; a[k-1] = swap;
}
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) a[i] = i;
permut(n);
return 0;
}
permswap.c
:
1
2
3
2
1
3
2
1
2
3
3
1
3
3
1
1
2
2
:
1. , n- n!
2. {a,b,c,d}, :
) 1
1 -
84
) 2
.
3. 1 2.
4. , permswap.c 2.
5. .
-
,
( 9) memoization ( 8)
.
, - .
, :
(1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (2, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1), (3, 1, 2), (3, 2, 1).
0 5. ,
n- 0 n!
1. ( )
() [-1995]:
1) perm[] n, ,
.
2) pos = result = 0, p[] n , p[i] = i+1, i = 0,1, ..., n1.
3) pos < n, , r- p, r i,
i , perm[pos] == p[i].
result .
4) result = result*(n pos) + r.
5) pos++ 3).
1) num .
k = n-1, p[] n- , p[i1] = i, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
2) k 0 :
m = n - k;
perm[k] = num % m;
if (k > 0) num /= m;
k--;
3)
k = 0. k < n :
m = perm[k];
perm[k] = p[m];
if (k < n)
for (i = m+1; i < n; i++) p[i-1] = p[i];
k++;
, :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
const unsigned perm[MAXN] = { 5, 3, 6, 4, 2, 1 };
const unsigned long code = 551;
1 -
85
unsigned long codePerm(unsigned n, const unsigned perm[])

{ unsigned p[MAXN], i, pos;
unsigned long r, result;
result = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) p[i] = i + 1;
for (pos = 0; pos < n; pos++) {
r = 0;
while (perm[pos] != p[r]) r++;
result = result * (n - pos) + r;
for (i = r + 1; i < n; i++) p[i - 1] = p[i];
}
return result;
}
void decodePerm(unsigned long num, unsigned n, unsigned perm[])
{ unsigned long m, k;
unsigned i, p[MAXN];
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) p[i] = i + 1;
k = n;
do {
m = n - k + 1;
perm[k - 1] = num % m;
if (k > 1) num /= m;
} while (--k > 0);
k = 0;
do {
m = perm[k]; perm[k] = p[m];
if (k < n)
for (i = m + 1; i < n; i++) p[i - 1] = p[i];
} while (++k < n);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, dperm[MAXN];
printf(" %lu \n", codePerm(n, perm));
printf(" %lu: ", code);
decodePerm(code, n, dperm);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%u ", dperm[i]);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
codeperm.c
:
551
, 551: 5 3 6 4 2 1
:
1. -, : (2,3,1,4),
(5,3,2,4,1), (3,6,4,1,5,2).
2. -, 5
, : 3, 13, 27, 87, 119.
1 -
86
-
(.. A ). A = {1, 1, 2, 3} 4
. .
n-, A. ,
(1, 1, 2,
3), . , , , .
~ s1 ,s2 ...,s , s
P
i
n
i (i = 1,2,,k).
:
~
| Pns1 ,s2 ,...,sn |
k
n!
, n
si (*)
s1! s2!... sk !
i 1
s1 = 2, s2 = 1, s3 = 1 | P42,1,1 |
4!
12 .
2!.1!.1!
:
1. {1,1,2,3}.
2. .
? ,
. ?
3. . .
4. .
5. (*).
1.3.2.
- ,
, , . , , . , , , n , . :
1.
for (a1 = 1; a1 <= k; a1++)
for (a2 = 1; a2 <= k; a2++)
for (a3 = 1; a3 <= k; a3++)
...
for (an = 1; an <= k; an++)
printf(" %u %u %u %u;, a1, a2, a3, , an);
n = 2 k = 3, 2
i 1 3, :
1 1; 1 2; 1 3; 2 1; 2 2; 2 3; 3 1; 3 2; 3 3;
1 -
87
2.
for (a1 = 1; a1 <= k; a1++)
for (a2 = 1; a2 <= k; a2++) if (a2 != a1)
for (a3 = 1; a3 <= k; a3++) if ((a3 != a1) && (a3 != a2))
for (an = 1; an <= k; an++)

if ((an!=a1)&&(an!=a2)&&(an!=a3)&&&&(an!=an-1))
printf( %u %u %u %u;, a1, a2, a3, ,an);
n = 2 k = 3 :
1 2; 1 3; 2 1; 2 3; 3 1; 3 2;
, .

n k- , n
k- . -:
A n .
1.23. n k- k- , A ( ).
Vn k
k
n . .
1.24. n- k-
k- , A.
| V k |
n
n! .
(n k )!
, k = n
.
n k, A, 1 n. , ,
, -. , . , ,
( ).
used[] permute.c :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
int taken[MAXN];
void print(unsigned i)
{ unsigned l;
printf("( ");
for (l = 0; l <= i - 1; l++) printf("%u ", taken[l] + 1);
printf(")\n");
}
void variate(unsigned i) /* */
1 -
88
{ unsigned j;
/* if (i>=k) return; ( print(i);
* 1,2, , k, k */
if (i >= k) { print(i); return; }
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
/* if (allowed(i)) { */
taken[i] = j;
variate(i + 1);
}
}
int main(void) {
variate(0);
return 0;
}
variate.c
:
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
:
1. , .
2. 3- {a,b,c,d,e}:

3. , k- n- nk .
4. , k- n- n!/ (nk)!
5. / .
6. .
-
a1, a2, ..., an. "+" "" ai
ai+1, i = 1,2, , n1 , 0.
, 1 8,
:
1+2+3+4567+8=0
1+2+34+56+78=0
1+23+4+5+678=0
1 -
89
1+23456+7+8=0
: n1
, .. (n1)-, 0 1 (
). (n1)-
, .
, n
, a[] :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
/* */
/* */
int a[] = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 };
/* */
int sum = 0;
void checkSol(void)
{ unsigned i;
int tempSum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) tempSum += a[i];
if (tempSum == sum) { /* => */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (a[i] > 0) printf("+%d ", a[i]);
else printf("%d ", a[i]);
printf(" = %d\n", tempSum);
}
}
void variate(unsigned i)
{ if (i >= n) {
checkSol();
return;
}
a[i] = abs(a[i]); variate(i + 1);
a[i] = -abs(a[i]); variate(i + 1);
}
int main(void) {
variate(0);
return 0;
}
sumzero.c
:
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
+1
-1
-1
-1
+2
+2
+2
+2
-2
-2
-2
+2
+2
+2
+3
+3
-3
-3
+3
-3
-3
+3
+3
-3
+4
-4
+4
-4
-4
+4
+4
-4
-4
+4
-5
+5
+5
-5
-5
+5
-5
+5
-5
+5
-6
-6
+6
-6
+6
-6
+6
-6
+6
-6
-7
+7
-7
+7
-7
-7
+7
-7
+7
+7
+8
-8
-8
+8
+8
+8
-8
+8
-8
-8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 -
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-2
+3
+3
-3
-3
+4
-4
+4
-4
+5
-5
-5
+5
+6
-6
+6
+6
-7
+7
-7
+7
-8
+8
+8
-8
90
=
=
=
=
0
0
0
0
:
1. , ,
.
2. . , k- , ..
, 0,
nk ?
1.3.3.
,
. n .
1.25. n k- k- .
1.26. n k- k- , A.
n = 4, k = 2 {a,b,c,d}
{a,b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {c,d},
: {a,a}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {a,d}, {b,b}, {b,c}, {b,d}, {c,c}, {c,d}, {d,d}.
. - , . , , 1.5.
,
1.1.5., :
n
n.(n 1)...(n k 1)
n!
C kn
,
k (k 1)...1
k!(n k )!
k
:
~
(n k 1)!
C kn
k!(n 1)!

. ,
, .
, ,
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 20
/* n k- */
unsigned mp[MAXN];
1 -
91
void print(unsigned length)

{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < length; i++) printf("%u ", mp[i]);
printf("\n");
}
void comb(unsigned i, unsigned after)
{ unsigned j;
if (i > k) return;
for (j = after + 1; j <= n; j++) {
mp[i - 1] = j;
if (i == k) print(i);
comb(i + 1, j);
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("C(%u,%u): \n", n, k);
comb(1, 0);
return 0;
}
comb.c
:
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
4
3
3
4
4
3
4
5
4
5
5
4
5
5
5
:
1. , .
2. 3- {a,b,c,d,e}:

3. n
k .
4. , k- n-
n! / (k!(nk)!).
5. , k- n- (n+k1)! / (k!(n1)!). : .
6. / .
7. / .
1 -
92
1.3.4.
-
: n () n ( ).
, 5 7 :
5=5
5=4+1
5=3+2
5=3+1+1
5=2+2+1
5=2+1+1+1
5=1+1+1+1+1
, , :
(0) = {}
(n) = {k} + (nk), k = n, n1,,1.
, :
5=3+2
5=2+3
: . , , : n ( ) pos , :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
unsigned mp[MAXN + 1];
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i < length; i++)
printf("%u+", mp[i]);
printf("%u\n", mp[length]);
}
void devNum(unsigned
{
if (0 == n)
print(pos-1);
else {
unsigned k;
for (k = n; k >=
mp[pos] = k;
if (mp[pos] <=
devNum(n-k,
}
n, unsigned pos)
1; k--) {
mp[pos-1])
pos+1);
1 -
93
}
}
int main(void) {
mp[0] = n+1;
devNum(n, 1);
return 0;
}
devnum.c
:
7
6+1
5+2
5+1+1
4+3
4+2+1
4+1+1+1
3+3+1
3+2+2
3+2+1+1
3+1+1+1+1
2+2+2+1
2+2+1+1+1
2+1+1+1+1+1
1+1+1+1+1+1+1
, (
) .
. ,
. , , -, 8.3.6.
:
1. .
2. .
, , ,
. devNum(n-k,cnt+1) devNum(n/k,cnt+1),
k, , n % k == 0.
( for) k > 1, k 1, .. k == 1,
k == 0 ( : 0 1
). :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXLN 20 /* M: - log2n ( 2) */
const unsigned n = 50; /* , */
unsigned mp[MAXLN];
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i < length; i++) printf("%u * ", mp[i]);
printf("%d\n", mp[length]);
1 -
94
}
void devNum(unsigned n, unsigned pos) {
if (1 == n)
print(pos-1);
else {
unsigned k;
for (k = n; k > 1; k--) {
mp[pos] = k;
if (mp[pos] <= mp[pos-1] && n % k == 0)
devNum(n / k, pos+1);
}
}
}
int main(void) {
mp[0] = n + 1;
devNum(n, 1);
return 0;
}
devnum2.c
:
50
25 * 2
10 * 5
5 * 5 * 2
:
1. .
2. .
,
. , 2, 5 10
20 . ( 6 )
:
20
20
20
20
20 = 10
= 10 + 5 +
= 10 + 2 +
= 5 + 5 +
= 5 + 5 +
20 = 2
+
5
2
5
2
+
10
+
+
+
2
2 + 2 + 2
5
2 + 2 + 2 + 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2

. , ,
given[gN]. p = 0,1,...,gN-1,
p, n given[p]:
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX_ADDS 100
/* , */
/* */
1 -
95
const unsigned gN = 3;
/* */
const unsigned given[] = { 2, 3, 5 };
unsigned mp[MAX_ADDS];
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i < length; i++)
printf("%u + ", mp[i]);
printf("%d\n", mp[length]);
}
void devNum(unsigned n, unsigned pos)
{ unsigned k, p;
for (p = gN; p > 0; p--) {
k = given[p - 1];
if (n > k) {
mp[pos] = k;
if (mp[pos] <= mp[pos - 1])
devNum(n - k, pos + 1);
}
else if (n == k) {
mp[pos] = k;
if (mp[pos] <= mp[pos - 1])
print(pos);
}
}
}
int main(void) {
mp[0] = n + 1;
devNum(n, 1);
return 0;
}
devnum3.c
:
5
5
5
5
3
3
3
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
5
5
3
2
3
3
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
5
3
3
2
3
3
2
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
2
2
3
2
2
+
+
+
+
+
2
2 + 2
3
2 + 2
2 + 2 + 2
:
1. ? : ? :
?
2. .
3. .
4. .
1 -
96
1.3.5.
, ,
, ..
. , A = {1, 2, 3} :
{1,2,3}
{1,2}, {3}
{1,3}, {2}
{1}, {2,3}
{1}, {2}, {3}
-
- , -.
n n- B(n). :
n
B(n) St (n, k ) ,
k 0
St(n,k) , :
St (n 1, k 1) k .St (n 1, k ), k 2,3,..., n
1, n 0, k 1
St (n, k )
0, k 0
0, n 0
n- k .
.
.
, . ,
.
: M[i] = St(n,i), i =
0,1,...,n. n- .
,
. , , .
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
7
15
1
6
25
1
10
1
1
31
90
65
15
1
.........................................
1.3.5. .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
unsigned long M[MAXN+1];
void stirling(unsigned n)
1 -
97
{ unsigned i, j;
if (0 == n) M[0] = 1;
else M[0] = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
M[i] = 1;
for (j = i - 1; j >= 1; j--) M[j] = j * M[j] + M[j - 1];
}
}
unsigned long bell(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i <= n; i++) result += M[i];
return result;
}
int main(void) {
stirling(n);
printf("bell(%lu) = %lu\n", n, bell(n));
return 0;
}
bell.c
:
bell(10) = 115975
:
1. .
2. .
3. ,
. 1.1.5.
4. .
1.4.
, .
. ,
, -.
, - :
( )
"" ( ),
- . ,
,
, ,
.
:
1 -
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
98
n = 100;
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
sum++;
. ,
, . - , n. 1.4. .

10
100
1000
10000
100000
1000000

0,000001 .
0,0001 .
0,01 .
1,071 .
106,543 .
10663,6 .
1.4. .
1.4. , n ,
100 .
- . 1) 2) , . a. i = 0 i++,
i < n, (
), b, c, d. 4) , j = 0, j < n j++, e, f, g. , 5)
: h.
n:
a + b + n.c + n.d + n.(e + n.f + n.g + n.h) =
= a + b + n.c + n.d + n.e + n.n.f + n.n.g + n.n.h =
= n2.(f + g + h) + n.(c + d + e) + a + b
, a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h . :
i=f+g+h
j=c+d+e
k=a+b
( i j - ).
:
i.n2 + j.n + k
i, j k , .
, .
,
, .
, ,
j.n k , n - .
"" - , .. , - , .. -, .
, 1 A2 n : f = 2.n2 g = 200.n. -
1 -
99
, g - f, n
( n > 100), A2 - 1.
, n,
A2. A2 , A1 .
- - .
:
1. 5n2 7n + 13, 3n2 + 15n + 100
1000n. : 100; 1000; 10000; 1000000?
2. 5n3 5n2 + 5 ?
3
5n 5n2 5? 5n3 5n2 + 5?
1.4.1.
, n. , , . , :
1. n .
n .
2. a b - .
()
- a b: .. log2(max(a,b)). - ,
.
3. ( 5.1.).
:
.
1.4.2.
, -
n . n, .
f : N N. ( ,
N : 0,1,2,...). , N, n
. , log n, N. ""
, .
1.27. O(F(n)) = {f(n) | c (c > 0), n0(c): n > n0 : 0 f(n) c.F(n) }
.. O(F(n)) f, c (c > 0) ,
f(n) c.F(n), n, .. n0 ( c), n > n0. O(F)
, - F.
, :
(F) (F).
1.28. (F(n)) = {f(n) | c (c > 0), n0 (c): n > n0 : f(n) c.F(n) 0}
1 -
100
T.e. (F) f(n), f(n) c.F(n) n > n0. (F)

, - F.
1.29.
(F(n)) = {f(n) | c1 (c1 > 0), c2(c2 > 0), n0(c1,c2): n n0 : 0 c1.F(n) f(n) c2.F(n)}
, (F) = O(F) (F). .. (F)
, , F ( ).
- (
.):
1.30. o(F(n)) = {f(n) | c (c > 0), n0(c): n > n0 : 0 f(n) < c.F(n) }
, o(F) = O(F) \ (F). .. o(F)
, - F ( ).
, 3n2 O(n2) 3n2 O(n3), 3n2 (n3), 3n2 (n2).
1.31. (F(n)) = {f(n) | c (c > 0), n0 (c): n > n0 : 0 c.F(n) < f(n) }
, (F) = (F) \ (F). .. (F)
, - F ( ).

.
- "", , f (F), e .
, . ,

T(n) :
T(n) = T(n1) + O(n)
:
1. , (F) = O(F) (F).
2. , o(F) = O(F) \ (F).
3. , (F) = (F) \ (F).
1.4.3. O(F):
(F) - . - (F), . - (...)
.
O(F):
: f (f)
: f (g), g (h) f (h)
: f (g) g O(f)
:
k > 0, k.F(F).
1 -
101
n, - , -:
nr(ns), 0 r s.
- ( max):
f + g O(max(f,g)),
:
f(g) f+g (g)
:
O(c1f+c2g) O(max(f,g)), c1,c2 > 0
f(n) d -, f(nd).
:
f(F) g(G) f.g(F.G)
( ):
, f O(g),
n0 c , n (n > n0)
f(n) c.g(n).
(, ):
f ( n)
R f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
g ( n)
f ( n)
lim
0 f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
f ( n)
lim
f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
lim
().
: log n
:
lim
log n
n
lim
n . ,
1/ n
1/ 2 n
lim
2
n
, log n O( n ),

10n O(n),
10n O(n2),
10n O(n4)
10n O(3n4 10n2 + 7)
10n+3 O(n)
4n2 5n + 2 O(n2)
4n3 + 5n2 +5 O(n3)
n O(n)
log n ( n )
n O(log n).
1 -
102

2n O(1)
4n2 5n + 2 O(n)
5n + 1 O( n )
n 3 O(n)
:
1. , 5n3 5n2 + 5 O(n3).
2. , n O(n).
3. - O(F).
4. - O(F).
5. f(n) g(n), lim f n .

n
g n
1.4.4. (F):
, , ,
(n). , (F) = O(F) (F).
(F):
: f (f)
: f (g), g (h) f (h)
: f (g) g O(f)
:
k > 0, k.F (F).
f(n) d -, f (nd).
( ):
, f (g),
n0 c , n (n > n0)
f(n) c.g(n).
(, ):
f ( n)
R f (n) ( g (n)), g (n) ( f (n))
g ( n)
f ( n)
lim
0 f (n) ( g (n)), g (n) ( f (n))
n g ( n)
f (n)
lim
f (n) ( g (n)), g (n) ( f (n))
n g ( n)
().
lim
1 -
103
10n (n)
10n+3 (1)
4n2 5n + 2 (n2)
4n2 5n + 2 (n)
4n3 + 5n2 +5 (n3)
4n3 + 5n2 +5 (n2)
4n3 + 5n2 +5 (7n 10)
n ( n )
n (log n)
:
4n2 5n + 2 (n3)
n (n)
log n ( n )
:
1. , 5n3 5n2 + 5 (n3).
2. , n (n0,48).
3. - (F).
4. - (F).
1.4.5. (F):
(F):
: f (f)
: f (g), g (h) f (h)
: f (g) g (f)
:
k > 0, k.F (F).
- :
f + g max((f(n)), (g(n))),
:
f (g) f+g (g)
:
(c1f(n) + c2g(n)) max((f(n)), (g(n))), c1,c2 > 0
f(n) d, f (nd).
1.32. , ,
, .
R = (...), (f,g) R , f (g). (...) 1.3.2. , R
.
( ):
1 -
104
, f (g),
n0 c1 c2 , n
(n > n0) c1.g(n) f(n) c2.g(n).
1:
n2/2 3n. ,
(n2). c1, c2 n0, c1.n2 n2/2 3n c2.n2 (n > n0).
n2 ( n > 0) : c1 1/2 3/n c2.
c1 = 0, c2 = 1/2 n0 = 5. .
, c1, c2 n0 . ,
c1 = 1/20, c2 = 1 n0 = 100.
.
2:
2n3. , (n2). , , c2 ,
6n3 c2.n2. n2 ( n > 0) , 6n c2, : n c2/6. , n -
. n0, n, n > n0 n c2/6: ,
.
:
f ( n)
R f (n) ( g (n)), g (n) ( f (n))
g ( n)
f ( n)
lim
0 f (n) O( g (n)), f (n) ( g (n)), .. f (n) o( g (n))
n g ( n)
f (n)
lim
f (n) ( g (n)), f (n) ( g (n)), .. f (n) ( g (n))
n g ( n)
.
lim
:
10n (n)
4n2 5n + 2 (n2)
4n2 5n + 2 (6n2 n + 1)
log10 n (log2 n)
:
10n (1)
10n (n2)
4n2 5n + 2 (n3)
4n2 5n + 2 (n + 1)
1.33. (1) , (log n) , (n)
, (n2) , (cn) . f e ,
(f) .
1 -
105
:
1. , 5n3 5n2 + 5 (n3).
2. , n (n0,48).
3. - (F).
4. - (F).
5. , R = (...) ( (f,g) R
, f (g)) .
6. :
) 4n3 + 5n2 +5 (n4)

) log2n ( n )
) 4n3 + 5n2 +5 (7n4 10)
) n ( n )
) log2n ( n )
) 10n+3 O(n)
) 10n O(3n4 10n2 + 7)
) 5n + 1 O( n )
7. :
) (F) = O(F) ( F)
) (F) = (F) \ (F)
) o(F) = O(F) \ (F)
) O(c1f+c2g) = O(max(f,g))
) f (g) g (f)
) f (g) g (f)
) f (g) g O(f)
8. :
) lim f (n) R f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))

n g ( n)
) lim f (n) 0 f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
) lim f (n) f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
) lim f (n) R f (n) ( g (n))
n g ( n )
) lim f (n) 0 f (n) ( g (n)), f (n) ( g (n))
n g ( n)
1.4.6.
- , . 1.4.6.
,
: , .. a b
: a < b, a = b a > b. , n n1+cos n
1 -
106
.
.

f O(g)
f (g)
f (g)
f o(g)
f (g)

ab
ab
a=b
a<b
a>b
1.4.6. .
:
1. .
2. f(n) g(n) ,
, f g ?
1.4.7.
- : c, log
n, n, n log n, n2, n3, nk , 2n, n!, nn. - .
- , 1.4.7.,
n.
5
log n
n
n log n
n2
n3
2n
n!
nn
n=1
n=2
5
0
1
0
1
1
2
1
1
n = 10
5
1
2
2
4
8
4
2
4
5
3,32
10
33,2
100
1000
1024
3628800
1010
n = 100
5
6,64
100
664
10000
106
1030
10157
10200
n = 1000
5
9,96
1000
9966
106
109
10300
102567
103000
1.4.7. - .
1.4.7. , :
- :
nk (bn), b > 1, k 0, n .
- :
logb n(nk ), b > 1, k > 0, n .
:
1. , n! - cn, c > 0.
2. cn, c > 0 -
( 1.4.7.).
1 -
107
1.4.8.
,
. T()
, . ,
, T(n), ,
n. O(...).
(...) - (...).
-
, .. O(1).
.
. ,
, .
, , .
,
. (,
.), , ,
.
.
,
n.
.
-
. , s1 F1 s2
F2, :
T(s1) O(F1), T(s2) O(F2) T(s1; s2) O(max(F1, F2))
:
f1+ f2 (max(f1, f2))
-

, ..
T(s1) O(F1), T(s2) O(F2) T(s 1{s 2}) O(F1.F2))
:
f1.f2 O(f1.f2)
- if-
if (p)
s1;
else
s2;
p, s1 s2 O(P), O(F1), O(F2),

max(O(P), O(F1), O(F2)), .. - P, F1 F2.
1 -
108
, p , ..
, .
T(p) O(P), T(s1) O(F1) , T(s2) O(F2) T(if (p) s1; else s2) max(O(P), O(F1), O(F2))
. , p .
if- p; s1 (,
.).
max(O(P),O(F1)). , p
max(O(P),O(F2)).
, if-, -
. :
T(if (p) s1; else s2) max(max(O(P),O(F1)), max(O(P),O(F2))) = max(O(P), O(F1), O(F2))
switch .
-
:
fact = 1;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
fact *= i;
, c, n.
for (n). (c.n), .. (n).
( O(1)), ,
, : (1+n). O(n).
-
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
sum++;

. - f n.O(g), g
. g O(n), f O(n.n), .. f O(n2). -
sum 0, sum++ .
. sum
n.
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n-1; i++)
for (j = i+1; j < n; j++)
sum++;
, i=0, n1
. , i=1, n2 , n3
.., , i=n2, .
1, n1 1. sum++ n.n 1 , ..
O(n2). , sum++
(1).
1 -
109
-
1.
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n*n; i++)
sum++;
O(n2). (?)
2.
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (i == j)
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
sum++;
if n2 , n i == j
. - ,
O(n2). , O(n3) , -.
(n2).
3.
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (i == j)
break;
, O(n2), -?
, , ,
!
4.
sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= i*i; j++)
sum++;
n . :
n
i
i 1
n.n 12n 1
6
, O(n3). ,
O(n), O(n2),
i n. i == n i*i == n2 O(n3).
5.
sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < i*i; j++)
for (k = 0; k < j*j; k++)
sum++;
1 -
110
,
- .
-, (...):
O(n3).
O(n4) , i = n,
k j2 = i4 = n4. ( ?)
-
:
for(sum = 0, h = 1; h < n; h *= 2)
sum++;
h 1,2,4,...,2k ,... n. sum++ log2 n

O(log2 n). , ,
. - ,
/.
, () . ,
- - ( 4.3.).
- O(log2 n), O(log n). ,
. ,
, (4) 1.1.1. , , n- .
c (c > 0, c 1) , , log2 x = logc x / logc 2, logc
2 . O(log2 n) O(logc n).
-
.
T(n) = f(T(n1)). , , .

.
-
:
unsigned fact(unsigned n)
{ if (n < 2)
return 1;
return n*fact(n-1);
}
for, O(n).
-
. ,
1.2.2., :
unsigned fib(unsigned n)
{
if (n < 2)
return 1;
return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
}
1 -
111
n = 0 n = 1 : . ,
. , :
T(0) = T(1) = O(1)
T(n) = T(n1) + T(n2) + O(1), n 2
:
f0 = f1 = 1
fn = fn1 + fn2
, T(n) fn. : 3
n 1
fn 2n, n 1 ( .). , T(n) -
.
, ,
, O(n):
unsigned long f[MAX] = {0,0,0,...};
{
if (0 == f[n])
if (n < 2)
f[n] = 1;
else
f[n] = fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
return f[n];
}
- (memoization) 8.
:
1. , if-then-else
switch.
2. , 1 - (n2).
3. , 3 - (n2).
4. (...) 5.
5. O(...) (...) 1.4.8.?
6. , : 3
7. (...) :
for (i = 0; i < 2*n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 2*n; j++)
if (i<j) for (k = 0; k < 2*n; k++) break;
8. (...) :
unsigned sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = i+1; j < i*i; j++) sum++;
9. (...) :
n 1
fn 2n, n 1.
1 -
112
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (i==j)
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) break;
10. (...) :
unsigned sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < i*i; j++) sum++;
11. (...) trib():

unsigned trib(unsigned n)
{
if (n < 3)
return 1;
if ((n % 2) == 1)
return trib(n-1) + trib(n-2) + trib(n-3);
else
return trib(n / 3) + trib(n / 2);
}
12. (...) streep():

{
if (n < 2)
return 1;
}
void streep(unsigned n) {
fib(fib(n));
}
13. (...) :
int n = 10;
int i;
for (i = 0; i < n; (n = i)++);
1.4.9.
.
, -
, .
. ...
-
:
a0T(n) + a1T(n1) + ... + ak T(nk) = 0
(1)
T(n) . , T(n), .. .
. T(n) = xn, :
1 -
113
a0xn + a1xn1 + ... + ak xnk = 0
(2)
, , x = 0, . ,
xnk ( x 0) k
:
a0xk + a1xk1 + ... + ak = 0
(3)
k. ,
k ( , .. ). i (1 i k). :
0 = a0xk + a1xk1 + ...+ ak = 0(x 1)(x 2)...(x k )
(4)
(4) x , , i (1 i k) (3), (2). T(n) = xn, ,

in (1).
(1) . , i
, in (1), ..
in.
(1) :
T(n) = c1 1n + c2 2n + ... + ck k n
(5)
nk
c1, c2, ..., cn ,

. - .
:
, :
T(n) = T(n1) + T(n2)
(4) :
x2 = x + 1
a :
1, 2
1 5
2
(5), ..:
T(n) = c1 1n + c2 2n
(6)
c1 c2 T(0) = 0 T(1) = 1,
(6), :
T(0) = 0 = c1 + c2
T(1) = 1 = c1 1 + c2 2
:
1
1
, c2
5
5
(6) T(n).
.
n
n
1 1 5 1 5

T ( n)
5 2 2
c1
1 -
114
, n. . , n
.
-
(4) -
(5). , n n. ,
, ..
. , n n
n2 n. , p- ns n, 0 s p.
i (1 i k) , .
(3) 1, 2, ..., l, 1 l k. qj j, 1 j l.
(1) :
l
q j 1
T (n) c j ,r 1n r jn
(7)
j 1 r 0
cj,r+1 , , -, .
:
n 0,1
3
T (n) 5
n2
4T (n 1) 5T (n 2) 2T (n 3) n 3
:
x3 = 4x2 5x + 2
, :
x3 4x2 + 5x 2 = 0
, :
T(n) (7):
x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = 2
T(n) = c1,1.1n + c1,2.n.1n + c2,1.2n
(8)
c1,1, c1,2, c2,1 n = 0, 1 2.

:
T(0) = 3 = c1,1
+ c2,1
T(1) = 3 = c1,1 + c1,2 + 2c2,1
T(2) = 5 = c1,1 + 2c1,2 + 4c2,1
:
c1,1 = 1, c1,2 = 2, c2,1 = 2
(8) :
T(n) = 1 2n + 2n+1
-
.
:
: :
1 -
115
float P(unsigned i, unsigned j)

{ if (0 == i)
return 1.0;
else if (0 == j)
return 0.0;
else
return p * P(i - 1, j) + (1 p) * P(i, j - 1);
}
P(n,n) n.
:
- i
j, i = j = n.
, P() P(i,j),
:
P(0,j) = 1, j = 1,2,, n
P(i,0) = 0, i = 1,2,, n
P(i,j) = p.P(i1, j) + (1p).P(i, j1) , i > 0 , j > 0
, .
, i j. , k = i + j,
:
T(1) = c
T(k) = 2T(k1) + d, k > 1
, P(i,j),
P().
c d, . -
, .

, . :
T(k) = 2T(k1) + d
T(k+1) = 2T(k) + d
, , :
T(k+1) T(k) = 2.[T(k) T(k1)]
:
T(k+1) 3T(k) + 2T(k1) = 0
:
x2 3x + 2 = 0
(x1)(x2) = 0,
, 1 = 2 2 = 1. ..
T(k) :
T(k) = c1 1k + c2 2k
:
T(k) = c12k + c2
1 -
116
c1 c2 , T(1) T(2). :
T(1) = c
= 2c1 + c2
T(2) = 2c + d = 4c1 + c2
:
c1 = (c + d) / 2
c2 = d
c1 0 , T(k) (2k ). (?) k = i +
j, (2i+j). ,
P(n,n), .. i = j = n. (22n)
: (4n).
:
:
a0T(n) + a1T(n1) + ... ak T(nk) = b1n p1(n) + b2n p2(n) + ... + bsn ps (n)
(9)
b1, b2, ..., bs , p1(n), p2(n), .., ps (n) n. d1, d2, ..., ds.
(9) :
(a0xk + a1xk1 + ... + ak ) (xb1)d1+1(xb2)d2+1... (xbs )ds+1 = 0
(10)
(10) - , .
:
:
0
T ( n)
n
2T (n 1) n 2
n0
n 1
:
T(n) 2T(n1) = n + 2n,
(11)
b1 = 1, b2 = 2, p1(n) = n, p2(n) = 1, : d1 = 1, d2 = 0.
:
(x2)(x1)2(x2) = 0.
x1 = x2 = 1, x3 = x4 = 2. T(n):
T(n) = c1,1.1n + c1,2.n.1n + c2,1.2n + c2,2.n.2n
(12)
, .
T(n) . :
T(0) = 0 = c1,1
+ c2,1
T(1) = 3 = c1,1 + c1,2 + 2c2,1 + 2c2,2
T(2) = 12 = c1,1 + 2c1,2 + 4c2,1 + 8c 2,2
T(3) = 35 = c1,1 + 3c1,2 + 8c2,1 + 24c 2,2
c1,1 = 2, c1,2 = 1, c2,1 = 2 c2,2 = 1. (12)
T(n) :
T(n) = 2 n + 2n+1 + n.2n
(13)
1 -
117
, (
). (12)
(11), :
c2,22n c1,2n + (2c1,2 c1,1) = 2n + n
(14)
2 , c2,2 = 1.
, n c1,2 = 1. , c1,2, c1,1 = 2. c1,2
, , .
,
. , ,
T(n), . , (13) T(n),
, T(n) (n2n). - .
, (12) , T(n) O(n2n). , ,
. (...),
, c2,2 - n2n
0. , (14) , c2,2 = 1, .. c2,2 0 ,
T(n) (n2n). , c2,2 0, c2,1
- 2n ..
:
1)
. , c2,2 0.
2)
. T(0) = 0, , T(n) (n2n)

T(0). , ,
(9). , c2,1
(13)
T(0). c2,1 - ,
T(0) .
:
, :
) T(1) = 1, T(n) = 4T(n1) 2n, n 2
) T(1) = 0, T(n) = 2T(n1) + n + 2n, n 2
) T(0) = 1, T(n) = 2T(n1) + n, n 1
) T(1) = 1, T(n) = 2T(n1) + 3n, n 2
) T(1) = 2, T(2) = 3, T(n) = 2T(n1) T(n2), n 3
1.4.10.
-
:
unsigned sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < i*i; j++)
sum++;
- , . : () -
1 -
118
. ,
. ? ,
, .
sum++. ,
sum sum++.
-
- -
- . -
, -
. O(...),
(...): - . , -
. - .
- .
:
void addOne(char c[], unsigned m)
{ int i;
for (i = 0; 1 != c[i] && i < m; i++)
c[i] = 1 - c[i];
}
m , ,
, - 0.
, . 0. ? , - m (.. ),
.
O(m) (m). , addOne() n
, n = 2m1. ? , O(n.m), .. O(n.log2 n). , , .
, [0; 2m1]
. .
() , 0,
. 0 ( 1
) .. - 1 , .. - , - .
, 2n1.
, , , n
(n), - .
-
( 7) :
T(n) = a.T(n/b) + c.nk
1. T(n) = a.T(n/b) + c.nk , n > n0, a 1, b >
1, k 0, c > 0, n0 1 a, b, k, c, n0 . :
1 -
119
( n k )
a bk
k
T (n) (n log n) a b k
(n logb a ) a b k
1:
:
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 3T(n/2) + n, n 2
1, : a = 3, b = 2, c = 1, k = 1. : 3 = a > bk = 2.
(nlog 3).
2:
:
T(1) = d
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2, n 2
1, : a = 4, b = 2, c = 1, k = 2. : 4 = a = bk = 22.
(n2.log2 n). ,
d.
3:
:
T(1) = d
T(n) = 2T([ n ]) + log2 n, n 2
m = log2 n :
T(2m) = 2T(2m/2) + m
S(m) = T(2m):
S(m) = 2S(m/2) + m
1: a = 2, b = 2, c = 1, k = 1. : 2 = a = bk = 21.
(m.log2 m). :
T(n) = T(2m) = S(m) = (m.log2 m)= (log2 n.log2(log2 n))
1 - 2:
2. T(n) = a.T(n/b) + f(n), n > n0, a 1, b >
1, n0 1 a,b,n0 . :
1) f(n) O( n logb a ), > 0, T(n) ( n logb a ).
2) f(n) ( n logb a ), > 0, T(n) ( n logb a log 2 n ).
3) f(n) ( n logb a ), > 0, a.f(n/b) c.f(n), c < 1 n,
T(n) (f(n)).
:
, :
log 4
) T(1) = 2, T(n) = 4T(n/3) + n 3 , n 2.
1 -
120
) T(1) = 0 T(2n+1) = T(2n) = T(n) + log2 n, n 2.

) T(1) = 4 T(n) = 2T([ n ]) + log2 n, n 2.
1.4.11.

, . , n.
. , , ,
: , ,
n. ,
, [0,65535], :
(200000n) (2n2). ,
- . , .
n = 100000 > 65535. ,
-.
- .
, ( 3.1.6.) (n.log2 n), ( 3.1.2.) (n2).
n -, 10-20 . ,

. - ,
, .
, .
:
1. : 5n2 7n + 13, 3n2 + 15n + 100
1000n. n, -
.
2. , ?
1.5.
1.5.1.
1.1.
A = {1,2,4,5,7} B = {2,3,4,5,6}. :
AB, AB, A\B, B\A. ( 1.1.1.)
1.2.
A B , AB = A. B? ( 1.1.1.)
1.3.
A B : AB = (AB) \ (AB).
A = {1,2,4,5,7} B = {2,3,4,5,6}. ( 1.1.1.)
1 -
121
1.4.
, A B = B A.
: AB, AB, A\B, B\A, AB? ( 1.1.1.)
1.5.
, , (
1.1.1.).
1.6.
m n, (m,n) : (7,3), (7,3), (7,3),
(7,3), (3, 7), (3,7), (3,7), (3,7). ( 1.1.1.)
1.7.
m n (m 0) n = q.m + r, 0 r < m, (q, r ). ( 1.1.1.)
1.8.
.
? ( 1.1.1.)
1.9.
. ( 1.1.1.)
1.10.
(1), (2) (3) 1.1.1. .
1.11.
, (1), (2) (3)
1.1.1.
1.12.
(1), (2) (3) 1.1.1. ,
:
i 1..n
i n..m
ai a n
,1nm
i 1..m
1.13.
, 1.13.
1.14.
(1), (2) (3) ,
.
1.15.
x y (xR, yN).
1.16.
- .
1.17.
unsigned a[MAX][MAX].
void fillMatrix(unsigned a[][MAX], unsigned n),
a[][] :
1 -
122
0
1
2
3
4
20
0
5
6
7
19
18
0
8
9
17
16
15
0
10
14
13
12
11
0
1.18.
unsigned a[MAX][MAX]. , , n = 5 :
1
2
3
4
5
16
17
18
19
6
15
24
25
20
7
14
23
22
21
8
13
12
11
10
9
1.19.
, P
[1+log10(P)]. ( 1.1.2.)
1.20.
(x)
, -? ( 1.1.3.)
1.21.
. ( 1.1.3.)
1.22.
. ( 1.1.3.)
1.23.
,
. (p1)!, ,
p? ( 1.1.3.)
1.24.
, , p , ,
[2, p ]. ( 1.1.3.)
1.25.
( (
1.1.3.) : 3) k = i2,
i .
. .
1.26.
. ( 1.1.3.)
1.27.
,
4 . ( 1.1.3.)
1.28.
1.1.3. .
1 -
123
1.29.
1.1.3. ,
.
1.30.
1.1.3. , n!
1.31.
n , -. ( 1.1.4.)
1.32.
n , -. . ( 1.1.4.)
1.33.
2n1 , n ? ( 1.1.4.)
1.34.
, ( 1 ) 2. , 6 : 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + 1/6 = 2 (
1.1.4.).
1.35.
, ,
( 1 ) 2. ? ( 1.1.4.)
1.36.
(1), (2) (3) 1.1.5.,
. , (1) :
n
n!
n!
C 0n
1
0
0
!
(
n
0
)!
0
! n!

n
n!
n!
C nn
1
n!(n n)! n!0!
n
1.37.
(1), (2) (3) 1.1.5.
1.38.
1.1.5. 1 (pascalt.c) C k
n
lastLine[] n+1 , - n,
. : ,
, 1 i, 1 k,
- . , k
n, (2) C n k , C k .
n
1.39.
0 1? (
1.1.6.)
1.40.
17 17 : 2; 8; 16. ( 1.1.6.)
1 -
124
1.41.
17 17 2; 8; 16. ( 1.1.6.)
1.42.
,
: 111, 110100, 1110100101, 10010101, 10101010101 10111110101.
( 1.1.6.)
1.43.
,
: 11, 11001, 1010101, 111111, 1010101000, 10101101000 11010111000.
( 1.1.6.)
1.44.
? ( 1.1.6.)
1.45.
17 17 . ( 1.1.6.)
1.46.
157 : 3;5;7;14. ( 1.1.6.)
1.47.
0,321 : 3;5;7;14. ( 1.1.6.)
1.48.
157,321 : 3;5;7;14. ( 1.1.6.)
1.49.
1.1.6.
p- .
1.50.
1.1.6. p- .
1.51.
126(8); 10101(2); 3F2B(16); 3CB(14). ( 1.1.6.)
1.52.
0,233(8); 0,01(2); 0,34(16); 0,2A(14). ( 1.1.6.)
1.53.
126,233(8); 10101,01(2); 3F2B,34(16); 3CB,2A(14).
( 1.1.6.)
1.54.
1.1.6. p-
.
1.55.
: 10; 19; 159; 763; 1991; 1979; 1997; 2002.
( 1.1.7.)
1.56.
: 0; 10; 0,28; 3,14; 1/7. ( 1.1.7.)
1 -
125
1.57.
1.1.7.
.
1.58.
: DCLXXXIV, DCCLXIV, LX,
LXX, LXXX, XL, XXL, XXXL ( 1.1.7.).
1.59.
1.1.7. o .
1.60.
, . 1.1.7.
1.61.
, ( 1.2.2.).
1.62.

n- : . ( 1.2.2.)
1.63.
: (10,5); (5,10); (15,25); (25,15); (7,8,9); (3,6,9); (158,128,256);
(64,28,72,18) ( 1.2.3.).
1.64.
.
10/15 2/3. ( 1.2.3.)
1.65.
, (a1, a2, ..., an) = ((a1, a2, ..., an1), an). ( 1.2.3.)
1.66.
. ( 1.2.3.)
1.67.
, (a, b) = (b, a % b). ( 1.2.3.)
1.68.
1.2.3.,
a b, x y (x, yZ), (a,b) = ax + by?
1.69.
, . 2; 5; 100; 1000 . ( 1.2.3.)
1.70.
a, b c (c > a > b, c a + b 1, a, b c ) - , . d ,
d 0 < d a.
, / .
( 1.2.3.)
1 -
126
1.71.
: [10,15]; [15,10]; [7,8,9]; [3,6,9]; [158,128,256]; [64,28,72,18]. ( 1.2.4.)
1.72.
, [a1, a2, ..., an] = [[a1, a2, ..., an1], an]. ( 1.2.4.)
1.73.
, [a,b] = ab / (a,b). ( 1.2.4.)
1.74.
, . 2; 5; 100; 1000 . ( 1.2.4.)
1.75.

factrec.c Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual C++ Windows.
? ( 1.2.5.)
1.76.
-. Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual C++ Windows? ?
unsigned i = 1;
printf("%u %u", ++i, i);
:
unsigned i = 1;
printf("%u %u", i, ++i);
1.77.
x -. Borland C DOS Microsoft Visual C++
Windows? ?
unsigned x, a = 3, b = 5;
x = a+++b;
1.78.

.
1.79.
, n- n! ( 1.3.1.)
1.80.
{a,b,c,d}, :
) 1 1.3.1.
) 2 1.3.1.
.
1.81.
1 2 1.3.1.
1.82.
, permswap.c 2 1.3.1.
1 -
127
1.83.
. ( 1.3.1.)
1.84.
( 1.3.1.),
: (2,3,1,4), (5,3,2,4,1), (3,6,4,1,5,2).
1.85.
( 1.3.1.),
5 , : 3, 13, 27, 87, 119.
1.86.
{1,1,2,3}. ( 1.3.1.)
1.87.
.
? , . ? ( 1.3.1.)
1.88.

. . ( 1.3.1.)
1.89.
. (
1.3.1.)
1.90.
(*) 1.3.1.
1.91.
, .
1.92.
3- {a,b,c,d,e}:

( 1.3.2.)
1.93.
, k- n-
nk . ( 1.3.2.)
1.94.
, k- n- n!/ (nk)! ( 1.3.2.)
1.95.
/ . (
1.3.2.)
1.96.
.
( 1.3.2.)
1.97.
" " 1.3.2., ,
.
1 -
128
1.98.

" " 1.3.2. , k- ,
.. , 0,
nk ?
1.99.
1.3.3. , .
1.100.
3- {a,b,c,d,e}:

( 1.3.3.)
1.101.
n
k . ( 1.3.3.)
1.102.
, k- n- n! / (k!(nk)!). ( 1.3.3.)
1.103.
, k- n- (n+k1)! / (k!(n1)!). : . ( 1.3.3.)
1.104.
/ .
( 1.3.3.)
1.105.
.
( 1.3.3.)
1.106.
( ,
, ) . ( 1.3.4.)
1.107.

( , , ) ( 1.3.4.).
1.108.
1.3.4. ? : ?
: ?
1.109.

. ( 1.3.4.)
1.110.
. ( 1.3.5.)
1.111.
.
( 1.3.5.)
1 -
129
1.112.
, . 1.1.5. ( 1.3.5.)
1.113.
( 1.3.5.).
1.114.
5n2 7n + 13, 3n2 + 15n + 100 1000n.
: 100; 1000; 10000; 1000000? (
1.4.).
1.115.
5n3 5n2 + 5 ? 5n3 5n2 5?
3
5n 5n2 + 5? ( 1.4.)
1.116.
, (F) = O(F) (F). ( 1.4.2.)
1.117.
, o(F) = O(F) \ (F). ( 1.4.2.)
1.118.
, (F) = (F) \ (F). ( 1.4.2.)
1.119.
O(f), 5n3 5n2 + 5 O(n3). ( 1.4.3.)
1.120.
,
n O(n). ( 1.4.3.)
1.121.
1.4.3. O(F).
1.122.
1.4.3. O(F).
1.123.
f(n) g(n), lim f n .

n
g n
( 1.4.3.)
1.124.
(F), 5n3 5n2 + 5 (n3). ( 1.4.4.)
1.125.
,
n (n
0,48
). ( 1.4.4.)
1.126.
1.4.4. (F).
1.127.
1.4.4. (F).
1.128.
(F), 5n3 5n2 + 5 (n3). ( 1.4.5.)
1 -
1.129.
,
n (n
130
0,48
). ( 1.4.5.)
1.130.
1.4.5. (F).
1.131.
1.4.5. (F).
1.132.
, R = (...) ( (f,g) R
, f (g)) . ( 1.4.5.)
1.133.
:
) 4n3 + 5n2 +5 (n4)
) log2n ( n )
) 4n3 + 5n2 +5 (7n4 10)
) n ( n )
) log2n ( n )
) 10n+3 O(n)
) 10n O(3n4 10n2 + 7)
) 5n + 1 O( n )
( 1.4.2-1.4.5.)
1.134.
:
) (F) = O(F) ( F)
) (F) = (F) \ (F)
) o(F) = O(F) \ (F)
) O(c1f(n)+c2g(n)) = max(O(f(n)), O(g(n)))
) f (g) g (f)
) f (g) g (f)
) f (g) g O(f)
( 1.4.2-1.4.5.)
1.135.
:
) lim f (n) R f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n
g ( n)
) lim f (n) 0 f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
) lim f (n) f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))
n g ( n)
) lim f (n) R f (n) ( g (n))
n g ( n )
) lim f (n) 0 f (n) ( g (n)), f (n) ( g (n))
n g ( n)
( 1.4.2-1.4.5.)
1 -
131
1.136.
. ( 1.4.6.)
1.137.
f(n) g(n) ,
, f g ? ( 1.4.6.)
1.138.
, n! - cn, c > 0. ( 1.4.7.)
1.139.
cn, c > 0 -
( 1.4.7.).
1.140.
, if-then-else
switch. ( 1.4.8.)
1.141.
, 1 1.4.8. (n2).
1.142.
, 3 1.4.8. (n2).
1.143.
(...) 5
1.4.8.
1.144.
O(...) (...) 1.4.8.?
1.145.
, : 3
( 1.4.8.)
1.146.
(...) :
for (i = 0; i < 2*n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 2*n; j++)
if (i<j) for (k = 0; k < 2*n; k++) break;
( 1.4.8.)
1.147.
(...) :
unsigned sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = i+1; j < i*i; j++) sum++;
( 1.4.8.)
1.148.
(...) :
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
n 1
fn 2n, n 1.
1 -
if (i==j)
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) break;
( 1.4.8.)
1.149.
(...) :
unsigned sum = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < i*i; j++) sum++;
( 1.4.8.)
1.150.
(...) trib(n):
unsigned trib(unsigned n)
{
if (n < 3)
return 1;
if ((n % 2) == 1)
return trib(n-1) + trib(n-2) + trib(n-3);
else
return trib(n / 3) + trib(n / 2);
}
( 1.4.8.)
1.151.
(...) streep(n):
{
if (n < 2)
return 1;
}
void streep(unsigned n) {
fib(fib(n));
}
( 1.4.8.)
1.152.
(...) :
int n = 10;
for (int i = 0; i<n; (n=i)++);
( 1.4.8.)
1.153.
, :
) T(1) = 1, T(n) = 4T(n1) 2n, n 2
) T(1) = 0, T(n) = 2T(n1) + n + 2n, n 2
) T(0) = 1, T(n) = 2T(n1) + n, n 1
) T(1) = 1, T(n) = 2T(n1) + 3n, n 2
) T(1) = 2, T(2) = 3, T(n) = 2T(n1) T(n2), n 3
( 1.4.9.)
1.154.
, :
132
1 -
133
log 4
) T(1) = 2, T(n) = 4T(n/3) + n 3 , n 2.

) T(1) = 0 T(2n+1) = T(2n) = T(n) + log2 n, n 2.
) T(1) = 4 T(n) = 2T([ n ]) + log2 n, n 2.
( 1.4.10.)
1.155.
: 5n2 7n + 13, 3n2 + 15n + 100 1000n.
n, -
. ( 1.4.11.)
1.156.
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1.5.2.
- , ,
, -,
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.
1.157.
, , .
: ( ),
. 9 ,
9.9! = 3265920, - 9- .
1.158.
1.34. p q , p = q + 2.
, . 4 {3,5}
{5,7} {11,13} {17,19}.
: n .
1.35.
S = 1/3 + 1/5 + 1/5 + 1/7 + 1/11 + 1/13 + 1/17 + 1/19 +
e , , 1,902160578.
: n -.
1.159. 2
ax + by = c, a, b c . x
y, , .
: d - a b. d c, . x y.
, (x0, y0) [,
, -1995]?
1.160. x % y
,
+,,*,/ .
1 -
134
1.161.
n. , - n,
.
1.162.
n m, m > n,
, n. n
2000.
1.163.
n . , .
1.164. n + 2 = 2m
- n , n + 2 = 2m, m .
1.165.
1, 2, 3,... . 1, 3, 5,
7,... . ( 1, 3, 7, 9, 13) ..
k .
: .
1.166.
n . , .
1.167.
Hn(x):
H0(x) = 1
H1(x) = 2x
Hn(x) = 2x.Hn1(x) 2(n1).Hn2(x), n > 1
1.168.
:
F(n) = F(n1) + F(n2) + F(n3), F(1) = F(2) = F(3) = 1
:
1, 1, 1, 3, 5, 9, 17, ...
, n n- .
. - ? ? n-
.
1.169. p
p :
f i ( 1p ) f i ( p ) f i ( 1p ) ... f i ( pp) , i p
f p( p ) 1
f i ( p ) 0, 0 i p
1.
k p, p k
.
1 -
135
1.170.
, n
n
S
i 1
1 . ,
i
?
1.171. -
- ,
. 6 :
1: ( 1)
2: (1, 2)
4: 3 (1, 2, 4)
6: 4 (1, 2, 3, 6)
12: 6 (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12)
24: 8 (1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24)
n n . ?
1.172. 4k + 3
n. n 4k + 3, kN.
1.173. n!
, :
S = 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n
, n :
P = 1.2.3. .n = n!
n!, n .
: , - : . , ,
n! :
n! n n e n 2. .n
- , .
1.174. n
n [a, b] ,
a + (a+1) + (a+2) + + b
n. , n = 1986 , , :
[160,171], [495,498] [661,663].
1.175. (n)
n . (n) , - n,
n. (n) n.
, n > 2 (n) ?
(n).
1.176.
n. a, b, c ( ), c < n, a2 + b2 = c2.
1 -
136
1.177. -
n. - P(n) n :
1) n , P(n) = 1.
2) n , P(n) = 1 + P(s), s n
, .. n, -.
, - 36 2. :
36 + 63 = 99
P(48) = 3:
48 + 84 = 132
132 + 231 = 363
P(n) n.
1 250. P(196)?
1.178.
n. n (n ) a, b, c, d, :
a2 +b2 +c2 = d2
: (1,2,2,3).
1.179.
n. n (n ) -
a2 b2 ,
a, b, c ,
a2 c2 ,
b 2 c 2 .
1.180. -
n. n ,
. :
567 = 83 + 33 + 33 + 13 ( 4),
:
567 = 73 + 63 + 23
1.181. 2n
n, 2n 123454321.
1.182.
, n
n 1 2 ( 1.5.2.).
4
3 4
2 3 4
1 2 3 4
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1.183.
, n
n ( 1.5.2.).
1
2
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3
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2
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-
1.184.
n nn,
1 n2 , , , ,
, n(n2+1)/2. , n = 5 1.5.2.
17 24 1
23 5
14 16
13 20 22
15
10 12 19 21 3
11 18 25 2
1.5.2. .
: n (n 3) :
1) 1.
2)
. "" , , "" , .
, , "
" . 1.5.2.
, 1:
17 24 1
23 5
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13 20 22
15
10 12 19 21 3
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1.5.2. .
n , [Magic-1].
1 -
138
1.185.
,
mn (n, m ) ,
. , , , : ; ; ;
.
1.186.
A0 An Ai, i = 1,
2,, n1. A0 An
:
A0 A1 A2 ... An,
Ai Ai+1, i = 0, 1, ..., n1, .
"" "" .
1.187.
nn aij.
A' = {a'ij} , a'ij = aji, 1 i, j n.
-
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1.188. -2
, -2 6/49.
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b3, c1, c2, c3, c4 {0,1,...,9}
,
.
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1 n.
1 n.
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139
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2n . , m (ai, bi)
, ai.bi ( i = 1,2,...,m). m .
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15 . 35
3 . ,
35- ? .
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n, n > 2.
n-. , .
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2t + 1 ,
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,
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1 -
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.
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n: .. 11, 22, ..., nn?
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?
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n- (n < 11), k,
.
.
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k (k- , k n) , k/2 k/2 ,
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VISA MasterCard).
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4 6 2 10 2 2 0 18 6 14 8 10 4 0 2 8
3) , - 9, .
:
4 + 6 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 2 + 2 + 0 + 1 + 8 + 6 + 1 + 4 + 8 + 1 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 2 + 8 = 60
4) 10 , .
4, VISA, 5155, MasterCard.
1.203.
.
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.
11
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.
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1 -
141
1.204.
() n ,
? n.
1 -
142
2

"A program without a loop and a structured variable
isn't worth writing."
~ Epigrams in programming
- . ,
, ..
, ,
. ,
, . . .
, -
,
, , .
- (/ , ). . ,
, (. .
).
:
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1)
(): ,
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2)
: ,
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, .
2 -
144
, ,
, .
. 52 .
, . :
(
).
( ).
(
).
.
() , ('2', ..., '9', 'T', 'J',
'Q', 'K', 'A') ('S', 'C', 'D', 'H'). 0 51 ( 52).
.
(, 0
51):
int cards[52]. cards[i] 1,
i . cards[i] 0. ,
k, cards[k] = 1;. : k,
cards[k] == 1 cards[k] = 0. k ,
cards[k].
. cards[52]
, 52. . , . (, - 30000)
, , :
int students[30000], 30. : unsigned n, a
, unsigned students[n] , i- (0 i < n)
.
, , , .
,
(, - )
().
2.1. , ,
2.1. ( ) n (n 0)
x1, x2, ..., xn, (). n = 0 .
n > 0, x1 , xn .
:
i (1 i n) i- xi xi-1 xi+1.
"" :
, ., .
, , .
2 -
145
"" ().
- .
, , data
: .
:
struct data {
short age;
char sex;
unsigned fn;
char *name;
};
/*
/*
/*
/*
(- 128 ;) */
'm' 'f' */
*/
*/
, :
k- (
).
() ( ,
)
() k- .
, (
).
, ,
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.
, : , - ,
22 , , .
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k = 1 k = n - -
, . ,
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- :
:
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, (, ..) , . . . , , (
2.1.).
2 -
data
data
data
data
data
data
146
2.1. .
S :
void init(S);
/* */
void push(S, data x); /* */
data pop(S);
/* */
int isEmpty(S);
/* */
:
, ; / k .
. ( . stack)
. (
) , . , LIFO (Last-In-First-Out
, ).
-
,
, ( 2.1.).
Q :
void init(Q);
void put(Q, data x);
data get(Q);
int isEmpty(Q);
/* */
/* ( ) */
/* (
, ) */
/* */
FIFO (First-In-First-Out
, ) . , (,
) - , -, .

( 2.6.) ..
data
data
data
data
data
data
2.1. .
2 -
147
. , ,
.. , ,
; ;
, ,
.
-
, - , ,
(DEQue, . DoubleEnded-Queue ). ,
.
,
( ) :
( ).
, ( )
( .) [1995].
, .
2.1.1 ()
- ( 2.1.1.). k- addr(k)

addr(k) = addr(k1) + sizeof(data),
sizeof(data) , .
k- .
( baseAddr), k-
, :
addr(k) = baseAddr + (k1).sizeof(data)
: k-, k+1
n . , k- ,
k+1 n . :
n/2 ( ), . .
(n).
data1
baseAddr
data2
data3
...
datak-1
datak
baseAddr + (k-1).sizeof(data)
2.1.1. .
-
. , .
2 -
148
, , . , , . , stack[]
data top, :
#include <stdio.h>
typedef int data;
data stack[10];
int top;
void init(void) { top = 0; }
void push(data i) { stack[top++] = i; }
data pop(void) { return stack[--top]; }
int isEmpty(void) { return(0 == top); }
int main(void) {
/* ... */
return 0;
}
stack1.c
. 10 . 10 ( top 10) , , .
"" ( ) . ,
, top
pop() (
, stack). ,
10, .
20, , ,
, ,
( 9, 101 .).
MAX, .
top - MAX , .
-
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 10
typedef int data;
data stack[MAX];
int top;
void init(void) { top = 0; }
void push(data i)
{ if (MAX == top)
fprintf(stderr, " ! \n");
else
stack[top++] = i;
}
data pop(void)
2 -
149
{ if (0 == top) {
return 0;
}
else
return stack[--top];
}
int isEmpty(void) { return (0 == top); }
int main(void) {
data p;
init();
/* 0 */
scanf("%d", &p);
while (0 != p) {
push(p);
scanf("%d", &p);
};
/* .
*
*
*/
while (!isEmpty()) printf("%d ", pop());
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
stack2.c
-
-. , : front, ,
rear, ( 2.1.1.).
...
data
front
data
...
data
rear
2.1.1. .
:
i: i , rear, .
: front,
front .
. , " " :
, front rear
. ,
queue[MAX] ( MAX), ,
- MAX . ,
2 -
150
front rear MAX, 0.

"" queue[] ( 2.1.1.).
rear
front
2.1.1. , .
front rear . , ( ), :
( front
rear), .
(rear front),
MAX .
( ) empty, 1, , 0 .
empty 1 ( ) 0
. -
- , -. :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 10
typedef int data;
data queue[MAX];
int front, rear, empty;
void init(void) { front = rear = 0; empty = 1; }
void put(data i)
{ if (front == rear && !empty) { /* */
/* - , */
fprintf(stderr, "! \n");
return;
}
queue[rear++] = i;
if (rear >= MAX) rear = 0;
empty = 0;
}
data get(void)
{ data x;
if (empty) { /* */
return 0;
}
x = queue[front++];
if (front >= MAX) front = 0;
if (front == rear) empty = 1;
return x;
2 -
151
}
int main(void) {
data p;
int i;
init();
for (i = 0; i < 2 * MAX; i++) {
put(i);
p = get();
printf("%d ", p);
}
printf("\n");
/* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX + 1; i++) put(i);
/* : */
for (i = 0; i < MAX + 1; i++) get();
return 0;
}
queue.c
:
1. ,
, .
2. : / , .
3. .
2.1.2 ()
.
( ) ,
. ?
( , ): ( 2.1.2a.).
data
link
data
link
.......
data
link
NULL
2.1.2. .
: ,
.
k- ,
k1 . :
typedef int data;
typedef int keyType;
struct list {
2 -
152
keyType key;
data info;
struct list *next;
};
: ( keyType key). info .

struct list *next;
( ; struct
list next; list ).
NULL: *next ,
.
[-1998][-1980].
, : . , .
, :
struct list *L;
L = NULL. , ,
( ) .
-
1)
( 2.1.2.):
struct list:
struct list *temp;
temp = (struct list *) malloc(sizeof(*temp));
2)
temp :
temp->next = L;
3)

:
L = temp;
L->key = key;
L->info = x;
2 -
1)
data
link
data
link

2)
data
link
data
link

3)
data
link
link
link
data
link
key, x
link
153
...
data
link
NULL
...
data
link
NULL
...
data
link
NULL
2.1.2. :
-
.
: L,
:
while (L != NULL) {
printf("%d ", L->key);
L = L->next; /* */
}
key:
struct list* search(struct list *L, keyType key)
{ while (L != NULL) {
if (L->key == key) return L;
L = L->next;
}
return NULL;
}
, . ,
, :
- ,
void insertAfter(struct list **L,
keyType key, data x). L (
), key data. :
2 -
1)
154
key x:
struct list *temp;
temp->key = key;
temp->info = x;
2)
: L, L
( 2.1.2.):
temp->next = (*L)->next;
(*L)->next = temp;
1)
...
data
link
data
link
key, x
L
2)
...
data
link
link
data
link
key, x
link
...
data
link
NULL
...
data
link
NULL
2.1.2. , .
- ,
void insertBefore(struct list **L, keyType key, data
x). , L, ,
( next).
: L -, -,
L.
struct list *temp;
*temp = **L;
(*L)->next = temp;
(*L)->key = key;
(*L)->info = x;
-
void deleteNode(struct list **L,
keyType key). key.
, , ,
:
(1)
struct list *current = *L;
while (current->next != NULL && current->next->key != key)
current = current->next;
2 -
155
current->next. :
, . . "", , ,
2.1.2.:
(2)
save = current->next;
current->next = current->next->next;
free(save);
...
...
data
link
data
link
data
link
data
link
current current->next
(L)
current->next->next
data
link
data
link
data
link
current
data
link
...
NULL
...
NULL
current->next->next
current->next (L)
( )
2.1.2. .

(1), , ,
key .
- ,
, L,
, L, .
, , .
,
( 2.4.). :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
typedef int data;
struct list {
keyType key;
data info;
struct list *next;
};
/* */
void insertBegin(struct list **L, keyType key, data x)
{
2 -
156
struct list *temp;

if (NULL == temp) {
fprintf(stderr, " !\n");
return;
}
temp->next = *L;
(*L) = temp;
(*L)->key = key;
(*L)->info = x;
}
/* */
void insertAfter(struct list **L, keyType key, data x)
{ struct list *temp;
if (NULL == *L) {
/* => */
insertBegin(L, key, x);
return;
}
/* */
if (NULL == temp) {
return;
}
temp->key = key;
temp->info = x;
temp->next = (*L)->next;
(*L)->next = temp;
}
/* */
void insertBefore(struct list **L, keyType key, data x)
{ struct list *temp;
if (NULL == *L) {
/* */
insertBegin(L, key, x);
return;
}
/* */
if (NULL == temp) {
return;
}
*temp = **L;
(*L)->next = temp;
(*L)->key = key;
(*L)->info = x;
}
/* */
void deleteNode(struct list **L, keyType key)
2 -
{ struct list *current = *L;
struct list *save;
if ((*L)->key == key) { /* */
current = (*L)->next;
free(*L);
(*L) = current;
return;
}
/* , */
while (current->next != NULL && current->next->key != key) {
}
if (NULL == current->next) {
fprintf(stderr, ": ! \n");
return;
}
else {
free(save);
}
}
/* */
void print(struct list *L)
{ while (NULL != L) {
printf("%d(%d) ", L->key, L->info);
L = L->next;
}
printf("\n");
}
/* */
L = L->next;
}
return NULL;
}
int main(void) {
struct list *L = NULL;
int i, edata;
insertBegin(&L, 0, 42);
for (i = 1; i < 6; i++) {
edata = rand() % 100;
printf(" : %d(%d)\n", i, edata);
insertBefore(&L, i, edata);
}
for (i = 6; i < 10; i++) {
edata = rand() % 100;
printf(" : %d(%d)\n", i, edata);
insertAfter(&L, i, edata);
}
157
2 -
print(L);
deleteNode(&L,
deleteNode(&L,
deleteNode(&L,
deleteNode(&L,
deleteNode(&L,
return 0;
9);
0);
3);
5);
5);
158
print(L);
print(L);
print(L);
print(L);
list.c
:
: 1(46)
: 2(30)
: 3(82)
: 4(90)
: 5(56)
: 6(17)
: 7(95)
: 8(15)
: 9(48)
5(56) 9(48) 8(15) 7(95) 6(17) 4(90)
5(56) 8(15) 7(95) 6(17) 4(90) 3(82)
5(56) 8(15) 7(95) 6(17) 4(90) 3(82)
5(56) 8(15) 7(95) 6(17) 4(90) 2(30)
8(15) 7(95) 6(17) 4(90) 2(30) 1(46)
:
3(82) 2(30) 1(46) 0(42)

2(30) 1(46) 0(42)
2(30) 1(46)
1(46)
!
:
1. ,
, .
2. , , ..
. ,
, . (,
) .
3. ,
. , ,
, .
, .
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2.2.
,
- , :
, , .
, ( (1)), , (n).
(1), , (n). , - ( ).
( ),
( 4 4.3.) -
2 -
159
(log2n) ( , 2.6.).
,
k- .
, . , , .
2.2. T (- ),
, :
1) t, , root(T).
2) ( ) m (m 0)
T1, T2, ..., Tm, .
T1, T2, ..., Tm T. t1 T1, t2 T2, ..., tm Tm
t. T1, T2, ..., Tm
t.
(-,
) .
. 0, .
2.2. .
( A (B(D)(E)(F)) (C) )
2.2. .
2.2. ( 5).
2.2. ( 5),
: .
2 -
160
A
B
D
E
F
C
2.2. .
2.2., 2.2., 2.2., 2.2. 2.2. . T = {A, B, C, D, E, F}, : A
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NULL
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- :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
typedef char *data;
struct tree {
keyType key;
data info;
struct tree *left;
struct tree *right;
};
/* */
struct tree *search(keyType key, struct tree *T)
{ if (NULL == T)
return NULL;
else if (key < T->key)
return search(key, T->left);
else if (key > T->key)
return search(key, T->right);
else
return T;
}
/* */
void insertKey(keyType key, data x, struct tree **T)
{ if (NULL == *T) {
*T = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(**T));
(*T)->key = key;
(*T)->info = x;
(*T)->left = NULL;
(*T)->right = NULL;
}
else if (key < (*T)->key)
insertKey(key, x, &(*T)->left);
else if (key > (*T)->key)
insertKey(key, x, &(*T)->right);
else
10
8
13
12
14
2 -
}
/* */
/* */
struct tree *findMin(struct tree *T)
{ while (NULL != T->left) T = T->left;
return T;
}
void deleteKey(keyType key, struct tree **T)
{ if (NULL == *T) {
fprintf(stderr,", , !\n");
} else {
if (key < (*T)->key)
deleteKey(key, &(*T)->left);
else if (key > (*T)->key)
deleteKey(key, &(*T)->right);
else /* */
if ((*T)->left && (*T)->right) {/* */
/* */
struct tree *replace = findMin((*T)->right);
(*T)->key = replace->key;
(*T)->info = replace->info;
deleteKey((*T)->key, &(*T)->right); /* */
}
else { /* */
struct tree *temp = *T;
if ((*T)->left)
*T = (*T)->left;
else
*T = (*T)->right;
free(temp);
}
}
}
void printTree(struct tree *T)
{ if (NULL == T) return;
printf("%d ", T->key);
printTree(T->left);
printTree(T->right);
}
int main(void) {
struct tree *T = NULL, *result;
int i;
/* 10 */
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
int ikey = (rand() % 20) + 1;
printf(" %d \n", ikey);
insertKey(ikey, "someinfo", &T);
}
printf(": ");
printTree(T);
printf("\n");
166
2 -
167
/* 5 */
result = search(5, T);
printf(" : %s\n", result->info);
/* 10 */
for (i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
int ikey = (rand() % 20) + 1;
printf(" %d \n", ikey);
deleteKey(ikey, &T);
}
printf(": ");
printTree(T);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
bintree.c
:
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}
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}
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.
unsigned char hashFunction(const char *key, unsigned long size,
const unsigned char tab[])
while (*key)
result = tab[result ^ ((unsigned char) *key++)];
return result;
}
- CRC
Linear Feedback Shift
Register. , , ,
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2 -
182
const unsigned long tab[])

while (*key)
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.
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unsigned long result;
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{
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if
if
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183
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#include <stdio.h>
2 -
#include <stdlib.h>
#define N 211
typedef int data;
typedef long keyType;
#define NOT_EXIST (1) /* get(), */
struct list {
keyType key;
data info;
struct list *next;
};
struct list *hashTable[N];
/* */
void insertBegin(struct list **L, keyType key, data x)
{
struct list *temp;
if (NULL == temp) {
return;
}
temp->next = *L;
(*L) = temp;
(*L)->key = key;
(*L)->info = x;
}
/* */
void deleteNode(struct list **L, keyType key)
{ struct list *current = *L;
struct list *save;
if ((*L)->key == key) { /* */
current = (*L)->next;
free(*L);
(*L) = current;
return;
}
/* , */
while (current->next != NULL && current->next->key != key)
if (NULL == current->next) {
fprintf(stderr, ": ! \n");
return;
}
else {
free(save);
}
}
/* */
187
2 -
188

L = L->next;
}
return NULL;
}
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{ return(key % N); }
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{ unsigned i;
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}
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{ int place = hashFunction(key);
insertBegin(&hashTable[place], key, x);
}
data get(keyType key)
{ int place = hashFunction(key);
struct list *l = search(hashTable[place], key);
return (NULL != l) ? l->info : NOT_EXIST;
}
int main(void) {
initHashTable();
put(1234, 100);
put(1774, 120);
put(86, 180);
printf("
printf("
printf("
printf("
return 0;
}
/* -> 179 */
/* -> 86 */
/* -> 86 -> */

86: %d
1234: %d
1774: %d
1773: %d
\n",
\n",
\n",
\n",
get(86));
get(1234));
get(1774));
get(1773));
hash.c
:
86: 180
1234: 100
1774: 120
1773: -1
,
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: ( ), .
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.
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. s (s > 2), , :
, n s .
- ,
: 2.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#define S 107
/* */
#define MAX_FILL_LEVEL 0.8 /* */
unsigned long n = 32;
/* - */
struct singleWord {
char *word;
unsigned long freq;
} *ht;
/* - */
/* */
unsigned long count;

/* - */
unsigned long hashFunction(const char *key)
while (*key)
result += result + (unsigned char) *key++;
return result & (n - 1);
}
/* - */
void initHashtable(void)
{ unsigned long i;
count = 0;
ht = (struct singleWord *) malloc(sizeof(*ht)*n);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
ht[i].word = NULL;
}
/* -: 1 , 0 */
/* : *ind */
2 -
/* : , */
char get(const char *key, unsigned long *ind)
{ unsigned long k;
*ind = hashFunction(key);
k = *ind;
do {
if (NULL == ht[*ind].word) return 0;
if (0 == strcmp(key, ht[*ind].word)) return 1;
*ind = (*ind + S) & (n - 1);
} while (*ind != k);
return 0;
}
/* - */
void resize(void)
{ unsigned long ind, hashInd;
struct singleWord *oldHashTable;
/* 1. - */
oldHashTable = ht;
/* 2. */
n <<= 1;
/* 3. - */
ht = (struct singleWord *) malloc(sizeof(*ht)*n);
for (ind = 0; ind < n; ind++)
ht[ind].word = NULL;
/* 4. - */
for (ind = 0; ind < (n >> 1); ind++) {
if (oldHashTable[ind].word != NULL) {
/* */
if (!get(oldHashTable[ind].word, &hashInd))
ht[hashInd] = oldHashTable[ind];
else
printf(" -!\n");
}
}
/* 5. */
free(oldHashTable);
}
/* - */
void put(char *key)
{ unsigned long ind;
if (!get(key, &ind)) { /* - */
ht[ind].word = strdup(key);
ht[ind].freq = 1;
if (++count > ((unsigned long) n * MAX_FILL_LEVEL)) resize();
}
else
ht[ind].freq++;
}
/* - */
void printAll(void)
190
2 -
191

if (ht[ind].word != NULL)
printf("%s %ld \n", ht[ind].word, ht[ind].freq);
}
/* - */
void destroy(void)
if (ht[ind].word != NULL) free(ht[ind].word);
free(ht);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned long find;
initHashtable();
put("reload");
put("crush tour");
put("room service");
put("load");
put("reload");
put("reload");
printAll();
if (get("reload", &find))
printf(" 'reload': %d \n", ht[find].freq);
else
printf(" 'reload' !");
if (get("download", &find))
printf(" 'download': %d \n", ht[find].freq);
else
printf(" 'download' !");
destroy();
return 0;
}
hashset.c
:
load 1
reload 3
crush tour 1
room service 1
'reload': 3
'download' !
:
1. - .
. ,
,
: -, ..
.
2 -
192
2. - 2.4.3.
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-. : 85%, 90%, 93%, 95%, 97%, 98%,
99%, 100%?
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:
- :
result = result + (unsigned char) *key++;
,
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6. - .

.
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:
) 7, 14, 28, 35, 65, 12, 18, 42, 81, 64, 61, 4, 13
) 12, 7, 14, 81, 42, 18, 61, 4, 64, 35, 13, 28, 65
) 4, 7, 12, 13, 14, 18, 28, 35, 42, 61, 64, 65, 81
) 81, 65, 64, 61, 42, 35, 28, 18, 14, 13, 12, 7, 4
) 28, 64, 13, 42, 7, 81, 61, 4, 12, 65, 35, 18, 14
. ? ( 2.2.)
2.9.
8, 13, 5 6 2.2.
2.10.
(A+BC)*(D/F)G*H. . ( 2.2.)
2.11.
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2.2.?
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2.2.)
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2.18.
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{4, 7, 12, 13, 14, 18, 28, 35, 42, 61, 64, 65, 81}. ( 2.3.)
2.20.
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) 2.2.
) 2.2.
) 2.2.
2.21.
( 2.3.):
) 2.2.
) 2.2.
) 2.2.
2.22.
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B-, - . ( 2.3.)
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. ( 2.3.2.)
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?
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2 -
195
2.31.
- ( 2.4.1.).
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m/n -, (a ,
):
ha (k ) ai xi mod n
i 0
:
k = (k0, k1, .., kr) x r+1 ( )
a = (a0, a1, .., ar), , {0, 1, .., n1}.
n -
m
2.16., , -.
2.33.
2.4.1. .
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?
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2.4.1. n m. ?
1.203.
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99%, 100%?
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:
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result = result + (unsigned char) *key++;
,
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2.44.
2.4.3. .

.
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2.45.
2.4.3. .
?
2.5.2.
2.46.
. :
typedef int data;
struct list {
keyType key;
data info;
struct list *prev;
struct list *next;
};
(
) ( prev).

( , ), ( )
, .
2 -
197
2.47.
,
next .

.
2.48.
( .). ,
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, (log2n) [-1998][-1980].
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5.4.2.), .
2.49. ""
, , .. "" . , ,
"" . ,
"" , , , . ,
.
. ,
(,
""), "" .
2.50.
, , . [-1998].
2.51.
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: [-1998].
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( ); { }; [ ]; /* */ .
: .
2.53.
,
( /
: ,
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.
:

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2 -
198
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n- . , 1.2.2.
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:
p(x) = anxn + an1xn1 + ... + a1x + a0
, .
, , , , x [-1998].
2.55.
2.3. ,
. ,
?
2.56.
,
.
2.57. -
, ,
.
2.58.
{, }.
[-1998].
2.59.
, , .
: ,
, [-1998].
2.60.
, .
2.61.
t1 t2.
x , [t1, t2], . . t1 key[x] t2.
... there are many best methods, depending on what is to

be sorted, on what machine, for what purpose.
~ D.E.Knuth

- . 4,
- ,
.
( )
.
: , , , .
, , , .. .
- .
, ( ) ( 800 )
( [Knuth-3/1968]).
, , +
= ( [-1980]).
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( -
) (
- ,
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(- <, > =)
( , ).
. . ,
.
,
. , :
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: 1) , 2) .
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( ) .
, - , - . -.
M
a1, a2, ..., an,
f, .
M
ai1, ai2, ..., ain
, :
f(ai1) f(ai2) ... f(ain).
3 -
200
f . ,
(, ) .
, , - ,
:
#define MAX 100
struct CElem {
int key;
/* .............

............. */
} m[MAX];
, , ,
. -
, .

. .
. -
:
/* *x1 *x2 */
void swap(struct CElem *x1, struct CElem *x2)
{ struct CElem tmp = *x1; *x1 = *x2; *x2 = tmp; }
3.1.
, . ,
< (), > () = ().
3.1.1.
a<b
b<c
b<c
a<b<c
a<c
a<cb
a<c
ca<b
ba<c
cba
b<ca
3.1.1. {a, b, c}.

- . , .
.
.
, x < y : , x - y,
. ,
,
3 -
201
. 3.1.1. {a, b, c}.

:
if (a < b)
if (b < c) printf(a,b,c);
else
if (a < c) printf(a,c,b);
else printf(c,a,b);
else
if (b < c)
if (a < c) printf(b,a,c);
else printf(b,c,a);
else printf(c,b,a);
, 1)
(?), 2) ( :
3.1.10.). , , . , ( ) n!,
, ,
, , .
- .
:
, - .
3.1.2.
: , .
, . ( 20) . , - , . ,
(n2), - (n.log2 n), ( 3.1.9.)
( 3.1.6.). , ,
- , -,
. ,
,
- .
,
, ,
. ( ) .
. struct CElem
key, . .
,
. n1 . i- , (i+1)- (
3 -
202
x) , . .
1 i.
? x .
( 3.1.2.):
1) , - x;
2) .
4
1
3
5
2
1
4
3
5
2
1
3
4
5
2
1
2
3
4
5
3.1.2. .
. , m[0].
void straightInsertion(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ struct CElem x;
unsigned i;
int j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
x = m[i];
j = i-1;
while (j >= 0 && x.key < m[j].key)
m[j+1] = m[j--];
m[j+1] = x;
}
}
insert_s.c
. .
, -
. , x . (?)
(
1,2,...,n):
void straightInsertion(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j;
struct CElem x;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
x = m[i]; m[0].key = x.key;
for (j = i - 1; x.key < m[j].key; j--)
m[j+1] = m[j];
m[j+1] = x;
}
}
inserts2.c
n1
(n2+n2)/4
(n2+n)/21
3 -
203
2(n1)
(n2+9n10)/4
(n2+3n4)/2
3.1.2. .
, ,
(, ,
), n2.
3.1.2.
[Knuth-3/1968][-1980].
? , .
, ( 4.3.), , x i- , log2 i:
void binaryInsertion(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ struct CElem x;
unsigned i, med, r;
int j, l;
for (i = 1; i < n; i++) {
x = m[i];
l = 0;
r = i - 1;
/* */
while (l <= (int)r) {
med = (l + r) / 2;
if (x.key < m[med].key)
r = med - 1;
else
l = med + 1;
}
/* . */
for (j = i - 1; j >= l; j--)
m[j + 1] = m[j];
m[l] = x;
}
}
insert_b.c
, , ,
,
. , .
:
1. , , , .
2. .
3. 3.1.2.
3.1.3. .

1959 .
.
, 1.
3 -
204
xk , xk+, xk+2,
... (1 k ) -. s, s1, ..., 1,

s > s1 > ... > 1 = 1.
s-, s1-, ...,
1- . ,
-, - ( < ),
-. (?) , i- ,
1 .
- , .
. s , s . ,
.
, : shellSort() shellSort(m,
MAX), shellSort(m + steps0 + 1, MAX).
#define MAX 100
#define STEPS_CNT 4
#define steps0 40
const unsigned steps[STEPS_CNT] = { steps0, 13, 4, 1 };
struct CElem {
int key;
/* .............

............. */
};
..................
void shellSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ int i,j,k,s;
unsigned stepInd;
struct CElem x;
for (stepInd = 0; stepInd < STEPS_CNT; stepInd++) {
s = -(k = steps[stepInd]); /* */
for (i = k + 1; i <= (int)n; i++) {
x = m[i];
j = i - k;
if (0 == s)
s = -k;
m[++s] = x;
while (x.key < m[j].key) {
m[j + k] = m[j];
j -= k;
}
m[j + k] = x;
}
}
}
..................
3 -
205
int main(void) {
struct CElem m[MAX + steps0 + 2];
..................
shellSort(m + steps0 + 1, MAX);
..................
return 0;
}
shell.c
,
,
, - . ,
? , ,
! - - .
, , ( ) while-.
16- ( l+1 r).
void shellSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned l, unsigned r)
{ static unsigned incs[16] = { 1391376,463792,198768,86961,33936,
13776,4592,1968,861,336,112,48,
21,7,3,1 };
unsigned i, j, k, h;
struct CElem v;
for (k = 0; k < 16; k++)
for (h = incs[k], i = l+h; i <= r; i++) {
v = m[i]; j = i;
while (j > h && m[j-h].key > v.key) {
m[j] = m[j-h];
j -= h;
}
m[j] = v;
}
}
shell2.c
?
. -, .
, ,
.
,
1, 3, 7, 15, 31, 63, 127, ..., 2k 1, ...
(n n ) [Papernov][Stasevic-1975].

1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 16, ..., 2p3q, ... ,
, (n(log2 n)2) . ,
-, , ( [Pratt-1979]). (
[Knuth-3/1968])
1, 4, 13, 40, 121, ....,
k1 = 3 k + 1, s = 1, s = [log3 n] 1, .
, , :
3 -
206
1, 3, 7, 15, 31, ...
k1 = 2 k + 1, s = 1, s = [log2 n] 1, .
n1,2. ,
1,7.
(n(log2 n)2).
a :
, -, , < -.
3.1.4.
- ,
. -
3.1.4. , ( - !). - , ,
. , , . ,
- , .
,
xi1 xi , xi1 > xi,
( ). - ,
, , . . .
.
void bubbleSort1(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 1; i < n; i++)
for (j = n-1; j >= i; j--)
if (m[j-1].key > m[j].key)
swap(m+j-1, m+j);
}
bubsort1.c

n(n1)/2
0

n(n1)/2
3.(n2n)/4

n(n1)/2
3.(n2n)/2
3.1.4. .
3.1.4.
. , , ,
, n(n1)/2. , .
, .
, . , ,
.
- , ,
, ,
. . , , -
3 -
207
, : . i,
, . ,
, ,
.
void bubbleSort2(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
for (i = n; i > 0; i = k)
for (k = j = 0; j < i; j++)
if (m[j].key > m[j+1].key) {
swap(m+j, m+j+1);
k = j;
}
}
bubsort2.c
a :
3.1.4.
3.1.5.
. - ,
.
: - ,
, ,
. ,
, .
. . ,
:
void shakerSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned k = n, r = n-1;
unsigned l = 1, j;
do {
for (j = r; j >= l; j--)
if (m[j-1].key > m[j].key) {
swap(m+j-1,m+j);
k = j;
}
l = k + 1;
for (j = l; j <= r; j++)
if (m[j-1].key > m[j].key) {
swap(m+j-1,m+j);
k = j;
}
r = k - 1;
} while (l <= r);
}
shaker.c
3 -
208
- n1 ,
(n2).
, ,
. - .
a :
:
)
)
) .
3.1.6.
- , ,
, -
.
( !), .
... ?
, , , , ,
. :
. - , . ?
( 3.1.4.),
( 3.1.5.):
. ,
, ,
. , , ,
. ,

, ! ?
,
.., [n/2] .
- , -
.
, , x
: , - x, , -.
,
, ,
. , . (?)
q x , .. x = m[q].
m[l,l+1,...,r] partition() : (m[l,l+1,...,q])
(m[q+1,q+2,...,r]), q . , , .. partition() x , . -
.
- ( m[]
, : , .):
3 -
209
void quickSort(int l, int r)

{ int q;
if (l < r) {
q = partition(l,r);
quickSort(l,q);
quickSort(q+1,r);
}
}
, q. (
- - .) , m[q] x . q
: () ,
x, , - x.
: ?
- . :
unsigned partition(int l, int r)
{ int q, j, x;
q = l - 1; x = m[r].key;
for (j = l; j <= r; j++)
if (m[j].key <= x) {
q++;
swap(m+q,m+j);
}
if (q == r) /* <= x. 1. */
q--;
return q;
}
? x, . , - x,
- x. m[l,l+1,...,r] -, ,
- x. q. j r
, q . (: swap() - .)
i j,
.
, , . .
, - x.
( while-). -
, , .
, . . . i , j :
unsigned partition(int l, int r)
{ unsigned i, j, x;
i = l; j = r; x = m[l].key;
do {
while (x > m[i].key) i++;
while (x < m[j].key) j--;
if (i <= j) {
swap(m+i,m+j);
i++;
3 -
210
j--;
}
while (i <= j);
return j;
}
partition() quickSort() , ( ):
{ int i,j,x;
i = l-1; x = m[r].key;
for (j = l; j <= r; j++)
if (m[j].key <= x) {
i++;
swap(m+i,m+j);
}
if (i == r) /* <= x. 1. */
i--;
if (l < i)
quickSort(l,i);
if ((i+1) < r)
/***/
quickSort(i+1,r); /***/
}
:
{ int i, j, x;
i = l;
j = r;
x = m[r].key;
do {
while (x > m[i].key) i++;
while (x < m[j].key) j--;
if (i <= j) {
swap(m+i, m+j);
i++;
j--;
}
} while (j >= i);
if (j > l)
quickSort(l, j);
if (i < r)
/***/
quickSort(i, r); /***/
}
qsort.c
. , . To
, . .
, ,
. , /***/
l = i+1; ( ) l = i; ( ),
. ,
.
3 -
211
. ,
. ,

, . . ,
, , . ,
.
? ,
, ,
,
( x ):
void quickSort(void)
{ int i,j,l,r,s,x;
struct { int l, r; } stack[MAX];
stack[s = 0].l = 0;
stack[0].r = n-1;
for (;;) {
l = stack[s].l;
r = stack[s].r;
if (0 == s--)
break;
do {
i = l; j = r; x = m[(l+r)/2].key;
do {
while (m[i].key < x) i++;
while (m[j].key > x) j--;
if (i <= j) {
swap(m+i,m+j);
i++;
j--;
}
} while (i<=j);
if (i < r) {
/***/
stack[++s].l = i; /***/
stack[s].r := r; /***/
}
/***/
r = j;
/***/
} while (l < r);
}
}

. , , (log2 n) , . - ,
,
1, (n) . -,
: ,
. - , -
. ,
(log2 n). , /***/
(?):
/* - */
if (j - l < r i) {
3 -
212
/* */
if (i < r) {
stack[++s].l = i;
stack[s].r = r;
}
r = j;
}
else {
/* */
if (l < j)
stack[++s].l = l;
stack[s].r = j;
}
l = i;
}
, -
, - . -
, ,
log2 n .
n.log2 n. n/6.
(n/6).log2 n.
1/n, n, 2.ln 2 [Knuth-3/1968].
: x, ?
, , ( -).
: -
, -
, - , . . -
. (?) . , ,
. -,
3.2.3.,
.
. - , - ( 3.2. , !). (n.log2 n),
( 3.1.9.), -. ,
"" .
- , x,
. - ,
1, n2. [Knuth-3/1968][-1980]
. - ,
- . x

. , ,
- .
, ,
. ,
, , k ( k = 20) ,
- - ( 3.1.4.),
( 3.1.8.) ( 3.1.2.). - -
3 -
213
k .
, ,
, -
, .
: , .
. .
:
1. , .
2. , (log2 n).
3.
32 :
) ;
) 1 n;
) (
);
) .
4.
.
5. .
6. - ?
7. , - ,
, - .
8. - ( 3.1.6.):
) ;
) ;
) ;
) ;
) ;
) : ( 7.1.);
) , ( 3.2.3.).
9.
.
10. ,
(n.log2 n) - .
11. quickSort() int
unsigned.. ? ?
12. n , :
) (n.log2 n)
) (n2)
3.1.7.
( 3.1.4.),
. - ( 3.1.5. 3.1.6.),

, -
. , . . , , ,
3 -
214
. , , .
? ,
( 3.1.5.),
. 1991 . . Byte
,
, .
, , .
.
? 200 000 , ( ) 1,3.
1 .
, - 1,3, ,
, - .
, ,
,
, .
,
11. 9 10 11. ,
1,3, 1 :
964321
10 7 5 3 2 1
11 8 6 4 3 2 1
1.
8% ,
15-20%.
( 3.1.3.)
. , . ( 3.1.2.) ,
( 3.1.4.).
.
. 1,7,
1,3. , (n.(log2 n)2),
(n.log2 n) , - .
- .
:
void combSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned s, i, j, gap = n;
do {
s = 0;
gap = (unsigned) (gap/1.3);
if (gap < 1)
gap = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n-gap; i++) {
j = i + gap;
if (m[i].key > m[j].key) {
swap(m+i, m+j);
s++;
}
}
} while (s != 0 || gap > 1);
}
3 -
215
combsort.c

.
, . :
gap = (long)(gap/1.3);
:
gap = (long)(gap*0.76923076923);
:
gap = gap*8 / 11;
, , :
gap = gap*6 >> 3.
, . 1,279604943109628
1,3. , , . ( ) 4
:
11, 13, 17, 23, 29, 37, 47, 61, 79, 103, 131, 167, 216, 277, 353, 449, 577, 739, 947, 1213, 1553, 1987,
2543, 3259, 4166, 5333, 6829, 8741, 11177, 14310, 18313, 23431, 29989, 38371, 49103, 62827, 80407,
102881, 131648, 168463, 215573, 275840, 352973, 451669, 577957, 739560, 946346, 1210949, 1549547,
1982809, 2537202, 3246624, 2147483647
:
1. , (n.log2 n)
, - .
2. ( 3.1.3.)
.
3.1.8.
(n2) ,
. ,
.
.
..

(, -
, ?), ,
.
void straightSelection(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n-1; i++)
for (j = i+1; j <= n; j++)
if (m[i].key > m[j].key)
swap(m+i, m+j);
}
selsort.c
3 -
216
: , , , j-
m[j] , x.
void straightSelection(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j, ind;
struct CElem x;
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
for (x = m[ind = i], j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
if (m[j].key < x.key) {
x = m[ind = j];
m[ind] = m[i];
m[i] = x;
}
}
selsort2.c

n(n1)/2
3(n1)

n(n1)/2
nln n

n(n1)/2
[n2/4]+3(n1)
. 3.1.8. .
n(n1)/2 , 3.1.8.
,
- .
:
1. , .
2. .
3. 3.1.8.
3.1.9.
( 3.1.8.) -,
( 3.1.4.) ( 3.1.2.). , i n i , .
() n n1 . ,
, ,
n1 .
, , , n1 , - ,
. , n2
. , i- ni
. ? , . ,
,
,
. , -
3 -
217
, - , . .
- - ( 3.1.1.),
.
, ( [Knuth-3/1968], [, , -1980]),
. x1 :
x2, x3 : x4, ..., xn1 : xn. ..
. i-
( , n 2,
?), , . , :
n/2 ,
n/4 (. . 4 ) ..
, . . n1 . , ()
,
.
lg2n, ", . .
, lg2n1 n2,
. n1+(n1)(log2 n1)
.
, .
, .
, -
:
( 3.1.5.) -
( 3.1.4.), .
, ,
. , ,
( 2.4.), ,
,
. , , ,
.
,
2n1. ,
, ,
. .
.
3.1.
h, :
1) h h1;
2) - ;
3) h .
, ,
n- ,
.
:
. hl, hl+1, ..., hr (1 l r
n), hi h2i hi h2i+1, i = l, l+1 ..., r/2.
3 -
218
, h1 h1, h2, ..., hn - . (?)

, - , - . , l = 1 . , h2i h2i+1
hi.
,
buildHeap(), k restoreHeap(k),
. , n
, h1 (- ) hn,
: .
, . h1, h2, ..., hn1, -.
(n1)- ,
. n1 ( n- , n , ?).
:
buildHeap();
for (i = n; i >= 2; i--) {
swap(m+1, m+i);
restoreHeap(i-1)
}
? , n .
hn/2+1, hn/2+2, ..., hn ,
i j j = 2i j = 2i + 1. , ( !) ( ) . . x
. , x . hn/2, hn/2+1, ..., hn .
, . n
hn/2+1, hn/2+2, ..., hn. ,
, / .
, x
, . . x
, x .. x , , .
, , x -
, . x , ,
.
, ,
.
sift():
/* */
void sift(struct CElem m[], unsigned l, unsigned r)
{ unsigned i = l,
j = i + i;
struct CElem x = m[i];
while (j <= r) {
if (j < r && m[j].key < m[j+1].key)
j++;
if (x.key >= m[j].key)
3 -
219
break;
m[i] = m[j];
i = j;
j <<= 1; /* j *= 2; */
}
m[i] = x;
}
heapsort.c
( buildHeap()) :
for (k = n/2 + 1; k > 1; k--)
sift(m,k-1,n);
,
( restoreHeap()), :
for (k = n; k > 1; k--) {
swap(m+1,m+k);
sift(m,1,k-1);
}
:
void heapSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned k;
/* 1. */
for (k = n/2 + 1; k > 1; k--)
sift(m,k-1,n);
/* 2. */
for (k = n; k > 1; k--) {
swap(m+1,m+k);
sift(m,1,k-1);
}
}
heapsort.c
:
1. , ,
2, .
2. , - .
3. , . () .
?
4. .
3.1.10.

(. . ,
> (), < () = (). - (
, , 3.1.2., 3.1.4 3.1.8.) (n2)
3 -
220
, - (n.log2 n) ( ,
3.1.6.) - ( : 3.1.9.,
: 3.1.7. , 7.3.). ,
,
. . . -
(n.log2 n). ?
:
.
(n.log2 n).
.
, 3.1.1.
n! .
.
, <.
=, , , <, > , , , . .
, .
. . , ,
.
- , -
, , . .
. n ,
n! , . .
.
h (. .
). :
n! 2h
:
h log2 (n!)
n!, n! > (n/e)n,
:
h log2 (n!) log2 (n/e)n = n.log2 n n.log2 e,
, h (n.log2 n). . . ,
, (n.log2n).
, ,
. , - (
/ ) - ,
3.2.
:
,
.
3 -
221
3.2.
, , ( ) .
( 2.3.) ( 2.5.).
/ /
.
3.2.1.
,
, . ,
f (
M, n):
1) f [a, b], m = b a +
1 . [a, b] f,
f [a, b].
2) f , . . x1, x2 M x1 x2 f(x1) f(x2) (. . )
struct CElem,
unsigned, ,
MAX_VALUE. (, MAX_VALUE m) [0, MAX_VALUE).
, .
0 set[] ( char,
),
1 .
set[].
, m[] ,
. .
void setSort(unsigned m[], unsigned n)
{ char set[MAX_VALUE];
unsigned i,j;
/* 0. */
for (i = 0; i < MAX_VALUE; i++)
set[i] = 0;
/* 1. */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
assert(m[j] >= 0 && m[j] < MAX_VALUE);
assert(0 == set[m[j]]);
set[m[j]] = 1;
}
/* 2. */
for (i = j = 0; i < MAX_VALUE; i++)
if (set[i])
m[j++] = i;
assert(j == n);
}
3 -
222
set_sort.c
(m+n) n, m,
n. , "":

( , ),
(m). , . ,
( 3.1.6.), , -
( ). : (n), a (m), m > n m >> n (.. m -
n).
, .
.
struct CElem, .
(m+n), m
[a, b].
[a, b] m[],
. - .
m[]:
struct CSetEl {
char found;
unsigned index;
} m[MAX];
found , m[] . ,
m[] :
unsigned m[MAX];
, , - 0,
- unsigned.
( DOS 65 535, Windows 4 294 967 295). 1
: (unsigned)(-1).
, ,
m[],
, . assert()-, , .
#define NO_INDEX (unsigned)(-1)
/* */
void setSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned indSet[MAX_VALUE]; /* */
unsigned i,j;
/* 0. */
indSet[i] = NO_INDEX;
/* 1. */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
assert(m[j].key >= 0 && m[j].key < MAX_VALUE);
assert(NO_INDEX == indSet[m[j].key]);
3 -
223
indSet[m[j].key] = j;
}
/* 2. */
if (NO_INDEX != indSet[i])
do4Elem(m[indSet[i]]);
}
setsort2.c
. , m[]. do4Elem() . , . , .
m[],
. m[].
, m[]. , ,
struct CElem [a, b]. ,
, ,
(m), (...) - .
:
, .
3.2.2.
.
, . . . , ,
k .
,
. cnt[], cnt[i]
i. cnt[],
m[] [a, b].
cnt[], cnt[x]
x, x [a, b].
void countSort(unsigned m[], unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned char cnt[MAX_VALUE];
unsigned i,j;
/* 0. */
cnt[i] = 0;
/* 1. */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
assert(m[j] >= 0 && m[j] < MAX_VALUE);
cnt[m[j]]++;
}
/* 2. */
3 -
224
while (cnt[i]--)
m[j++] = i;
assert(j == n);
}
count_s.c
, k , k. T
:
[a, b], [a, b]

f, f [a, b].
[a, b] k ;
, .
. . .

x [a, b] M, .
: x
x.

, : .
k, -
k . k p
.
- ,
M. ,
, ( ).
, , M. ,
( -,
: ). (m+n).
#include
#include
#include
#include
#include
#define
#define
#define
#define
<assert.h>
<stdlib.h>
<stdio.h>
<string.h>
<time.h>
MAX 100
FACTOR 5
MAX_VALUE (MAX*FACTOR)
TEST_LOOP_CNT 100
struct CElem {
int key;
/* */
};
struct CList {
struct CElem data;
struct CList *next;
};
void init(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
3 -
225
{ unsigned i;
srand(time(NULL));
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
m[i].key = rand() % MAX_VALUE;
}
void countSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ /* . - ! */
unsigned i,j;
struct CList *lst[MAX_VALUE], *p;
/* 0. */
lst[i] = NULL;
/* 1. */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
/* 1.1. */
assert(m[j].key >= 0 && m[j].key < MAX_VALUE);
/* 1.2. */
p = (struct CList *) malloc(sizeof(struct CList));
p->data = m[j];
p->next = lst[m[j].key];
lst[m[j].key] = p;
}
/* 2. */
while (NULL != (p = lst[i])) {
m[j++] = lst[i]->data;
lst[i] = lst[i]->next;
free(p);
}
}
void print(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%8d", m[i].key);
}
int main(void) {
struct CElem m[MAX];
init(m, MAX);
printf(" :\n");
print(m,MAX);
countSort(m, MAX);
printf(" :\n");
print(m,MAX);
return 0;
}
count_s2.c
:
.
3 -
226
3.2.3.
, ( 3.2.2.) ( 3.2.1.)
. ,
m. , m
.
, ,
.
, (n), ,
(m). (m+n). , m n. ? , m > n
m.
-, n.
, m = n3, (n3), . . -
! m = n7?
,
. ( , ) , ( 3.2.4.).

. ,
. . , .
, .

. -.
, .. - . , (?). - . , ,
. , .
, , , ,
- ,
. ,
. ,
( ), .
#include <assert.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#define MAX 100
struct CElem {
int key;
/* .............

............. */
};
3 -
struct CList {
struct CElem data;
struct CList *next;
};
struct CList* init(unsigned n) /* */

{ struct CList *head, *p;
unsigned i;
srand(time(NULL));
for (head = NULL, i = 0; i < n; i++) {
p->data.key = rand();
assert(p->data.key);
p->next = head;
head = p;
}
return head;
}
struct CList *bitSort(struct CList *head)
{ struct CList *zeroEnd, *oneEnd, *zero, *one;
unsigned maxBit, bitPow2;
/* 0. */
maxBit = 1 << (8*sizeof(head->data.key)-1);
/* 1. */
zero = (struct CList *) malloc(sizeof(struct CList));
one = (struct CList *) malloc(sizeof(struct CList));
/* 2. */
for (bitPow2 = 1; bitPow2 < maxBit; bitPow2 <<= 1) {
/* 2.1. */
for (zeroEnd = zero, oneEnd = one; NULL != head; head = head->next)
if (!(head->data.key & bitPow2)) {
zeroEnd->next = head;
zeroEnd = zeroEnd->next;
}
else {
oneEnd->next = head;
oneEnd = oneEnd->next;
}
/* 2.2. */
oneEnd->next = NULL;
zeroEnd->next = one->next;
head = zero->next;
}
/* 3. */
free(zero);
free(one);
return head;
}
227
3 -
228
void print(struct CList *head)

{ for (; NULL != head; head = head->next)
printf("%8d", head->data.key);
printf("\n");
}
void check(struct CList *head)
{ if (NULL == head)
return;
for (; NULL != head->next; head = head->next)
assert(head->data.key <= head->next->data.key);
}
void clear(struct CList *head)
{ struct CList *p = head;
while (NULL != head) {
head = (p = head)->next;
free(p);
}
}
int main(void) {
struct CList *head;
head = init(MAX);
printf(" :\n");
print(head);
head = bitSort(head);
printf(" :\n");
print(head);
check(head);
clear(head);
return 0;
}
bitsort.c
. - . n- , .
, , ,
. .. , n/2 ( - ). [-1995] [ComputerNews-1994a] [TopTeam-1997]
, C.n, C . , .
-
-. , ,
: - 0, - 1,
, . - .

, 2b, b = 0,1,2,... . 2b ,
, . ,
i = j . (?)
.
3 -
229
struct CElem m[MAX];

.................
void bitSort2(int l, int r, unsigned bitMask)
{ int i,j;
if (r > l && bitMask > 0) {
i = l; j = r;
while (j != i) {
while (!(m[i].key & bitMask) && i < j) i++;
while ((m[j].key & bitMask) && j > i) j--;
swap(&m[i], &m[j]);
}
if (!(m[r].key & bitMask)) j++;
bitSort2(l,j-1,bitMask >> 1);
bitSort2(j,r,bitMask >> 1);
}
}
.................
int main(void) {
.................
bitSort2(0,MAX-1,1 << 8*sizeof(m[0].key) - 1);
.................
return 0;
}
bitsort2.c
: , - ,
.
, . . ,
065535, 01000. ,
, 6 ,
: 0
.
:
1. , .
2. ,
, , ,
.
3. .
3.2.4.
- . , . , , ? 10?
16? 256? ,
C, . . .
3 -
230
.
s .
, s.
. . .
, s- , . .
s- .
. , s = 2 .
. ,
- s n ( n < s). 2 -
.
16 8
. 16- , , .
, ,
, .
. , .
.
#include <assert.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#define MAX
100
#define BASE
16 /* */
#define POW2
4 /* 16 = 1 << 4 */
#define DIG_CNT 8 /* */
struct CElem {
int key;
/* */
};
struct CList {
struct CElem data;
struct CList *next;
};
struct CList *init(unsigned n) /* */
unsigned i;
srand(time(NULL));
for (head = NULL, i = 0; i < n; i++) {
p->data.key = rand();
assert(p->data.key);
p->next = head;
head = p;
}
return head;
}
struct CList *radixSort(struct CList *head)
{ struct { struct CList *st, *en; } mod[BASE];
unsigned i, dig, mask, shrM;
3 -
/* 1. */
for (i = 0; i < BASE; i++)
mod[i].st = (struct CList *) malloc(sizeof(struct CList));
/* 2. */
mask = BASE-1; shrM = 0;
for (dig = 1; dig <= DIG_CNT; dig++) {
/* 2.1. */
for (i = 0; i < BASE; i++)
mod[i].en = mod[i].st;
/* 2.2. */
/* 2.2.1. i- BASE- */
i = (head->data.key & mask) >> shrM;
/* 2.2.2. */
mod[i].en->next = head;
mod[i].en = mod[i].en->next;
head = head->next;
}
/* 2.3. */
mod[BASE-1].en->next = NULL;
for (i = BASE - 1; i > 0; i--)
mod[i-1].en->next = mod[i].st->next;
head = mod[0].st->next;
/* 2.4. */
shrM += POW2; mask <<= POW2;
}
/* 3. */
for (i = 0; i < BASE; i++)
free(mod[i].st);
return head;
}
{ for (; NULL != head; head = head->next)
printf("%8d", head->data.key);
printf("\n");
}
void clear(struct CList *head)
{ struct CList *p = head;
head = (p = head) ->next;
free(p);
}
}
int main(void) {
struct CList *head;
head = init(MAX);
printf(" :\n");
print(head);
head = radixSort(head);
231
3 -
232
printf(" :\n");
print(head);
clear(head);
return 0;
}
radsort.c
,
. , , .
. , : , , , , , .
d1 = 60, d2 = 60, d3 = 24, d4 = 7, d5 = 52.
-, .
60
, 60 , ,
24 , ..
a :
.
3.2.5.
. -
( 3.2.2.) ( 3.2.1.).

( M,
n):
1) f [a, b], m
, m = b a + 1. [a, b] f,
f [a, b].
2) f , . . x1, x2 M, x1 x2 f(x1) f(x2) (. . )
:
3) f: M M , . . s M x , f(x) = s
M n, .. |M| = n. S {1, 2, ..., n}.
:
1) f : S S
2) f (. . )
f M . , M ,
.
. i i- . ,
i j, j = m[i], i j, i- j- ,
j j- . i-
i, (i+1)- m[].
: m[i]. ,
i i- . (?)
3 -
233
4375612. i = 1 m[1] m[m[1]] 1

1 ( , , .):
4375612
5374612
6374512
1374562
1 . 2:
1374562
1734562
1234567
2 .
, .
[-1998].
,
. , n.
2n. ,
- :
. ,
, .
void permSort(struct CElem m[], unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
while (m[i].key != (int)i)
swap(&m[i],&m[m[i].key]);
}
permsort.c
:
, i (1 i n)
m[i] m[m[i]] m[i] i.
3.3.
- ,
() .

. , ,
, .
. ,

- .
,
. ,
,
. ,
-
,
. :
3 -
234
- .
,
, ,
,
. , ;))
, ,
, . ,
. , (, ) .
,
(),
.
.
, . ()
(- ) . . . .
. ,
. - , , . , ( )
.
, : 10
, 10000 . ,
-
, , -
- .
, , . ,
, , .
, ,
. :
. , ,
.
.
- (
7.4.). , , .
x y, min(x,y), max(x,y). ,
,
, . . . ,
, , ,
. , ,
.
().
n n , <a1, a2, , an>
n- <b1, b2, , bn>, , , . .
n- . a1, a2, ,
3 -
235
an A, , . .
x y A : x < y, x = y
x > y ( ). , A
. - , A . ,
, , , . , , . (?)
n ,
. ,
, - , ,
-. , , 1.
,
.
, , .
. , 1,
, 0,
, .
, ,
, .

. 0.
d(x) d(y) ,
max(d(x), d(y)) + 1. , .
, <a1, a2, , an>
: b1 b2 bn.
, , .
3.3.1.
. ( ) ()
0 1,
, .
..
, (
) . , 2n- 0 1
n, n, , . ,
, :
2n , 30 . ,
.
1. f ,
f(x) f(y). f(min(x,y))
f(max(x,y)) .
: , f , min(f(x),f(y)) = f(min(x,y))
max(f(x),f(y)) = f(max(x,y)), .
3 -
236
2. f . ,
a = <a1, a2, , an> b = <b1, b2, , bn>.
f(a) = <f(a1), f(a2), , f(an)> f(b) = <f(b1), f(b2), , f(bn)>.
: , f , . .
x < y f(x) f(y). ,
, - ,
, : y x,
f(y) f(x). d :
1) : d = 0. x y . , f(x)
f(y) .
2) : , ,
- d (d > 0), x y, f(x)
f(y).
3) : d
x1 x2 .
y1 = min(x1,x2) y2 = max(x1,x2) . , , f(x1), f(x2)
f(y1) f(y2) . f
. , 1 min(f(y1), f(y2))
max(f(y1), f(y2)) .
f . 2
.
.
( ): -
2 . : .
, 0
1 , <a1, a2, , an>
A, .
ai aj (ai < aj) , aj
ai. f :
0, x ai
f (x )
1, x ai
, .
aj ai 2 , f(aj) f(ai). , f f(aj) = 1 f(ai) = 0. <f(a1), f(a2), , f(an)>, 0 1.
, 0 1.
3.3.2.
- - . - ,
. ,
. , , : ,
. : <1, 7, 9, 11, 27, 5, 4, 3, 3, 1> <37, 20, 17, 16, 10, 10, 10, 18,
25, 47>. , ,
. , 0 1, 0i1j0k 1i0j1k , i, j, k
3 -
237
0. , - 0 1.
3.3.3.
- - . , ( 3.1.6.),
. n
, n/2. - , . . - .
, 0 () 1
(), " ". 1
(i,n/2+i) i = 1, 2, , n/2.
3.3.4.
, n/2 . . n/4 ,
.. n
2,
1. ,
. (?)
.
1 ( ), ( ), , log2 n.
0 1 (log2 n).
, , .
. 0 1.
3.3.5.
. ,
, . ,

, .
, ,
. , 1
. -
. 1 + log2 n. -
, , , . .
.
, (i,n/2+i), (i,ni+1), i = 1, 2, , n/2.
,
- .
. ,
log2 n.
3 -
238
3.3.6.
, :
.
( 7.4.)
.
- , n 2.
. , ,
n/2.
log2 n, . ? , 4 l1, l2, l3, l4
n/4 . , l1 l2
n/2 log2 (n/2). l3 l4,
, .
n/2.
l1, l2, l3, l4? . ,
n/8,
log2 (n/8) ..
, .
.
. D(n) , n- , D(n/2) , (n/2)- (,
, ), log2 n . :
n 1
0
D(n) D n log n n 2 k , k 1

2
2
( 1.4.10.) :
D(n) log 22 n
3.3.7.
- , ,
. ,
, . 3.3.7. ,
( 3.1.2.).
3.3.7. .
3 -
239
, .
. , ,
. , .
3.3.8. -
- 1960 . :
n- <a1, a2, , an> <an+1, an+2, ,
a2n>, (n 2).
. (<a1, a3, , an1> <an+1, an+3, , a2n
1>) (<a 2, a 4, , a n > <a n+2, a n+4, , a 2n >) .
, n/2 ,
a2i1 a2i i = 1, 2, , n. (log2 n).
3.3.9. -
- , log 22 n . n
. i (i = 2, 3, ..., n1), d
(d = 1,2, ,n). i j = i+(1)i+d, 1 j
n d. . . : (
3.3.9.)
d = 1, 2, ..., n :
1) d , 2i1 2i, i = 1, 2, ..., [n/2].
2) d , 2i 2i+1, i = 1, 2, ..., [(n1)/2].
3.3.9. - .
3.3.10.
, , .
. , , ,
(). n <1, 2, , n>. , , , n
. , n! ,
. ,
.
3 -
240
,
, 1954 . - 1960 .
- , .
, .
- log 22 n .
1983 . , ,
log 2 n , n log 2 n .
, ,
, (...).
:
1. , 3.3.4. ( 3.3.4.).
2. , n (n2) ( 3.3.7.).
3.
n ( 3.3.7.), :
) ( 3.1.2.);
) ( 3.1.4.).
4. , ,
n , (n,n
1,,1).
5. , n > 2 n
, ( 3.3.10.).
3.4.
3.4.1.
3.1.
, - ( 3.1.1.).
3.2.
, , , ( 3.1.2.).
3.3.
( 3.1.2.).
3.4.
3.1.2.
3.5.
, -, , < - ( 3.1.3.).
3.6.
3.1.4.
3.7.
( 3.1.4.):
3 -
241
)
)
) ( 3.1.5.).
3.8.
, ( 3.1.6.)
.
3.9.
, ( 3.1.6.)
(log2 n).
3.10.
(
3.1.6.) 32 :
) ;
) 1 n;
) (
);
) .
3.11.
-
( 3.1.6.):
) ;
) ;
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) ;
) ;
) : ( 7.1.);
) , ( 3.2.3.).
3.12.

.
3.13.
( 3.1.6.).
3.14.
( 3.1.6.)
- ?
3.15.
, - , ( 3.1.6.), - .
3.16.
( 3.1.6.),
(n.log2 n) - .
3.17.
quickSort() int
unsigned 3.1.6.. ? ?
3.18.
3 -
242
n ,
( 3.1.6.) :
) (n.log2 n)
) (n2)
3.19.
, ( 3.1.7.) (n.log2 n)
, - .
3.20.
( 3.1.3.)
( 3.1.7.).
3.21.
, ( 3.1.8.).
3.22.
(
3.1.8.).
3.23.
3.1.8.
3.24.
, ,
2, ( 3.1.9.).
3.25.
, - ( 3.1.9.).
3.26.
, . () .
( 3.1.9.)?
3.27.
( 3.1.9.).
3.28.
,
( 3.2.).
3.29.
( 3.2.1.)
, .
3.30.
( 3.2.2.).
3.31.
, i (1 i n)
m[i] m[m[i]] m[i] i (
3.2.5.).
3.32.
3 -
243
, 3.3.4. ( 3.3.4.).
3.33.
, ( 3.2.3.) .
3.34.
( 3.2.3.), , , , .
3.35.
(
3.2.3.).
3.36.
( 3.2.3.) (
3.2.4.).
3.37.
, n (n2) ( 3.3.7.).
3.38.

n ( 3.3.7.), :
) ( 3.1.2.);
) ( 3.1.4.).
3.39.
, ,
n , (n,n
1,,1).
3.40.
, n > 2 n
, ( 3.3.10.).
3.4.2.
3.41. .
: ( 3.1.2.),
( 3.1.4.) ( 3.1.8.).
:
) : 10; 20; 50; 100; 1000; 10000;
) : ; ; ;
.
3.42. .
, , , n1
.
3.43. .
3 -
244
( 3.1.6.),
( 3.1.7.) ( 3.1.9.).
3.44. .
(,
: 3.1.2., 3.1.4. 3.1.8.) -
( 3.1.6.). .
?
3.45.- - .
- - .
3.46. .
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3.49. .
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3.50. .
A = (aij). , . ?
I have an existentialist map of the world.

It has "You are here" written all over it.
~ Unix Fortune
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4 -
246
-, (log2n) , - . , .
,
(n.log2 n). (n.log2 n). , ,
. .
:
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. ( , 2),
, struct CElem,
.
, . - ,
. , , .
, ? , .
. , - , . ,
, .
, . , , , , . ,
. - , .

.
4.1.
- - . , .

. , .
seqSearch(). , :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX 100
4 -
247
#define DataType int

struct CElem {
int key;
DataType data;
/* ... */
} m[MAX + 1]; /* */
unsigned n;
/* */
void seqInit(void) { n = 0; }
/* */
unsigned seqSearch(int key)

/* */
{ unsigned x;
m[0].key = key; /* */
for (x = n + 1; key != m[--x].key; ) ;
return x;
}
void seqInsert(int key, DataType data) /* */
{ m[++n].key = key;
m[n].data = data;
}
void seqPrint(void)
/* */
{ unsigned i;
char buf[9];
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
sprintf(buf, "%d|%d", m[i].key, m[i].data);
printf("%8s", buf);
}
}
void performSearchTest(void)
{ unsigned ind, elem2Search;
for (elem2Search = 0; elem2Search < 2*MAX; elem2Search++) {
printf(" %u.\n", elem2Search);
if (0 == (ind = seqSearch(elem2Search)))
printf("%s"," !\n");
else
printf("% ! . : %d\n", m[ind].data);
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned ind;
seqInit();
for (ind = 0; ind < MAX; ind++)
seqInsert(rand() % (MAX*2), ind);
printf(" : \n");
seqPrint();
printf("\n:\n");
performSearchTest();
return 0;
}
seq_arr.c
, - ,
data. ,
4 -
248
struct CElem
, .
. , , .
-, : , (
). .
- ? ,
- . n+1 , . , ,
(n+1)/2 (?). ,
.
:
, (n+1)/2.
4.1.1.
, -, - - . , . ,
. , ,
, . ,
, .
. -
, , .
? , ,
- , - .
(n+1)/2, n+1 .
, . - , . . n+1 .
, , , -
, , . , "" ,
, .
,
:
struct CElem {
int key;
DataType data;
struct CElem *next;
/* ... */
} *head;
void listInit(void)
/* */
{ head = (struct CElem *) malloc(sizeof *head);
head->next = NULL;
}
void listInsert(int key, DataType data) /* */
4 -
249
{ struct CElem *p, *q, *r;

q = (struct CElem *) malloc(sizeof *head),
r = (p = head)->next;
while (r != NULL && r->key < key) {
p = r;
r = r->next;
}
q->key = key;
q->data = data;
q->next = r;
p->next = q;
}
struct CElem *listSearch(int key) /* */
{ struct CElem *q;
for (q = head->next; q != NULL && q->key < key; q = q->next) ;
if (NULL == q || key != q->key)
return NULL;
else
return q;
}
void listPrint(void)
/* */
{ struct CElem *q;
char buf[9];
for (q = head->next; q != NULL; q = q->next) {
sprintf(buf, "%d|%d", q->key, q->data);
printf("%8s", buf);
}
}
seq_list
:
.
.
4.1.2.
,
, , - , . . , , .
, ,
:
. . , - . ,
.
, . . , . , n, -
,
[-1980].
4 -
250
- ,
n .
, - -. , - .
. ,
. , , .
, , .
, - , -
. -
:
, . (
10.5.)
void listInsert(int key, DataType data) /* */
{ struct CElem *q = (struct CElem *) malloc(sizeof *head);
q->key = key; q->data = data;
q->next = head; head = q;
}
/* */
struct CElem *listSearch(int key)
{ struct CElem *q, *p = head;
if (NULL == head)
return NULL;
if (head->key == key) return head;
for (q = head->next; q != NULL; )
if (q->key != key) {
p = q;
q = q->next;
}
else {
p->next = q->next;
q->next = head;
return (head = q);
}
return NULL;
}
reorder.c
:
1. ,
. -.
2.
( 10.5.).
3.
. .
4. -, -
:
) ( 4.1.)
) ( 4.1.1.)
) ( 4.1.2.)
4 -
251
4.2. .
. -

. , . k
-
, (k+1)- , (2k+1)- , (3k+1)- ,... . .
m[1].key, m[k+1].key, m[2k+1].key,... , - x, .
- ( ).
, , , , - x. , . ,
,
.
, . ,
. ,
k = 1.
- ,
m[1].key. ? ,
, , m[n].key: . , - m[k].key.
(?) k = 1 .
k - ?
, [m[i*k+1].key;
m[(i+1)*k].key], . , - k .
- , , [n/k] , ,
. , n, k, k1.
, - k [n/k] + k
1 . :
unsigned seqSearch(unsigned l, unsigned r, int key)
{ while (l <= r)
if (m[l++].key == key)
return l-1;
return NOT_FOUND;
}
unsigned jmpSearch(int key, unsigned step)
{ unsigned ind;
for (ind = 0; ind < n && m[ind].key < key; ind += step) ;
return seqSearch(ind + 1 < step ? 0 : ind + 1 - step,
n < ind ? n : ind, key);
}
jumpsear.c
: , n k , ? 4.2. , n k:
4 -
252
n\k
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
4.2. n k.
, - k n/2, . .
. -
k - n,
n k f(k) :
f(k) = [n/k] + k 1.
( ),
k = n . f(k) 2 n + 1. .
, : n n .
? , . , - f(k), , . : , l (1 < l < k)
? , k n ,
, .
k ,
l , n/(k.l)
. , ,
, k = l = n/(k.l), n = k3. 3 3 n . n 12 , 3 3 n < 2 n , . .
[Gregory,Rawlins-1997].
, , . . ? ,
, .
( !)
, - .
:
1. k l.
k l n.
2. , - n
n .
4.3.
. -
4 -
253
,
7. -,
- . . .
? ,
.
. - , a - -.
,
, . , .
? x ,
. x ( .). .
x - ,
. , : ,
- , - x. , x - , . .
. , . , . ,
. , , , . , , , , ( ) . ,
( 1).
, ( binSearch(__,0,n-1)):
unsigned binSearch(int key, int l, int r)
{ int mid;
if (l > r)
return NOT_FOUND;
mid = (l + r) / 2;
if (key < m[mid].key)
return binSearch(key,l,mid-1);
else if (key > m[mid].key)
return binSearch(key,mid+1,r);
else
return mid;
}
binsear0.c
- .
. , :
unsigned binSearch(int key)
{ int l = 0, r = n-1, mid;
while (l <= r) {
mid = (l + r) / 2;
r = mid - 1;
4 -
254

l = mid + 1;
else
return mid;
}
return NOT_FOUND;
}
binsear1.c
l r, . mid . , value 1, .
,
log2 n + 1 .
, [-1980].
.
log2 n + 1 . ,
. - . -
l r, .
, offset = r-l r.
offset . ,
,
. .
-
, , . ,
. ,
1000, : (1, 2,
..., 512) (489, 490, ..., 1000).
, 512, 2, n = 1000. 489, 490, , 512 . ,
. , .
(, .)
unsigned getMaxPower2(unsigned k)
{ unsigned pow2;
for (pow2 = 1; pow2 <= k; pow2 <<= 1) ;
return pow2 >> 1;
}
{ unsigned i, l, ind;
i = getMaxPower2(n);
l = m[i].key >= key ? 0 : n - i + 1;
while (i > 0) {
i = i >> 1;
ind = l + i;
if (m[ind].key == key)
return ind;
else if (m[ind].key < key)
l = ind;
}
return NOT_FOUND;
}
4 -
255
binsear2.c
.

.
:
{ unsigned i, l;
i = getMaxPower2(n);
l = m[i].key >= key ? 0 : n - i + 1;
while (i > 1) {
i = i >> 1;
if (m[l+i].key < key)
l += i;
}
return (l < MAX && m[++l].key == key ? l : NOT_FOUND);
}
binsear3.c
- . , ,
, n ,
.
, .
.
4,5 ( [Bentley-1986]).
, ,
,
.
:
{ unsigned l = 0;
if (m[512].key
< key) l = 1000-512+1;
if (m[l+256].key < key) l += 256;
if (m[l+128].key < key) l += 128;
if (m[l+ 64].key < key) l += 64;
if (m[l+ 32].key < key) l += 32;
if (m[l+ 16].key < key) l += 16;
if (m[l+ 8].key < key) l +=
8;
4;
2;
1;
return (l < 1000 && m[++l].key == key ? l : NOT_FOUND);
}
binsear4.c
, . , , . . , , , ,
. , .
, - (n+1)- ,
- .
4 -
256
n/2, - n (n
).
- , . , , .
, , .
, . , .
- , .
, ,
. , ,
, . . - , , , .
.
:
1. n 10, 100, 1000 ( 4.1.)?
2. .
4.4.
, , . -
,
. ,
, . ,
.

mid = (l + r) / 2;

mid = (l + r) >> 1;

, 2
, . . .
. ,
p : p
(
).
, ,
(
). .
, ( 1.2.2.):
F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn = Fn1 + Fn2, n 2
,
- .
, . , n-
, n = Fk 1. x m[Fk1].key.
. x < m[Fk1].key
4 -
257
1, 2, ..., Fk11. x > m[Fk1].key

Fk1+1, Fk1+2, ..., n = Fk . ,
Fk11, Fk21.
( [Horowitz-1977]).
(l 0 , Fk + l = n + 1 Fk+1 > n+1):
unsigned fib[MAX]; /* , n */
unsigned findFib(unsigned n)
{ unsigned k;
fib[0] = 0;
fib[1] = 1;
for (k = 2; ; k++)
if ((fib[k] = fib[k-1] + fib[k-2]) > n)
return k-1;
return 0;
}
unsigned fibSearch(int key)
{ int p,q,r,k;
k = findFib(n);
p = fib[k-1];
q = fib[k-2];
r = fib[k-3];
if (key > m[p].key)
p += n - fib[k] + 1;
while (p > 0)
if (key == m[p].key)
return p;
else
if (key < m[p].key)
if (0 == r)
p = 0;
else {
int t;
p -= r;
t = q;
q = r;
r = t-r;
}
else
if (1 == q)
p = 0;
else {
p += r;
q -= r;
r -= q;
}
return NOT_FOUND;
}
fibsear.c
? ,
. ,
n.
. , -
4 -
258
1, . . .
2.4., , -
, -
45%. , - , 45% -
( 4.3.), - .
:
.
4.5.
"" , ,
"" .
( 4.3.)?
-.
mid mid = (l+r)/2. :
mid = l + (r-l)/2
(*)
, , . ,
.
. (*), 1/2
. ? .
,
, .
X, X, . , :
mid = l + k*(r-l),
k = (x - m[l].key) / (m[r].key - m[l].key)
k, 1/2 . ,
k. , 0, ,
[l,r] . , , k
[0,1]. , mid
[l,r]. k [0,1] ,
.
? ! , k,
- . , - log2 (log2 n) + 1 ,
. ,
, log2 (log2 n) . log2 (log2 1000000000) < 5.
unsigned interpolSearch(int key)
{ unsigned l, r, mid;
float k;
4 -
259
l = 0; r = n - 1;
while (l <= r) {
if (m[r].key == m[l].key)
if (m[l].key == key)
return l;
else
return NOT_FOUND;
k = (float) (key - m[l].key) / (m[r].key - m[l].key);
if (k < 0 || k > 1)
return NOT_FOUND;
mid = (unsigned)(l + k*(r-l) + 0.5);
r = mid - 1;
l = mid + 1;
else
return mid;
}
return NOT_FOUND;
}
interpol.c
, . , (
) , - , .
, , (
!).
, k [0,1]. . ,
,
. , ,
: 2, .
. , ,
, . . 2 :
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10000
n log2 n log2 (log2 n) , ,

. , ,
, ,
.
:
.
4 -
260
4.6.
4.6.1.
4.1.
, (n+1)/2 (
4.1.).
4.2.

( 4.1.1.). ( 4.1.).
4.3.+
, .
4.1.2. .
4.4.

( 4.1.2.) ( 10.5.).
4.5.

( 4.1.2.). ( 4.1.).
4.6.
-, - :
) ( 4.1.)
) ( 4.1.1.)
) ( 4.1.2.)
4.7.
k l.
k l n ( 4.2.).
4.8.
, - n
n ( 4.2.).
4.9.
n ( 4.3.) 10, 100, 1000
- ( 4.1.)?
4.10.
,
4.3.
4.11.
( 4.3.)
( 4.4.).
4.12.
( 4.3.)
( 4.5.).
4 -
261
4.6.2.
4.13. .
, ,
, .
4.14. .
nm.
4.15. .
.
4.16. .
, k (k )
d. x
, |k x.key| d.
5

"There are two possible outcomes:
If the result confirms the hypothesis,
then you've made a measurement.
If the result is contrary to the hypothesis,
then you've made a discovery."
~ E. Fermi
5.1.
, . - .
.
,
. , .
5.1. (V, E), :
V = {v1, v2, ..., vn}
E = {e1, e2, ..., em} . ek

(k=1,2, ..., m) (vi, vj), vi,vjV, 1 i, j n.
f:ER, ek
f(ek ), . , ,
. ,
, a .
-,
(), , .
1
4
2
12
5
3
8
7
12
11
10
8
13
5.1. .
14
5.1. .
5.1. 14 13 . viV
. , ,
5 -
264
, V,
, V n .

, .
(i,j)E , i j. , : 13. . ,
, 5.1.
, , ( ).
5.2. (V, E), :
V = {v1, v2, ..., vn}
E = {e1, e2, ..., em} .

ek (k = 1,2, ..., m) (vi, vj), vi,vjV, 1 i, j n.
f(i,j),
(i,j)E, f(i,j) = f(j,i), .
1
2
\
2
5.1. .
5.1. ,
(i,j) .
G(V,E)
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5 -
266
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(i, j), iV' jV', , ,
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1
2
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2
2
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2
1
3
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2
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G'(V',E)
G(V,E)
5.1. V' = {1, 2, 3} G' G.

5.7. () G(V,E) v1, v2,..., vk , i = 1, 2, , k1 (vi, vi+1)E.
v1 vk . v1 = vk , . i j (1 i, j
k) vi vj, . , v1 = vk ,
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(i, j) ' E. G'
G. , , ( 5.1.).
(i, j)E i, jV, i j, .
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G'.
1
2
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2
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t- G. t, G t- G.
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5 -
267
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G' G''.
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k f(i,j) .
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1 A[j][i]).
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i j. , [i][j]
f(i, j), [][] .
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5 -
269
1 {2}; 2 {4,5}; 3 {2}; 4 {12}; 5 {7}; 6 {3,12}; 7 {6,10}; 8 {};

9 {}; 10 {11}; 11{6}; 12 {}; 13 {13}.
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i j, 0 .
5 -
270
5.2.6.
, , :
/ .
/ .
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/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
unsigned n;
/* */
int A[MAXN][MAXN];
/* i */
A[i][i] = k;
/* k, i j */
A[i][j] = k;
A[j][i] = k;
/* */
/* , i j */
A[i][j] = 0;
/* i j */
if (A[i][j] != 0) { /* */; } else { /* */; }
/* i */
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) if (k != i) {
if (A[i][k] != 0) { /* k i */ ; }
}
,
. , ,
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, , .
(1)
(log2n)
(log2m)
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5 -

271
(1)
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5.3.1.
1, :
BFS(1):
1: 1
2: 2
5 -
272
3: 3, 4, 5
4: 7, 6, 12
5: 10
6: 11
1 3 , BFS(3) :
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5: 11
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, , : ,
,
5 -
273
. ,
:
BFS(i)
{ ___Queue;
____i;
for (k = 1,2,,n) used[k] = 0;
used[i] = 1;
while (___) {
p = _____;
__p;
for ( j p)
if (0 == used[j]) { /* j */
____j;
used[j] = 1; /* j */
}
}
}
. , -, , 5.3.1.
n, a A[MAXN][MAXN] e .
v.
, -
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* v */
const unsigned v = 5;
/* */
const char A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0},
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1},
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0}
};
char used[MAXN];
/* */
void BFS(unsigned i)
{ unsigned k, j, p, queue[MAXN], currentVert, levelVertex, queueEnd;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) queue[k] = 0;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
queue[0] = i; used[i] = 1;
5 -
274
currentVert = 0; levelVertex = 1; queueEnd = 1;

while (currentVert < queueEnd) { /* */
for (p = currentVert; p < levelVertex; p++) {
/* p */
printf("%u ", queue[p]+1);
currentVert++;
/* j queue[p] */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[queue[p]][j] && !used[j]) {
queue[queueEnd++] = j;
used[j] = 1;
}
}
printf("\n");
levelVertex = queueEnd;
}
}
int main(void) {
printf(" %u: \n", v);
BFS(v-1);
return 0;
}
bfs.c
:
5:
5
2 7
1 3 4 6 10
12 11
:
1. .
, , ?
2. , ,
, ?
5.3.2.
( DFS . Depth-First-Search)
, - ,
( .
backtracking).
, -
. - : iV, , ..
i (DFS(i)) :
1)
2)
3)
i.
i .
i (i,j) , j ,
DFS(j).
5 -
275
DFS 5.3.1. ,
( 2),
- - . DFS(1) : 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 5,
10, 11, 12, 4, DFS(3): 3, 2, 1, 4, 12, 6, 7, 5, 10, 11.
, , -
( DFS(i)). used[]
: , i used[i] = 1.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* v */
const unsigned v = 5;
/* */
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
};
char used[MAXN];
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0}
/* */
void DFS(unsigned i)
{ unsigned k;
used[i] = 1;
printf("%u ", i+1);
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (A[i][k] && !used[k]) DFS(k);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned k;
for (k = 1; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
printf(" %u: \n", v);
DFS(v-1);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
dfs.c
5 -
276
:
5:
5 2 1 3 6 7 10 11 12 4
5.3.2.
( ).
.

DFS BFS
(n2)
(n + m)
(n.m)
5.3.2. .
, ( )
( 5.14.).
G(V, E) . T(V, D)
:
1) T , , .. D = .
2) G.
i j (i,j) D.
, :
( G , / "" ), ( ).
:
5.3.2.
5.4. ,
- , ,
. 1)
, , ( ),
. ,
( ) ,
(.. , -) .
, , ,
. , ,
( );
,
.. :
(
)
(
)
5 -
277

() ( , ,
). ,
.

, .
5.4.1.
- -
G(V, E) i j. G i
j, .
: BFS(i) , j, ,
, .
5.3.1. 1 10.
BFS(1) :
1: 1
2: 2
3: 3, 4, 5
4: 7, 6, 12
5: 10
j ( j = 10), , j, .
, ? ,
, ..
, .
pred[]:
. i, pred[i] 1. pred[k]
, k:
i
k
pred[k] = k
5.4.1. .
, i j, :
while (j != i) {
(j);
j = pred[j];
}
(j);
(.. j i). , ,
. ,
, .
5 -
278
- ( -
printPath). (n+m). :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 200 /* */
/* */
const unsigned sv = 1; /* */
const unsigned ev = 10; /* */
/* */
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
};
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0}
int pred[MAXN];
char used[MAXN];
/* O */
void BFS(unsigned i)
{ unsigned queue[MAXN];
unsigned currentVert, levelVertex, queueEnd, k, p, j;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) queue[k] = 0;
queue[0] = i; used[i] = 1;
currentVert = 0; levelVertex = 1; queueEnd = 1;
while (currentVert < queueEnd) { /* */
for (p = currentVert; p < levelVertex; p++) {
/* p - */
currentVert++;
/* j queue[p] */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[queue[p]][j] && !used[j]) {
queue[queueEnd++] = j;
used[j] = 1;
pred[j] = queue[p];
}
}
levelVertex = queueEnd;
}
}
/* */
unsigned printPath(unsigned j)
5 -
279
{ unsigned count = 1;
if (pred[j] > -1) count += printPath(pred[j]);
printf("%u ", j + 1); /* O */
return count;
}
void solve(unsigned start, unsigned end)
{ unsigned k;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) { used[k] = 0; pred[k] = -1; }
BFS(start);
if (pred[end] > -1) {
printf(" : \n");
printf("\n %u.\n", printPath(end));
}
else
printf(" ! \n");
}
int main(void) {
solve(sv-1, ev-1);
return 0;
}
bfsminw.c
:
:
1 2 5 7 10
5.
:
BFS() ,
ev.
-

e . : . , i , i,
, .
DFS() (
int parent , ).
i , , parent,
. used[],
DFS(i,1) i, .
-1 parent ,
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* */
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0},
5 -
{1,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
{0,
};
0,
1,
1,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
280
0,
0,
0,
1,
1,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0}
char used[MAXN], cycl;

/* Depth-First-Search */
void DFS(unsigned i, int parent)
{ unsigned k;
used[i] = 1;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
if (cycl) return;
if (A[i][k]) {
if (used[k] && k != parent) {
printf(" ! \n");
cycl = 1;
return;
}
else if (k != parent)
DFS(k, i);
}
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned k, i;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
cycl = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (!used[i]) DFS(i, -1);
if (cycl) break;
}
if (0 == cycl) printf(" ( )!\n");
return 0;
}
formcycl.c
:
!
(n+m), ,
, (n2).
:
1. ?
5 -
281
2. ?
?
-
. DFS
5.3.2., , , ,
, - .
- , .
,
.
i j, (
6). T ,
, a. ,
, .. . ,
, ,
, ( , ""
).

, i, i j,
( j). ,
,
.
DFS(k) k,
i, .
:
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if ([i][k] && !used[k]) allDFS(k, j);
, used[i] = 0
, DFS .
5.3.1. : 2
: 1, 4, 3, 5. 1 . for, 3 DFS(3). 3, DFS(3)
used[3] = 0. -, 4
5, 3.
DFS 3 used[3] = 1,
.
path[], .
, - j, .
allDFS(i,j). : , i, , j.
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
5 -
282
const unsigned sv = 1; /* */
const unsigned ev = 10; /* */
/* */
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
{0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0,
};
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0},
0},
0},
1},
0}
char used[MAXN];
unsigned path[MAXN], count;
void printPath(void)
{ unsigned k;
for (k = 0; k <= count; k++)
printf("%u ", path[k] + 1);
printf("\n");
}
/* i j */
void allDFS(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ unsigned k;
if (i == j) {
path[count] = j;
printPath();
return;
}
/* */
used[i] = 1;
path[count++] = i;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) /* i */
if (A[i][k] && !used[k]) allDFS(k, j);
/* : */
used[i] = 0; count--;
}
int main(void) {
unsigned k;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
count = 0;
printf(" %u %u: \n", sv, ev);
allDFS(sv-1, ev-1);
return 0;
}
btdfs.c
:
5 -
283
1 10:
1 2 3 6 7 10
1 2 4 12 6 7 10
1 2 5 7 10
:
(BFS). ? ?
5.4.2.
5.15. G(V, E) . G
.

. 5.4.1.
.
, ,
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p = (v1, v2, ..., vk ) v1 vk . , 1 i < j k p' = (vi, vi+1, ..., vj) vi vj.
v1
vi
vj
vk
5.4.2. .

( ).
5 -
284
- , . , ( , ),
.
- .
:
.
-
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. d(i,j) i j. ,
i, j, k :
d(i,k) + d(k,j) d(i,j)
d(i,j) + d(j,k) d(i,k)
d(k,i) + d(i,j) d(k,j)
d(j,k) + d(k,i) d(j,i)
d(k,j) + d(j,i) d(k,i)
d(j,i) + d(i,k) d(j,k)
d(x,y) = d(y,x) x,y . ( ) , , .
:

.
- -
G(V, E) - s
. , A[i][j]
G. , (i, j), A[i][j]
+ ( ,
, A).
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1)
D[], , D[i]
s i . D[i] = A[s][i],
iV.
2)
D[i], iV - :
jV, D[i] > D[j] + A[j][i], D[i] = D[j] + A[j][i].
5 -
3)
285
2) n2 , D[]
.
for (k = 1; k <= n - 2; k++) /* (n-2) */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (D[i] > D[j] + A[j][i])
D[i] = D[j] + A[j][i];
belman.c
(n3), 2) (n2)
n2 . ,
, D[j] + A[j][i] ( D[j]
A[j][i] ).
- :
, . , ,
( -). - ,
: ,
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(?).
:
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2. - n-2 , n
n1?
3. , -
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.
4. , : ,
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-
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). , A[i][j] (i, j),
[][], A[i][j]
i j.
: i, jV, A[i][j] A[i][j] [i][k]+A[k][j], kV. k,
, -
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k, i j.
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5 -
286
MAXINT/2, MAXINT int

( MAXINT
<values.h>).
23
34
25
10
30
9
5.4.2. .
.
, 5.4.2. ( , , -,
).
0 (
- ). - ( floyd())
MAX_VALUE.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
#define MAX_VALUE 10000
/* */
/*
const unsigned A[MAXN][MAXN] =
{ 0, 23, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{23, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 34,
{ 0, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 3, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 0, 0,
{ 0, 34, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 8, 0, 25, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0,
};
*/
{
8,
0,
25,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
30,
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 7 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 30 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 }
/* */
void floyd(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
/* 0 MAX_VALUE */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (0 == A[i][j]) A[i][j] = MAX_VALUE;
/* */
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] > (A[i][k] + A[k][j]))
A[i][j] = A[i][k] + A[k][j];
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) A[i][i] = 0;
5 -
287
}
void printMinPaths(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
printf(" :\n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
printf("%3d ", (MAX_VALUE == A[i][j]) ? 0 : A[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}
int main(void) {
floyd();
printMinPaths();
return 0;
}
floyd.c
:
:
0 23 32 26
0
0 57
8
0 38
23
0
9
3
0
0 34 31
0 16
32
9
0
6
0
0 43 25
0
7
26
3
6
0
0
0 37 31
0 13
0
0
0
0
0 10
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 10
0
0
0
0
0
57 34 43 37
0
0
0 65
0 50
8 31 25 31
0
0 65
0
0 30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
38 16
7 13
0
0 50 30
0
0
, : k -. , -
1, , 1 2, 1, 2 3
.. , i j , .. k, i,
j k, j, i . .
(, , .. ):
const n = 4;
int A[n][n] =
{//
A
B
{ 0, 0,
{ 0, 0,
{ 0, 1,
{ 0, 0,
};
C
6,
0,
0,
2,
D
2},
0},
0},
0}
//
//
//
//
A
B
C
D
, :
0
0
0
0
5
0
1
3
4
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
i, k, j :
5 -
0
0
0
0
7
0
1
3
4
0
0
2
288
2
0
0
0
- A B e (A, D, C, B) 5,
(A, C, B) 7.
.
: ,
-, . .
:
1. (i,j) .
2. (i,j) .
-

:
(k)(i,j) = F { (k1)(i,j), (k1) (i,k) (k1)(k,j) }, (1)(i,j) = f(i,j).

(k) e , , k
, , , , () . , n :
(1)(i,j) , (k)(i,j) . ,
. F
, .
, , F ,
: (n3).
. . , F .
A[][] k-
(k)(i,j). A[][]
(.. A[][] ). F (i,j) ,
[i][j] 0. [i][i] +
(MAX_VALUE). , F (i,j) ,
MAX_VALUE, [i][i] 0.
[i][i] == MAX_VALUE A[i][i] == 0 -
:
if ((i != j)&&(i != k)&&(k != j)) {...}

A[i][i].
5 -
289
1.
, ,
f(i,j) i j ( 0 1). , , . -
. :
(k)(i, j) = max((k1)(i, j), (k1)(i, k). (k1)(k, j) )

A[][], , 0, . () ,
, . - , F
.
2. -
, ,
f(i,j) . s t . ,
. :
(k)(i,j) = max((k1)(i,j), min((k1)(i,k), (k1)(k,j) ),

A[][] 0, . () - , . - , F .
3. t
t
, .
, : (k)(i,j) ,
, . , F
: (x1, x2, ..., xt) (y1, y2, ..., yt) ,
- t , : ,
t x1+ y1, x1+ y2, ..., x1+ yt, x2+y1, x2+y2,..., x2+yt, ..., + xt+y1,
xt+y2,..., xt+yt.
( ), :
, (
) .
, s,
, - .
:
1. ( 1).
2. ( 2).
3. p ( 3).
5 -
290
-
-
.
G(V, E) n . , f(i,j) ( ). sV .
(s,i) s i. -,
: (s,i),
(s,j) + f(j,i), j, j i. , i d[i],
(s, i). , d[i] (s, i):

1) d[] :
d[i] = A[s][i] iV s.
d[i] = MAX_VALUE, i, s.
d[i] == MAX_VALUE .... s i .
2) , , s:
T = V\{s}
3) T i, d[i] < MAX_VALUE:
3.1) j , d[j] .
3.2) j T : T = T \{j}
3.3) iT d[i] = min(d[i], d[j] + A[j][i]);
, ( ),
pred[]. i- pred[]
j, (s, j) + f(j, i) :
if (d[i] > d[j] + A[j][i]) {
d[i] = d[j] + A[j][i];
pred[i] = j;
}
, , -
:
void printPath(unsigned s, unsigned j) {
if (pred[j] != s)
printPath(s, pred[j]);
printf("%d ", j); /* */
}

5.4.1. , ,
.
, -,
5.4.2.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
5 -
291

#define NO_PARENT (unsigned)(-1)
/* */
const unsigned s = 1;
/*
const unsigned A[MAXN][MAXN] =
{ 0, 23, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{23, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 34,
{ 0, 0, 0, 6, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 3, 6, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 10, 0, 0,
{ 0, 34, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 8, 0, 25, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 7, 0, 0, 0, 0,
};
*/
{
8,
0,
25,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
30,
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 7 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 },
0, 30 },
0, 0 },
0, 0 }
char T[MAXN];
unsigned d[MAXN];
int pred[MAXN];
/* - s */
void dijkstra(unsigned s)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) /* : d[i]=A[s][i], iV, i != s */
if (0 == A[s][i]) {
d[i] = MAX_VALUE;
pred[i] = NO_PARENT;
}
else {
d[i] = A[s][i];
pred[i] = s;
}
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) T[i] = 1; /* T */
T[s] = 0;
pred[s] = NO_PARENT;
/* , s */
while (1) {
/* T i: d[i] < MAX_VALUE */
/* j T, d[j] */
unsigned j = NO_PARENT;
unsigned di = MAX_VALUE;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (T[i] && d[i] < di) {
di = d[i];
j = i;
}
if (NO_PARENT == j) break; /* d[i] = MAX_VALUE, i: */
T[j] = 0;
/* j T */
/* i T D[i] = min (d[i], d[j]+A[j][i]) */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (T[i] && A[j][i] != 0)
if (d[i] > d[j] + A[j][i]) {
d[i] = d[j] + A[j][i];
pred[i] = j;
5 -
292
}
}
}
void printPath(unsigned s, unsigned j)
{ if (pred[j] != s) printPath(s, pred[j]);
printf("%u ", j+1);
}
/* */
void printResult(unsigned s)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (i != s) {
if (d[i] == MAX_VALUE)
printf(" %u %u\n", s+1, i+1);
else {
printf(" %u %u: %u ", s+1, i+1, s+1);
printPath(s, i);
printf(", : %u\n", d[i]);
}
}
}
}
int main(void) {
dijkstra(s-1);
printResult(s-1);
}
dijkstra.c
:
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2:
3:
4:
5
6
7:
8:
9
10:
1 2 , : 23
1 2 4 3 , : 32
1 2 4 , : 26
1 2 7 , : 57
1 8 , : 8
1 8 10 , : 38
(n2). -
(, 3.1.9., [Cormen, Leiserson,
Rivest-1997]) (n.log2n).
: ,
. , (
5.4.2.).
2
B
A
3
3
2
C
5.4.2. .
5 -
293
B C, :
1) d[A] = 0, d[B] = f(A,B) = 2, d[C] = f(A,C)=3.
2) T = {A,B,C}\{A} = {B,C}.
3) iT, d[i] , B:
B T. T ( T C)
: d[C] = min(d[C], d[B] + f(B,C)) = min(3, 2+3) = 3.
T C, C T
.
d[A] = 0, d[B] = 2, d[C] = 3. , - B
2, 1 ( A-C-B, 3+(2) = 1).
:
1. - .
2.
d[], pred[]?
-
k
k .
G(V, E) A[][]. A' e , A'[i][j]
k i j. A" = A'.A
A"[i][j] k+1 .
:
A"[i][j] =
A'[i][t].A[t][j]
t 1
A'[i][t] k i t,
k+1 i j A'[i][t] , (t, j) (
A[t][j] == 1).
. G(V, E) . A k, C[i][j] = Ak[i][j] k, i j. C[i][j] = 0, , i j k.
( ),
1, "" .
, "": , . (,
,
). ,
, , ,
.
a :
.
-
G(V, E) A[][].
[][], :
[i][j] == 1, , (
) i j.
[i][j] == 0, .
5 -
294
[][], . G(V, E),

[][] ( [][] )
G ( 5.5.1.).
(n3) :
k, i, jV, (i, k) (k, j),
(i, j) ( 5.4.2.).
i

j
k
5.4.2. .

:
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (A[i][k])
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[k][j]) A[i][j] = 1;
}
, A[][]
[][]. (?)
. :
.
:
1. .
2. , .
- -
, -
. ,
. ,
, (
, 8)
-.
.
: ,
.
: . ,
. , ,
. ( , ), . , .
,
, ,
5 -
295
. .
- ( 8).
:
G(V, E) A[N][N] G.
1) maxDist[],
, .. maxDist[i] i.
maxDist[] .
savePath[] - , 1.
2) iV, .
, ( !).
k :
maxDist[k] = max { maxDist[k], maxDist[i] + A[k][i] }
3)
2), .
maxDist[i], i=1,2,n .
(n+m),
(n2). . 5.4.2.
, maxDist[].
:
- .
. DFS(i),
j i.
maxDist[j]+A[j][i], j i , DFS,
maxDist[i]. DFS(i) , maxDist[i]
, .. maxDist[i] == 0 ( ).
DFS .
, ,
savePath[] i j,
maxDist[i]+A[i][j].
12
40
3
17
20
30
4
20
5
1. maxDist[i]=0, i.
2. 3 =>
maxDist[6] = max{ maxDist[6], maxDist[3]+20} = max{0, 20} =20;
, maxDist[2] = 40
3. 6 => maxDist[5] = 40;
4. 5 =>
maxDist[4] = 70, maxDist[2] = max{ 40, 40+17} = 57
5. 4
6. 2 => maxDist[1] = 69
7. 1
- : 70 (maxDist[4])
5 -
296
5.4.2. .
. A[][]
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* */
const unsigned A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 12, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 40, 0, 17, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 30, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 20 },
{ 0, 0, 20, 0, 0, 0 }
};
int savePath[MAXN], maxDist[MAXN];
{ int max, d;
unsigned j;
if (maxDist[i] > 0) return;
max = maxDist[i];
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j]) {
DFS(j);
d = maxDist[j] + A[i][j];
if (d > max) {
max = d;
savePath[i] = j;
}
}
maxDist[i] = max;
}
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, maxi;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
maxDist[i] = 0;
savePath[i] = -1;
}
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (maxDist[i] == 0) DFS(i);
maxi = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (maxDist[i] > maxDist[maxi])
maxi = i;
5 -
297
printf(" %d\n : ", maxDist[maxi]);

while (savePath[maxi] >= 0) {
printf("%u ", maxi + 1);
maxi = savePath[maxi];
}
printf("%d\n", maxi + 1);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
return 0;
}
longpath.c
:
70
: 4 5 6 3
:
1. , :

2. ,
, .
- -
, - NP-
, 6.3.3. .
:
1. i j, - i j.
2. , -
? ? ?
.
5.4.3.
5.4.2. .
-
G(V, E) n m . D(V, T) G. D , T,
. , G D.
D q = n1 . G, D,
mn+1. T
, mn+1.
5 -
298
, , G ""
, . , 5.4.3. ( - )
A = (1, 2, 3), B = (4, 5, 6) C = (2, 3, 4, 6).
() A, B C, (
/ !).
( )
. , A C, (1, 2, 4, 6, 3).
1
5.4.3. .
,
DFS.
, - ,
,
, - DFS2().
(m.(m+n)).
, -, [][],
[i][j] i j. , ,
[i][j] == 2, .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* , : 0 - ; 1 ;
* - 2 .
*/
char A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0 }
};
char used[MAXN];
unsigned cycle[MAXN], d;
/* */
void DFS(unsigned v)
{ unsigned i;
used[v] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i] && A[v][i]) {
5 -
299
A[v][i] = 2;
A[i][v] = 2;
DFS(i);
}
}
/* */
void printCycle(void)
{ unsigned k;
for (k = 0; k < d; k++)
printf("%u ", cycle[k] + 1);
printf("\n");
}
/* */
void DFS2(unsigned v, unsigned u)
{ unsigned i;
if (v == u) { printCycle(); return; }
used[v] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i] && 2==A[v][i]) {
cycle[d++] = i;
DFS2(i, u);
d--;
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j, k;
DFS(0);
printf(" : \n");
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
if (1 == A[i][j]) {
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
d = 1;
cycle[0] = i;
DFS2(i, j);
}
return 0;
}
allcyc.c
:
:
1 2 3
2 3 6 4
5 4 6
:
1. (/ ) ?
2. (/ ) ? ?
3. - (m.(m+n)), , (n4).
? ,
5 -
300
(m+n), h ,
.. ((m+n).h). ,
- , ..
((m+n).n).
,
((m+n).h)?
, ? , h O(log2n)?
-
: G(V, E) iV. (
), i,
.
: jV (i,j) i j (j, i)
j i. Sk = (i, k) + (k, i), kV. Sk
, .
, . ,
,
. , :

. ( ) 5.5.

, k ( 5.93.).
"" , k = n, .
:
1. .
2. . , , .
5.4.4. .
5.16. () ,
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int A[n][n] =
{
// A B C
{ 0, 1, 2,
{ -2, 0, 1,
{ 0, 0, 0,
{ 1, 2, 0,
};
D
0},
0},
1},
0}
//
//
//
//
A
B
C
D

(A,B,C,D,A) 1+1+1+1 = 4,
(A,C,D,B,A) 2+1+2 = 5. 5 > 4, 4
, , ,
(,) 2, 3, 3 < 4.
A[][],
. ,
, 5.4.4.
5
6
7
3
7
4
3
5.4.4. .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* */
const int A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 5, 0, 0, 7, 7 },
{ 5, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 5, 0, 6, 5, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 6, 0, 3, 3 },
{ 7, 0, 5, 3, 0, 5 },
{ 7, 0, 0, 3, 5, 0 }
};
5 -
302
char used[MAXN];
unsigned minCycle[MAXN], cycle[MAXN];
int curSum, minSum;
void printCycle(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf(" : 1");
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++) printf(" %u", minCycle[i] + 1);
printf(" 1, %d\n", minSum);
}
/* */
void hamilton(unsigned i, unsigned level)
{ unsigned k;
if ((0 == i) && (level > 0)) {
if (level == n) {
minSum = curSum;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) minCycle[k] = cycle[k];
}
return;
}
if (used[i]) return;
used[i] = 1;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (A[i][k] && k != i) {
cycle[level] = k;
curSum += A[i][k];
if (curSum < minSum) /* */
hamilton(k, level + 1);
curSum -= A[i][k];
}
used[i] = 0;
}
int main(void) {
unsigned k;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) used[k] = 0;
minSum = MAX_VALUE;
curSum = 0;
cycle[0] = 1;
hamilton(0, 0);
printCycle();
return 0;
}
tsp.c
:
: 1 2 3 5 4 6 1, 28.
:
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(1,2), (2,3), (3,4), (4,2), (2,5), (5,3), (3,5), (5,6), (6,3), (3,7), (7,8), (8,1).

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305
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___i__stack;
while (stack___) {
__i____stack____;
if (i__) {
___j__i;
_j__stack;
A[j][i] = 0; A[i][j] = 0; /* */
} else {
_i__stack;
_i__cStack;
}
}
. 5.4.5.
#include <stdio.h>
/*
#define MAXN 100
/* */
/*
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
};
*/
*/
},
},
},
},
},
},
},
}
/* ( ) */
char isEulerGraph(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
int din = 0, dout = 0;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
if (A[i][j]) din++;
if (A[j][i]) dout++;
}
if (din != dout) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
/* */
void findEuler(int i)
{ unsigned cStack[MAXN * MAXN], stack[MAXN * MAXN];
unsigned k, j, cTop = 0, sTop = 1;
stack[sTop] = i;
while (sTop > 0) {
i = stack[sTop];
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
5 -
306
if (A[i][j]) {
A[i][j] = 0; i = j;
break;
}
if (j < n)
stack[++sTop] = i;
else
cStack[++cTop] = stack[sTop--];
}
printf(" : ");
for (k = cTop; k > 0; k--) {
printf("%u ", cStack[k] + 1);
}
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
if (isEulerGraph()) findEuler(0);
else
printf(" !");
return 0;
}
euler.c
:
: 1 2 3 4 2 5 3 5 6 3 7 8 1
:
1. .
2. .
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5.4.6.
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s t, vi, vi+1 (i = 0,1,..., k1) c(vi, vi+1) > 0.
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p min c(vi , vi 1 )
i 0,...,k 1
f(vi,vi+1) = f(vi,vi+1) + p, i = 0,1,...,k1

f(vi+1,vi) = f(vi+1,vi) p, i = 0,1,...,k1
( )
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c(vi,vi+1) = c(vi,vi+1) p, i = 0,1,...,k1
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5.4.6., s = 1 t = 6.
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Leiserson, Rivest-1997]:
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5.4.6. .
- , A[][], F[][].
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 100
const unsigned n = 10; /* */
const unsigned s = 1; /* - */
const unsigned t = 6; /* - */
/* */
int A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 5, 5, 10, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 4, 0, 0, 5 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 7, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 7 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 8 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
int F[MAXN][MAXN];
5 -
unsigned path[MAXN];
char used[MAXN], found;
void updateFlow(unsigned pl)
{ int incFlow = MAX_VALUE;
unsigned i;
printf(" : ");
for (i = 0; i < pl; i++) {
unsigned p1 = path[i];
unsigned p2 = path[i + 1];
printf("%u, ", p1+1);
if (incFlow > A[p1][p2]) incFlow = A[p1][p2];
}
printf("%u \n", path[pl]+1);
for (i = 0; i < pl; i++) {
unsigned p1 = path[i];
unsigned p2 = path[i + 1];
F[p1][p2] += incFlow;
F[p2][p1] -= incFlow;
A[p1][p2] -= incFlow;
A[p2][p1] += incFlow;
}
}
void DFS(unsigned i, unsigned level)
{ unsigned k;
if (found) return;
if (i == t-1) {
found = 1;
updateFlow(level - 1);
}
else
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (!used[k] && A[i][k] > 0) {
used[k] = 1;
path[level] = k;
DFS(k, level + 1);
if (found) return;
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j;
int flow;
/* 1) */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) F[i][j] = 0;
/* 2) , */
do {
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
found = 0;
used[s-1] = 1;
path[0] = s-1;
DFS(s-1, 1);
} while (found);
/* */
310
5 -
311
printf(" : \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) printf("%4d", F[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
printf("\n");
flow = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) flow += F[i][t-1];
printf(" : %d\n", flow);
return 0;
}
fordfulk.c
:
: 1, 2,
: 1, 2,
: 1, 3,
: 1, 3,
: 1, 4,
:
0
5
5
7
0
0
0
-5
0
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0
0
0
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5
0
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0
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0
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0
0
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0
0
0
0
0
0
0
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0
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3, 5, 6
6
2, 6
5, 6
6
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0
0
0
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0
0
0
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0
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0
0
0
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: 17
, , - ,
.
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:
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s , t .
, :
(s, si), c(s, si) = +, i = 1, 2, , p.

(tj, t), c(tj, t) = +, j = 1, 2, , q.
5 -
312
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(?)
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for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (A[i][k])
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[k][j])
A[i][j] = 1;
. () (i, j, k) for , -,
[Brassard,Bratley1996].
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314
5.5.2.
5.19. G(V,E). (i,j) E, ..
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5.20. G(V,E),
i,j,kV : (i,k) (k,j), , (i,j). G
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5.21. G(V,E) ,
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R2. ij, ik, j k, ik: ik.
.
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2.1). (j,k)
a.( R1) i k jk, (j,k) jk
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2.2). (i,k)
a.( R2) j k ik, (i,k) ik.
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.
3) . ,
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5.5.2.
1)
5 -
315
5.5.2. .
, -, A[][].
(i,j) , A[i][j] == 1 A[j][i] == 1.
0. ij ij,
A[i][j] = 2 A[j][i] = -2. 3)
, ,

. : A[i][j] == 2 (
A[j][i] == -2) A[i][j] = -3 A[j][i] = -4.
(i, j) if (A[i][j] > 0).
:
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* */
int A[MAXN][MAXN] =
{
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 },
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 }
};
/* //
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 1},
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0},
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0},
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1},
{ 1, 0, 0, 1, 0}};
*/
char trOrient(void)
{ /* */
unsigned i, j, k, r, tr = 0;
char flag;
5 -
316
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)

for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j]) tr++;
r = 0;
do {
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { /* 1 (i,j) */
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (1 == A[i][j]) {
A[i][j] = 2;
A[j][i] = -2;
break;
}
if (j<n) break;
}
/* 1) 2), */
do {
flag = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
if (2 == A[i][j]) {
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
if (i != k && j != k) {
if (0 == A[i][k] || A[i][k] < -2) { /*
/* a) ->
if (2 == A[j][k]) return 1;
/* b) -> (j,k) */
if (1 == A[j][k])
{ A[k][j] = 2; A[j][k] = -2; flag = 1; }
}
if (0 == A[j][k] || A[j][k] < -2) { /*
/* a) ->
if (2 == A[k][i]) return 1;
/* b) -> (i,k) */
if (1 == A[i][k]) {
A[i][k] = 2;
A[k][i] = -2;
flag = 1;
}
}
}
}
}
}
}
} while (flag);
2.1) */
*/
2.2) */
*/
/* 3 */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (2 == A[i][j]) {
A[i][j] = -3; A[j][i] = -4; r++;
}
} while (r < tr);
/* , */
return 0;
}
5 -
317
void printGraph(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
printf(" : \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (-3 == A[i][j]) printf(" 1");
else (-4 == A[i][j]) ? printf(" -1") : printf("
printf("\n");
}
}
int main(void) {
if (trOrient())
printf(" ! \n");
else
printGraph();
return 0;
}
0");
trans-or.c
:
:
0 1 0 0 0 1
-1 0 -1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 -1 0 -1 0
0 0 0 1 0 1
-1 0 0 0 -1 0
:
, , .
5.5.3.
5.22. G(V, E) W.
G'(V,E'), E'E, , W,
G.
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
3
1
1
1
0
0
0
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
1
1
1
5.5.3. .
, 5.5.3. ()
, , .

G(V,E) W.

A[][] , W[][].
A[][], (
5 -
318
A[][]
).
k = 1, 2, ..., n i j, :
(i, k), .. A[i][k] == 1.

k j, .. W[k][j] == 1.
(i, j) (A[i][j] == 1),
, .
, k -:
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (A[i][k])
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] && W[k][j]) A[i][j] = 0;
:
, E'E , .. ( )
?
?
5.5.4.
: G(V,E)
0 100. , i j, (i,j), f(i,j) > 50 v1, v2,..., vk , i, (v1,j),
(v2,j),..., (vk ,j) f(v1, j) + f(v2, j) + ... + f(vk , j) > 50. m
m .
, ,
(i, j) , i j.
5.5.4.: 1
2, 4 5.
10
6
10
25
20
55
31
20
6
2
45
5.5.4. .
. control[], i
. i
. , , i, ,
, control[]. , -
5 -
319
i, , control[] 50.
(n3).
#include <stdio.h>
/* ( ) */
#define MAXN 150
/* ( ) */
const unsigned m = 1;
/* T 1 */
/* */
const unsigned A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 6, 10, 20, 55, 20 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 25 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 10 },
{ 0, 45, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 31, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
unsigned control[MAXN];
char used[MAXN];
void addControls(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
/* i , m */
if (control[i] > 50 && !used[i]) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) control[j] += A[i][j];
used[i] = 1;
}
}
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
control[i] = 0;
used[i] = 0;
}
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) control[i] = A[m-1][i];
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) addControls();
}
void printResult(void) {
unsigned i;
printf(" %u : \n", m);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (control[i] > 50) printf("%u: %3u% \n", i, control[i]);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
solve();
printResult();
}
company.c
5 -
320
:
1 :
1: 53%
3: 51%
4: 55%
:
, - (n3)?
5.5.5.
5.23. To G(V, E)
Z , : i,
jV, i j, i j Z.
, Z .
5.24. Z, Z .
5.25. G(V,E).
Z, G, .... G .
1: :
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q
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{ unsigned k;
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}
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i. ,
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main DFS(i) i,
. , used[],
. :
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
5 -
322
/* */
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 }
};
char used[MAXN];
/* DFS */
{ unsigned k;
used[i] = 1;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
printf("%u ", i + 1);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
printf(" ( ): \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i]) DFS(i);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
topsort.c
:
( ):
4 3 5 2 1
:
1. 5.25.
2. , 2 1 , .
5.5.6.
1
5.5.6. .
5.5.6. G
Z=(1, 2, 7, 3, 4, 6, 5, 8) Z=(6, 1, 2, 5, 7, 3, 8, 4).
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5 -
323
1 5.5.5.
, , . . Z, . ,
,
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fullTopSort().
fullTopSort() .
. ,
Z n , .
:
fullTopSort(count) {
if (count == n) {
____=>__;
return;
}
for ( Vi _)
_Vi__;
fullTopSort(count + 1); /* */
_Vi__;
}
}
:
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
char used[MAXN];
unsigned topsort[MAXN], total = 0;
void printSort(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf(" %u: ", ++total);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%u ", topsort[i] + 1);
printf("\n");
}
void fullTopSort(unsigned count)
{ unsigned i, j, k, saved[MAXN];
if (count == n) { printSort(); return; }
5 -
324
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (!used[i]) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[j][i]) break;
if (j == n) {
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
saved[k] = A[i][k]; A[i][k] = 0;
}
used[i] = 1;
topsort[count] = i;
fullTopSort(count + 1); /* */
used[i] = 0;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) A[i][k] = saved[k];
}
}
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
fullTopSort(0);
return 0;
}
topsortf.c
:
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
1
1
1
1
1
49:
50:
51:
52:
53:
54:
55:
56:
2
2
2
2
2
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
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EE
Z, G.
, , G, Z G.
5 -
325
:
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:
A :
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Z = (vi1, vi2,,vin).
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2) , , . . 2), .
(n+m).
.
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
5 -
327
#define MAXN 200

/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0 }
};
char used[MAXN];
/* DFS */
{ unsigned k;
used[i] = 1;
printf("%u ", i + 1);
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, comp;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
printf("\n : \n");
comp = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i]) {
comp++;
printf("{ ");
DFS(i);
printf("}\n");
}
if (1 == comp)
printf(" .\n");
else
printf(" : %d \n", comp);
return 0;
}
strcon1.c
:
{ 1 2 3 }
{ 4 5 6 }
: 2
:

.
5 -
328
5.6.2.
5.10.: G(V,E) ,
i j, j i, o i j, i, jV.
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G).
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1
1) iV.
2) DFS(i) R, i.
3) G'(V,E'): , .. (j,k)E' .... (k,j)E.
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Q, i G' ( i G).
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postnum) , DFS(i),
:
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:
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postnum, -.
2) G'(V,E'), G: ,
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w, postnum[w] - . ,
, . ,
,
postnum -. , .
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2) .
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(backDFS), G , ,
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#include <stdio.h>
const N = 10; /* */
5 -
int
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
{
};
A[N][N] = {
0, 1, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 1,
1, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
329
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
1,
0,
0,
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
},
},
},
},
},
},
},
},
},
}
int used[N];
int postnum[N], count = 0;
/* */
void DFS(int i)
{ int j;
used[i] = 1;
for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
if (!used[j] && A[i][j]) DFS(j);
postnum[i] = count++;
}
/* G */
void backDFS(int i)
{ int j;
printf("%d ", i + 1);
count++;
used[i] = 1;
for (j = 0; j < N; j++)
if (!used[j] && A[j][i]) {
backDFS(j);
}
}
/* */
void strongComponents(void)
{ int i;
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) used[i] = 0;
while (count < N - 1) {
for (i = 0; i < N; i++)
if (!used[i]) DFS(i);
}
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) used[i] = 0;
count = 0;
while (count < N - 1) {
int max = -1, maxv = -1;
for (i = 0; i < N; i++)
if (!used[i] && postnum[i] > max) {
max = postnum[i];
maxv = i;
}
printf("{ ");
backDFS(maxv);
printf("}\n");
}
}
5 -
330
int main(void) {
printf(" :\n");
strongComponents();
}
strconn.c
:
:
{ 1 3 2 6 5 4 }
{ 7 10 9 8 }
:
1. , 1 (n . (n + m)).
: , -
m = n.(n1)/2 . n, (m + n).
2.
? ,
, ,
. ?
5.6.3. .
5.26. .
, ( , )
.
5.27. ,
. , .
5.6.3. 2, 4 6. , 6, : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} {7}.
1
5.6.3. .
, (n.(m+n)): . , , .
, -.
1. kV , i j (i, jV), k.
5 -
331
2. G(V, E) , T(V, D)
G, . kV
, i, jV , :
1) (k, i)D
2) j k
3) j i T
4) lowest[i] prenum[k], :
prenum[k] , k, prenum
(.. ,
)
lowest[i] :
) prenum[i]
) prenum[w] w , (i, w)E (i, w)D.
) lowest[w] w i D.
2, a :
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2)
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3.2) i, T, , i x, lowest[x] prenum[i].
, ,
(n+m). (?) (n2).
-
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T, +2
[][].
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 }
};
unsigned prenum[MAXN], lowest[MAXN], cN;
unsigned min(unsigned a, unsigned b) { return (a < b) ? a : b; }
5 -
{ unsigned j;
prenum[i] = ++cN;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] && !prenum[j]) {
A[i][j] = 2; /* T */
DFS(j);
}
}
/* postorder */
void postOrder(unsigned i)
{ unsigned j;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (2 == A[i][j]) postOrder(j);
lowest[i] = prenum[i];
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (1 == A[i][j]) lowest[i] = min(lowest[i], prenum[j]);
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (2 == A[i][j]) lowest[i] = min(lowest[i], lowest[j]);
}
void findArticPoints(void)
{ unsigned artPoints[MAXN], i, j, count;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
prenum[i] = 0; lowest[i] = 0; artPoints[i] = 0;
}
cN = 0;
DFS(0);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (0 == prenum[i]) {
printf(" - \n");
return;
}
postOrder(0);
/* 3.1) */
count = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (2 == A[0][i]) count++;
if (count > 1) artPoints[0] = 1;
/* 3.2) */
for (i = 1; i < n; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (2 == A[i][j] && lowest[j] >= prenum[i]) break;
if (j < n) artPoints[i] = 1;
}
printf(" :\n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (artPoints[i]) printf("%u ", i + 1);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
findArticPoints();
return 0;
}
artic.c
332
5 -
333
:
:
2 4 6
:
1 2.
5.6.4. k-
5.28. k- ,
k1 a.
5.29. k- ,
k1 .
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k, G k- .
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.
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5 -
334
2. k-
k- .
5.7.
1
1
2
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3
4
4
16
14
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13
6
1
9
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D .
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-
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1) n , i- i- .
2) ( ).
3) T(V,). T .
4) (n1 ) (i,j) T,
:
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)
i j
(i,j) , i j.
5 -
335
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i j , "" :
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n1 (
, ?).
5.7.
():
{1} {2} {3} {4} {5} {6} {7} {8} {9}
, 2), :
(1, 2) = 1; (5, 8) = 1; (7, 6) = 1; (6, 9) = 1; (1, 4) = 2; (2, 3) = 3; (3, 6) = 3;
(3, 4) = 4; (5, 6) = 12; (5, 9) = 13; (2, 5) = 13; (4, 7) = 14; (4, 6) = 14;
(1, 2) ,
1 2. {1, 2} {3} {4} {5} {6} {7} {8} {9}.
(5, 8). : {1, 2} {3} {4} {5, 8} {6}
{7} {9}.
- (7, 6), (6, 9), (1, 4), (2, 3),
(3, 6) : {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9}{5, 8}.
(3, 4), 3 4 .
(5, 6),
. (1, 2), (1, 4), (2,
3), (3, 6), (6, 7), (6, 9), (6, 5), (5, 8).
. ,
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(
4).
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.
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S[] M
( ). S[i].x, S[i].y, S[i].weight
(S[i].x, S[i].y) S[i].weight. sort(A,0,)
.
:
prev[], prev[i] , i,
( , D!). i ,
prev[i] == 0. , prev[r2] = r1,
r1 r2 , . ,
i, :
root = i;
while (NO_PARENT != prev[root]) root = prev[root];
5 -
336
, , .

i . , i
:
while (i != root) {
savei = i;
i = prev[i];
prev[savei] = root;
}
- -
.
n
- n .
, . n .
5.7.1., lg*n
n, , 0.

n2
n.logn
n.log*n
5.7.1.
n .
, -, 5.7.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
#define NO_PARENT (unsigned)(-1)
/* */
#define MAXM 2000
const unsigned m = 14; /* */
struct arc {
unsigned i, j;
int f;
};
struct
{ 1,
{ 1,
{ 2,
{ 2,
{ 3,
{ 3,
{ 4,
{ 4,
arc S[MAXM] = {
2, 1},
4, 2},
3, 3},
5, 13},
4, 4},
6, 3},
6, 16},
7, 14},
/* */
5 -
{
{
{
{
{
};
5,
5,
5,
6,
6,
6, 12},
8, 1},
9, 13},
7, 1},
9, 1}
int prev[MAXN + 1];

int getRoot(int i)
{ int root, savei;
/* */
root = i;
while (NO_PARENT != prev[root]) root = prev[root];
/* */
while (i != root) {
savei = i;
i = prev[i];
prev[savei] = root;
}
return root;
}
void kruskal(void)
{ int MST = 0;
unsigned i, j;
/* */
sort(S, 0, m);
printf(", :\n");
for (i = 0; i < m; i++) {
int r1 = getRoot(S[i].i);
int r2 = getRoot(S[i].j);
if (r1 != r2) {
printf("(%u,%u) ", S[i].i, S[i].j);
MST += S[i].f;
prev[r2] = r1;
}
}
printf("\n %d.\n", MST);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n + 1; i++) prev[i] = NO_PARENT;
kruskal();
return 0;
}
kruskal.c
:
, :
(1,2) (5,8) (6,7) (6,9) (1,4) (2,3) (3,6) (5,6)
24.
:
1. , .
337
5 -
338
2. ? , ?
3. ?
-
a .

1) s:
T(H,D), H = {s}, D = .
2) n1 :
2.1) (i, j), :
iH, jV\H;
f(i, j) .
2.2) j H (i, j) D.
5.7.:
, 1. , , H, (1, 2).
2 H, (1,2) D. ,
H , H, (1, 4). (2, 3), (3,
6), (6, 7), (6, 9), (6, 5) (5, 8), .
. , , 2.1). ,
,
H, (n3). n-
, T[] -
( H) , ..
:
, s, :
o [j] = A[s][j], j = 1,2,..., n., (s, j)
o [j] = MAX_VALUE, .
:
o j, T[j] .
o kH T[k] = min(T[k], A[j][k]).
, .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* */
const int A[MAXN][MAXN] = {
{ 0, 1, 0, 2, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0
{ 1, 0, 3, 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 3, 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 0, 0
{ 2, 0, 4, 0, 0, 16, 14, 0, 0
{ 0, 13, 0, 0, 0, 12, 0, 1, 13
{ 0, 0, 3, 16, 12, 0, 1, 0, 1
},
},
},
},
},
},
5 -
{ 0,
{ 0,
{ 0,
};
0, 0, 14, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1,
0, 0, 0, 13,
339
1,
0,
1,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0, 0,
0 },
0 },
0 }
char used[MAXN];
unsigned prev[MAXN];
int T[MAXN];
void prim(void)
{ int MST = 0; /* */
unsigned i, k;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { used[i] = 0; prev[i] = 0; }
used[0] = 1; /* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
T[i] = (A[0][i]) ? A[0][i] : MAX_VALUE;
for (k = 0; k < n - 1; k++) {
/* */
int minDist = MAX_VALUE, j = -1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i])
if (T[i] < minDist) {
minDist = T[i];
j = i;
}
used[j] = 1;
printf("(%u,%u) ", prev[j] + 1, j + 1);
MST += minDist;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!used[i] && A[j][i]) {
if (T[i] > A[j][i]) {
T[i] = A[j][i];
/*
*/
prev[i] = j;
}
}
}
printf("\n %d.\n", MST);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
prim();
return 0;
}
prim.c
:
(1,2) (1,4) (2,3) (3,6) (6,7) (6,9) (6,5) (5,8)
24.
,
(?).
5 -
340
- (, [Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest-1997]),

(m + n.log2n).
, .. mO(n), - , (m.(m, n)) (m.log2( (m,n))),
([Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest-1997][Fredman,Tarjan-1987]):
m
m, n min i, : log(log(..
. log( n)...))
n
i
:
1. , .
2. ?
3. ?
4. , [1, n]?
-
.
. 5.30. G(V, E). k, k n
Tk (Vk , D) , k , :
Vk V.
D.
, D, .
:

, k . ,
k1 (.. k1 ). n
( ), - .
.
:
1. .
2. .
5.7.2.
: G(V, E) ,
(i, j), i, jV.
G'(V', E') G.
. ,
.
1: n , , .
, .
2: n , , .
, .
5 -
341
. (
, -).
3
1
4
5
5.7.2. .
5.30. G(V, E). H, HV ( ), .
5.31.
G.
,
. , 5.7.2.
{7, 8, 2}, {3, 1}, {7, 8, 2, 5}. 4.
-
5.32. H , H, H
.
5.7.2 H1 = {7, 8, 2, 5},
H2 = {7, 8, 2} , H1.
{1, 3, 7} {4, 6}.

G(V, E).
:
1) S .
2) iV, iST.
3) i T. S , i.
4) 2) 3), ,
S, T, .. ST = V. T
.
, . 2) ,
, .. S T. maxSubSet(last):
maxSubSet(last) {
if (ST = V) {
____;
return;
}
for (__i | iV, iS, iT, i > last) {
_i__T;
_ _S___i_;
maxSubSet(i);
5 -
342
_i__T;
_S____;
}
}
last , . i, i > last. ,

( {1, 3, 7} {1, 7, 3} ..).
. ,
.
#include <stdio.h>
/*
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/*
const char A[MAXN][MAXN] =
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0
{ 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0
{ 1, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 1
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0
unsigned S[MAXN], T[MAXN],
*/
*/
{
},
},
},
},
},
},
},
} };
sN, tN;
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf("{ ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (T[i]) printf("%u ", i + 1);
printf("} \n");
}
void maxSubSet(unsigned last)
{ unsigned i, j;
if (sN + tN == n) {
print();
return;
}
for (i = last; i < n; i++) {
if (!S[i] && !T[i]) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] && !S[j]) {
S[j] = last+1; sN++;
}
T[i] = 1; tN++;
maxSubSet(i+1);
/* */
T[i] = 0; tN--;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (S[j] == last+1) { S[j] = 0; sN--; }
}
}
}
int main(void) {
5 -
343
unsigned i;
printf(" :\n");
sN = tN = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) S[i] = T[i] = 0;
maxSubSet(0);
return 0;
}
maxindep.c
:
:
{ 1 3 7 }
{ 1 4 }
{ 1 5 7 }
{ 2 4 8 }
{ 2 5 7 8 }
{ 3 6 }
{ 3 7 8 }
{ 4 6 }
:
1. , .
2. 1.
5.7.3.
5.33. G(V, E).
S, :
SV
, S, S.
5.34. ,
.
, .
: , ,
. 5.7.3. A, B, C,
D, E, , , 1 .
A
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
B
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
C
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
D
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
E
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
5.7.3. .
,
, . , B, C D, .
5 -
344
, -, , ( .
,
[-1996].).
.
p1, p2, , pk
, p = min{p1, p2, , pk } .
1
2
5.7.3. .
5.7.3. {1, 4}, {1, 4, 6}, {3, 5, 6} .,
{1, 4} {3, 5, 6} . {1, 4, 6} ,
( {1, 4} ). 2.
5.35. e G(V, E) T, TV.
T P(T), T ,
T.

T . T,
:
iT, P(T\{i}) P(T).

P(T) V, .
, T .
- , ok()
T. T
:
void findMinDom(int last) {
if (P(T) == V) {
_____;
return;
}
for (__i__, i >= last) {
T = T{i};
if (ok()) findMinDom(i+1);
T = T\{i};
}
}
:
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
5 -
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
unsigned cover[MAXN];
char T[MAXN];
void printSet(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf("{ ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (T[i])
printf("%u ", i + 1);
printf("}\n");
}
char ok(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) if (T[i]) {
/* i */
if (0 == cover[i]) continue;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) if (cover[j])
if (!(cover[j] - A[i][j]) && !T[j])
break; /* */
if (j == n) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
void findMinDom(unsigned last)
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (!cover[i] && !T[i]) break;
if (i == n) { printSet(); return; }
/* - */
for (i = last; i < n; i++) {
T[i] = 1;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) if (A[i][j]) cover[j]++;
if (ok()) findMinDom(i + 1);
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) if (A[i][j]) cover[j]--;
T[i] = 0;
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
printf(" : \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { cover[i] = 0; T[i] = 0; }
findMinDom(0);
return 0;
345
5 -
346
mindom.c
:
:
{ 1 2 6 }
{ 1 3 6 }
{ 1 4 }
{ 3 5 6 }
:
,
.
5.7.4.
: n .
() ,
.
5.7.4. . {4, 7, 9}. : {5, 7,
9}, {7, 8, 9} .
5.36. G(V, E). ( )
V , :
T , , .
1. e , :
1) , , .
2) i, .
2.
, (.. ).
( 1 2) , ,
.
5
7
2
8
4
5.7.4. .

, . base[],
base[i] == 1, i , base[i] == 0, .
. k, base[k] == 1.
i (i k), , base[i] = 0.
, , .
5 -
347
(n+m), -
(?). :
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
char used[MAXN], base[MAXN];
{ unsigned k;
used[i] = 1;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (A[i][k] && !used[k]) {
base[k] = 0;
DFS(k);
}
}
void solve(void) {
unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) base[i] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (base[i]) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) used[j] = 0;
DFS(i);
}
}
void print() {
unsigned i, count = 0;
printf(", , :\n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
if (base[i]) { printf("%u ", i + 1); count++; }
printf("\n : %u\n", count);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
print();
return 0;
}
v-base.c
:
5 -
348
, , :
4 7 9
: 3
:
1. 1, 2.
2. , .
5.7.5. ,

, . ,
, . , ( , ,
..) , - . - .
p ( ),
- S(i) i - .
5.37. G(V, E).
So(i) iV d(i, j), jV, d(i, j)
i j. T.. - - i. , S t(i) i jV i.
5.38. iV, po = So(i)
. i G, po
. , j, pt = St(j) .
j G, pt .
5.39. Sot(i) d(i, j)+ d(j, i), jV.
v , Sot(v) . v - ( ), Sot(v) - ( )
.
, .
: , S
, S - .
(p- p- ), . ( 5.7.5.).
1
5
3
4
1
2
3
1
0
1
2
2
3
0
1
3
4
3
0
4
3
2
2
5
2
1
1
6
1
2
3
: 2
4
3
2
1
0
2
4
5
2
1
2
1
0
3
{d ( 2, i ) d (i ,2) | i V } 4
= i max
1, 2 ,..., n
6
3
2
3
2
1
0
5 -
349
5.7.5. ( 1).
- ( 5.7.5.) . , -. (n3). (?)
-
A[][], n.
.
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }
};
/* */
void floyd(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
/* 0 MAX_VALUE */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] == 0)
A[i][j] = MAX_VALUE;
/* */
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] > (A[i][k] + A[k][j]))
A[i][j] = A[i][k] + A[k][j];
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
A[i][i] = 0;
}
void findCenter(void)
{ unsigned i, j, center;
int max, min;
min = MAX_VALUE;
/* Sot(Xi) = max { Vj [d(Xi, Xj)+d[Xj,Xi])] }, X*
* Sot(X*)
*/
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
max = A[i][0] + A[0][i];
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if ((i != j) && ((A[i][j] + A[j][i]) > max))
max = (A[i][j] + A[j][i]);
5 -
350
if (max < min) {

min = max; center = i;
}
}
printf(" %u\n", center + 1);
printf(" %u\n", min);
}
int main(void) {
floyd();
findCenter();
return 0;
}
a-center.c
:
2
4
:
1. .
2. ,
.
- p- p-
p
. - i -
. d(i,j) i j.
5.40. G(V,E) Q = {vi1, vi2, , vip |
vik V}. :
S(v,Q) = min { d(vk , v) + d(v, vk ) | vk Q}, vV
S(Q) = max { S(v,Q) | vV }
S(Q), p- Q V,
p- .
- , :
5.41. G(V,E) Q = {vi1,vi2,,vip |
vik V}. :
S(v,Q) = min { d(vk , v) | vk Q}, vV
S(Q) = max { S(v,Q) | vV }
S(Q), p- Q V,
p- .
p-
. , . : p- Q, QV, S - . O
( C np ) , S.
5 -
351
,
. [][],
( p- Q
V) - .
, .
5.7.5.
1
1
3
3
2
5
6
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
0
1
5
6
2
10
12
2
1
0
4
7
3
9
11
3
5
4
0
3
7
5
7
4
6
7
3
0
4
8
8
5
2
3
7
4
0
12
12
6
10
9
5
8
12
0
2
7
12
11
7
8
12
2
0
5.7.5. p-.
3-, .. p = 3 , 5.7.5. {2, 3, 6}:
S = max { min { [i][2], [i][3], [i][6] | i = 1,2,...,7} = max { 1, 0, 0, 3, 3, 0, 2 } = 3.
-, , , {2, 3, 6}
, S 3- .
! {1, 3, 6} 3- S = 3.
, .
, .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 150
/* */
const unsigned p = 3; /* p- */
/*
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 2, 0,
{ 1, 0, 4, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 4, 0, 3, 0, 5,
{ 0, 0, 3, 0, 4, 0,
{ 2, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 0,
{ 0, 0, 0, 8, 0, 2,
};
*/
0
0
0
8
0
2
0
},
},
},
},
},
},
}
unsigned center[MAXN], pCenter[MAXN], pRadius;

/* */
void floyd(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
/* 0 MAX_VALUE */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
5 -
352
if (A[i][j] == 0) A[i][j] = MAX_VALUE;

/* */
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] > (A[i][k] + A[k][j]))
A[i][j] = A[i][k] + A[k][j];
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
A[i][i] = 0;
}
/* S */
void checkSol(void)
{ unsigned i, j, cRadius = 0;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {
int bT = MAX_VALUE;
for (i = 0; i < p; i++)
if (A[center[i]][j] < bT) bT = A[center[i]][j];
if (cRadius < bT) cRadius = bT;
}
if (cRadius < pRadius) {
pRadius = cRadius;
for (i = 0; i < p; i++) pCenter[i] = center[i];
}
}
/* C(n,p) p- G */
void generate(unsigned k, unsigned last)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = last; i < n - p + k; i++) {
center[k] = i;
if (k == p)
checkSol();
else
generate(k + 1, i + 1);
}
}
/* p- p- */
void printPCenter(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf("%u- : {", p);
for (i = 0; i < p; i++) printf("%d ", pCenter[i] + 1);
printf("}\n");
printf("%u- %u\n", p, pRadius);
}
int main(void) {
floyd();
pRadius = MAX_VALUE;
generate(0, 0);
printPCenter();
return 0;
}
p-center.c
5 -
353
:
3- : {1 3 6 }
3- 3
:
1. , {2,3,6} p- 5.7.5.
2. p-.
3. , p-.
4. - ?
( : ?), ( )?
5.7.6. .
( . matching)
, .
5.42. G(V,E) E'E,
E'. ,
E', , ,
.
, .
5.43. E' k ,
E'' l k l.
5.44. E e G. G
M, ,
M. M ,
M.

( ).
.
, . (?) ,
: M , P
. M P,
M P. :
, .
:
5.45. G(V, E) ,
V=V'V'', V'V''=, (i, j)E iV' jV".
: .
1
.
G(V, E) V=V'V'',
V'V''=. , , :
V' .
V'' .
c(i, j) = 1.
5 -
354
2
( -) . (n),
(?). (n.(m+1)) = (n.m). - , ( n .m)
[Hopcroft-Karp-1973], - [Micali,Vazirani-1980].
:
1. , ,
.
2. , .
3.
.
4. 1 2.
5.8.
5.8.1. .
, ,
, , ,
.
5.46. r-
{c1, c2, , cr} .
r- .
5.47. G(V,E) r-,
r- , . - r, r-, G (
G) V(G). , - r ,
r- , ,
, G E(G).
:
1: , e , .
, ,
?
G, . ....
, .
V(G), .
2: n " " . , , .
E(G), .
5 -
355
-

. , V(G)
. (
, ):
V(G) 2 G .
V(G) 3 G .
(G) dm(G), dm(G) G.
V(G) n / V(G'), n G, G' G.
V(G) n2 / (n2 2m), n , a m G.
-
V(G)
1)
V(G) Vmin.
2)
for (r = Vmin ; r < n; r++) {
if (G r-) { ___3 }
3)
r .
r-. NP- 6.3.2.:

, ,
, .
, , .
.
, : ,
, .
- [Christofides-1975][Korman-1979].
, ,
, , . ,
r- ( ),
. ,
, . 9.
:
V(G).
5.8.2.
5.48. ...
( ) , .
, , .
( , ).
, ,
, .
5 -
356
1933
.
5.8. ,
:
G(V, E) G'(V, E'), i, jV (i,
j) ' E. G' G.
(i, j)E i, jV, . n
Kn (K5 5.8.2.).
5.8.2. 5.
5.8.2. 3,3.
5.49. G(V, E) V = V'V'', V'V'' = ,

iV' jV" (i, j)E, , G(V = V'V'', E) .
V' m, V'' n,
Km,n. 5.8.2. e K3,3.
5.50. G(V, E) G'(V', E'),
G 2
.
5.51. G' G'' ( G'G"), G' G", .
. () ... , K5 K3,3.
. ( ) - 4.
,
, .
1850. - , 1976 .
. . . 2000 , 1000 .
, .
[Chiba,Nishizeki,Abe,Ozawa-1985],
, .
.
:
, ..
- 5, , ?
5 -
357
5.9.
5.9.1.
5.1.
5.13. 2.2.
5.2.
5.2.6.
5.3.
5.3.1. .
, , ?
5.4.
5.3.1. , , , ?
5.5.
5.3.2.
5.6.
BFS() - 5.4.1. ,
ev.
5.7.

( 5.4.1.)?
5.8.

( 5.4.1.)? ?
5.9.

(BFS), 5.4.1. ?
?
5.10.
5.4.2.
5.11.

5.4.2.
5.12.
- 5.4.2.
5.13.
- - ( 5.4.2.) n-2 ,
n n1?
5 -
358
5.14.
, - ( 5.4.2.)
(i, j) D[i] > D[j] + A[j][i], .
5.15.
, : ,
- (i, j),
D[i] > D[j] + A[j][i]? ( 5.4.2.)
5.16.
(i,j) ,
( 5.4.2.).
5.17.
(i,j) ,
( 5.4.2.).
5.18.
( 1 , 5.4.2.).
5.19.
( 2
, 5.4.2.).
5.20.
p ( 3
, 5.4.2.).
5.21.
- ( 5.4.2.).
5.22.

d[], pred[] (
5.4.2.)?
5.23.
5.4.2.
5.24.
( 5.2.4.).
5.25.
, ( 5.2.4.) .
5.26.
, :

5.27.
- ( 5.2.4.),
, .
5 -
359
5.28.
i j,
- 5.2.4.
- i j.
5.29.
, - ( 5.2.4.) ?
? ? .
5.30.
5.4.3. (/ ) ?
5.31.
5.4.3. (/ ) ? ?
5.32.
5.4.3. (m.(m+n)),
,
(n4). ? ,
(m+n), h
, ..
((m+n).h). , -
, .. ((m+n).n).
,
((m+n).h)?
, ? , h O(log2n)?
5.33.

( 5.4.3.).
5.34.
. ,
, ( 5.4.3.).
5.35.
,
( 5.4.4.) ( ).
5.36.
/ ( 5.4.5.).
5.37.
( 5.4.4.)
( 5.4.5.). - ?
5.38.
, , .
( 5.4.6.)
5 -
360
5.39.
, -
, ( 5.4.6.)
5.40.
, -
,
( 5.4.6.)
5.41.
( 5.5.1.).
5.42.
, ( 5.5.1.).
, .
5.43.
, , ( 5.5.2.).
5.44.
, E'E , .. ( )
?
( 5.5.3.)?
5.45.
( 5.5.4.) ,
- (n3)?
5.46.
5.25.
5.47.
, 2 1 5.5.5.
, .
5.48.

5.5.6.
5.49.
1 5.5.7.
5.50.
G(V, E). G(V, E), :
EE
Z, G.
E .
- , ?
5.51.
5.5.8., ?
5.52.
5.5.8., ?
5 -
361
5.53.
, 5.5.8. .
5.54.
5.5.8.
.
5.55.

( 5.5.8.) (m+n)? -?
5.56.

( 5.6.1.).
5.57.
, 1 5.6.2. (n . (n + m)).
: , -
m = n.(n1)/2 . n, (m + n).
5.58.

( 5.6.2.)? ,
, ,
. ?
5.59.
1 2 5.6.3.
5.60.
, G
G ( 5.6.4.).
5.61.
k- k- ( 5.6.4.).
5.62.
, ( 5.7.1.).
5.63.
( 5.7.1.)? , ?
5.64.
( 5.7.1.)?
5.65.
, ( 5.7.1.).
5.66.
( 5.7.1.)?
5.67.
( 5.7.1.)?
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.
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.
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( . Chinese Postman Problem) e ).
,
. ( ,
).
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i < j. ,
, . , x < y x < z : x y z x z y.
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, . ,
.
(, ). 1.
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G(V, E). , B-
vV - v
. B- B- .
G
H
E
C
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364
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.
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-
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(i, j)
i j.
Lij.
Lij .
(m.n.log2n).
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d(i, j) i j.
f(i, j) (i, j).

d(i,k) + f(k,j) +
d(j,i), i, j k, i k
j i.
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k. ,
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NP- ( 6), n, k .
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366
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370
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, [-1996],
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P NP. , - 6.1.4. .
P
NP
log
NP
NP-
6.1.4. ( ).
, .
1.
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: (
, , , ,
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(log2n)), ,
.
2. NP-
NP-: n. n, q (1 < q < n).
q', p'
, n = p'.q',
.
6 - . NP-
371
:
G(V,E), i,jV k.
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k.
NP: , (
) k. ,
P.
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NP- .
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3.
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3,5:2,5 (2 , 1 3 ),
17 - $100,000 ,
. ,
, ,
: Deep Blue , ,
. [Russell,Norvig1995][Loviglio-1997]
- ,
. 1992 . Chinook,
, US Open, ,
21,5:18,5. 40
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,
.
.
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, 20 ,
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exp-space,
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6 - . NP-
372
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., 6.5.4.) - .
4.
: x y vu. x y,
. : , ( ) v,
u ( vu).
, , .
: ,
, , "" ,
, . , , ( ). : ,
, . , :
int main() {
unsigned a, b, c, i, x;
for (x = 3;;) {
for (a = 1; a <= x; a++)
for (b = 1; b <= x; b++)
for (c = 1; c <= x; c++)
for (i = 3; i< = x; i++)
if (pow(a, i) + pow(b, i) == pow(c, i))
exit(0);
x++;
}
return 0;
}
an + bn = cn,
a, b, c, n n > 2. ,
. ( ), ,

, . , ,

.
-. (
[-1996]) .
5.

: [MathWorld-a]:
M33. n ,
M n, , 0.
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373
:
1. .
2. , , .
3. :
n .
n, -
q (q > 1, q < n).
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, - P
NP. ,
, ?
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P. , NP-,
. NP- NP-,
( ), NP
NP- . NP- , P,
NP ( NP, NP-.). NP- -

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).
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,
, B,
.
, B P A B, , P.
: ( 5.4.4.)
. . , . ,
2:
for (__(i,j)__) {
if (_____n-1___i__j) {
return 1; /* : + (i,j)*/
}
}
return 0;
m. m - (m).
-, , -
. -
, , .
6.2. NP- A NP- (. NP-complete),
, B NP , B A.
6 - . NP-
374
. () , NP-.
, NP-
[-1996] ( 6.3.1.).
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. , , : NP-, NP
. , P NP.
,
(P, NP, NP-) , .. .
( ):
1. .
2. , - k.
, , :
3. .
: NP-.
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NP-, , B NP , B A.
, , NP- NP NP-. NP- NP-
: NP- NP- , .
NP- - NP-.
, 2 - (
), (
3).
:
1. 6.2. , NP- A
B, B NP-.
2. , NP , (, NP ).
3. " n, q (q > 1, q < n)" NP.
NP-?
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P NP (- P NP,
P NP, P NP - ), ,
, NP- ( NP-)
, .
.
6 - . NP-
375
( . backtracking) ,
(). () .
- ,
. ,
,
. :
void ( i)
{ if (i > n) ____;
else
/* */
for (k = 1; k <= n; k++)
if (k-___) {
__;
(i+1);
__;
}
}
. ,
, :
1)
2)
sV
.
, v,
.
.
, , :
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.
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.
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, NP-
.
:
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)?
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376
6.3.1.
"" NP-
. 6.2.,
NP- .
.
X1,X2,...,Xn. X 1 , X 2,..., X n (. . Xi , X i ).
,
"" () "" (), 0 1
.
( -).
, , : (A B). A B A.B
AB.
6.3.1.
.
x
y
xy
xy
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
6.3.1. .
6.4. X1,X2,...,Xn ,
"" "" X1,X2,...,Xn,
.
: .
, ( X 2 X2 X1) X 3 X1 = 1, X2 = 0, X3 = 0
X1 = 1, X2 = 1, X3 = 0. , , NP-: , , , ,
.
, .
6.5. 0 1,
.
6.6. , "".
6.7. , ,
"", .

A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
.
:
A B A B
A B A B
6 - . NP-
377
, :
(X1 X4) ( X 1 X2) (X1 X 3 ) ( X 2 X3 X 4) ( X 1 X 2 X 3 )
,
: 2n
, (2n). , :
i = 1.
1) i- (i+1)-
( ). -
, ( ),
.
2) , .
,
, .
()
1 n, Xi i. values[] (0 1), . true()
values[] . : , ( "").
,
(
"").
-,
assign(unsigned i), (i = n) true(), (. . ).
:
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXK 100 /* */
/* */
/* */
const int expr[][MAXK] = {

{ 1, 4 },
{ -1, 2 },
{ 1, -3 },
{ -2, 3, -4 },
{ -1, -2, -3 }
};
int values[MAXN];
void printAssignment(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf(" : ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("X%u=%u ", i+1, values[i]);
printf("\n");
}
6 - . NP-
378
/* */
int true(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {
unsigned j = 0;
char ok = 0;
while (expr[i][j] != 0) {
int p = expr[i][j];
if ((p > 0) && (1 == values[p-1])) { ok = 1; break; }
if ((p < 0) && (0 == values[-p-1])) { ok = 1; break; }
j++;
}
if (!ok) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
/* */
void assign(unsigned i)
{ if (i == n) {
if (true()) printAssignment();
return;
}
values[i] = 1; assign(i + 1);
}
int main(void) {
assign(0);
return 0;
}
bool.c
:
: X1=1 X2=1 X3=0 X4=0
: X1=0 X2=0 X3=0 X4=1
3 :
6.3.1. - ,
X1(X2X3).
X1=0
X2=0
X3=0
X3=1
X1=1
X2=1
X3=0
X2=0
X3=1
X3=0
X2=1
X3=1
X3=0
X3=1
6.3.1. .
NP- ( ),
( ),
. . ,
6 - . NP-
379
X1(X2X3) X1 = 0 ,
, , X2 X3.
-,
.
:
1)
2)
true() t, ,
t . ,
, - t, ,

n-t . ,
,
.
true() . , ,
, , .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 100
/* */
#define MAXK 100
/* */
/* */
const int expr[][MAXK] = {

{ 1, 4 },
{ -1, 2 },
{ 1, -3 },
{ -2, 3, -4 },
{ -1, -2, -3 }
};
int values[MAXN];
void printAssign(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf(" : ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("X%d=%d ", i + 1, values[i]);
printf("\n");
}
/* */
int true(int t)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {
unsigned j = 0;
char ok = 0;
while (expr[i][j] != 0) {
int p = expr[i][j];
if ((p > t) || (-p > t)) { ok = 1; break; }
if ((p > 0) && (1 == values[p-1])) { ok = 1; break; }
if ((p < 0) && (0 == values[-p-1])) { ok = 1; break; }
6 - . NP-
380
j++;
}
if (!ok) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
/* */
void assign(unsigned i)
{ if (!true(i)) return;
if (i == n) {
printAssign();
return;
}
}
int main(void) {
assign(0);
return 0;
}
boolcut.c
:
1. .
2. ( X 2 X3 X1) X2 ( X 1 X 3 )?
3. A (B C) = (A B) (A C),
.
4. .
5. A B A B .
6. .
, .
7. , , {, } {,
} {, , }.
8. , {, } {, , }?
6.3.2.
5.8.1. .
NP- , . NP- NP-
r- :
n. r (1 r n)
r .
r- .
, r-:
: i = 1.
i: i-
(i+1)- , i-
(i+1)- ..
6 - . NP-
381
(. . i = n), .
, ,
.
, :
n n = (nn). , r
r 1
: ,
, .
, i-
. , ,
(i+1)- , i- .
i- r- , . , i = 1 ,
r- ( ).
. A[][],
col[], ,
i- , nextCol(unsigned i).
6.3.2.
1
2
1
1
3
6.3.2. r- .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 1, 1 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 1, 0, 1 },
{ 1, 1, 0, 1, 0 }};
unsigned col[MAXN], maxCol, count = 0;
char foundSol = 0;
void showSol(void)
{ unsigned i;
count++;
printf(" : \n");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf(" %u - %u \n", i + 1, col[i]);
}
void nextCol(unsigned i)
{ unsigned k, j, success;
6 - . NP-
382
if (i == n) { showSol(); return; }
for (k = 1; k <= maxCol; k++) {
col[i] = k;
success = 1;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (1 == A[i][j] && col[j] == col[i]) {
success = 0;
break;
}
if (success) nextCol(i + 1);
col[i] = 0;
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (maxCol = 1; maxCol <= n; maxCol++) {
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) col[i] = 0;
nextCol(0);
if (count) break;
}
printf(" %u : %u \n",maxCol,count);
return 0;
}
colorm2.c
:

1 - 1
2 - 2
3 - 3
4 - 1
5 - 3

1 - 1
2 - 3
3 - 2
4 - 1
5 - 2

1 - 2
2 - 1
3 - 3
4 - 2
5 - 3

1 - 2
2 - 3
3 - 1
4 - 2
5 - 1

1 - 3
2 - 1
3 - 2
4 - 3
5 - 2
6 - . NP-
383
:
1 - 3
2 - 2
3 - 1
4 - 3
5 - 1
3 : 6
:
1. , , .. r (1 r n)
r .
2. .
3. .
6.3.3. -
-
(
, ). - .
. j
, .
j . ,
, . ,
- , , :
void (i) {
if (____) { _ ; }
for (__k__i)
if ((___k) &&
(k_______))
{
__k__;
________;
(i+1);
/* */
_k____;
__k__;
________;
}
}
}
. .
, ( ). ..
. - addVertex() .
A[][], a 6.3.3.
6 - . NP-
384
6
10
1
5
2
10
15
10
10
6.3.3. - .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 200
/* */
/* */
{ 0, 10, 0, 5, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 5, 0, 0, 15 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 10, 5, 0 },
{ 0, 10, 0, 0, 10, 0 },
{ 0, 5, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0 }};
unsigned vertex[MAXN], savePath[MAXN];
char used[MAXN];
int maxLen, tempLen, si, ti;
void addVertex(unsigned i)
{ unsigned j, k;
if (tempLen > maxLen) { /* - => */
maxLen = tempLen;
for (j = 0; j <= ti; j++) savePath[j] = vertex[j];
si = ti;
}
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
if (!used[k]) {
/* k */
/* , , */
if (A[i][k] > 0) {
tempLen += A[i][k];
used[k] = 1;
/* k */
vertex[ti++] = k; /* k */
addVertex(k);
used[k] = 0;
/* */
tempLen -= A[i][k]; ti--;
}
}
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
maxLen = 0; tempLen = 0; si = 0; ti = 1;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
used[i] = 1; vertex[0] = i;
6 - . NP-
385
addVertex(i);
used[i] = 0;
}
printf("- : \n");
for (i = 0; i < si; i++) printf("%u ", savePath[i] + 1);
printf("\n %d\n", maxLen);
return 0;
}
longpath.c
:
- :
3 4 5 2 6
40.
:
1. -
, , . ()
, ?
2. -
, ,
(, ).
3. ,
.
6.3.4.
, , :
6.3.4a. .
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
22
44
39
24
28
63
43
40
23
45
62
25
10
21
42
59
38
27
64
29
41
58
37
46
61
54
11
26
20
60
53
36
47
30
51
57
35
48
55
52
15
12
19
56
33
14
17
50
31
34
18
49
32
13
16
6.3.4. n = 8.
: n (n > 4) nn
. .
6 - . NP-
386
a , ,
. , 6.3.4.
n = 8 6.3.4.
( n2 )
. ,
. n
= 3 n = 4 ( 6.3.4):
K
6.3.4. n = 3 n = 4.
, ,
, . . . ,
" " " "
,
, di , di 8 (
5, 7 8 ).
, , , -
, , n2 8.n2 (
.
5.2.). o ,
:
/* board[][] nn */
void (x, y, i)
{ if (i == n*n) { /* */ }
board[x][y] = i;
for (___(u,v)_____(x,y))
if (0 == board[u][v]) /* */
(u, v, i+1);
board[x][y] = 0; /* */
}
, , . , ( startX startY) .
, , ..
, 6.3.4., .
diffX[] diffY[]
6 - . NP-
387
, (x,y) (x+diffX[i],
y+diffY[i]), i = 1,2, ..., maxDiff:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 10
/* */
#define MAXD 10
/* */
/* */
const unsigned startX = 1;
const unsigned startY = 1;
/* */
const unsigned maxDiff = 8;
const int diffX[MAXD] = { 1, 1, -1, -1, 2, -2, 2, -2 };
const int diffY[MAXD] = { 2, -2, 2, -2, 1, 1, -1, -1 };
unsigned board[MAXN][MAXN];
unsigned newX, newY;
void printBoard(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = n; i > 0; i--) {
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) printf("%3u", board[i-1][j]);
printf("\n");
}
exit(0); /* */
}
void nextMove(unsigned X, unsigned Y, unsigned i)
{ unsigned k;
board[X][Y] = i;
if (i == n * n) { printBoard(); return; }
for (k = 0; k < maxDiff; k++) {
newX = X + diffX[k]; newY = Y + diffY[k];
if ((newX >= 0 && newX < n && newY >= 0 && newY < n) &&
(0 == board[newX][newY]))
nextMove(newX, newY, i + 1);
}
board[X][Y] = 0;
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) board[i][j] = 0;
nextMove(startX-1, startY-1, 1);
printf(" . \n");
return 0;
}
knight.c
6 - . NP-
388
:
10
7
28
21
12
1
27 6 19 16
20 9 26 5
11 4 17 24
8 23 32 3
29 2 35 14
22 13 30 33
25
18
15
34
31
36
:
, ,
NP-, .. ( , ,
6.3.4.). ( 9 ) : ,
- .
, ,
.
:
:
1. , .
2. ,
. , ,
.
3. :
)
)
4. n (n > 4) nn .
. a
, .
5. n (n > 4) nn ,
. .
a ,
, .
6. n (n > 4) nn .

.
7.
(.. - k).
8. 7 5?
6.3.5.
.
. 1850 .
, .
.
6 - . NP-
389
6.3.5. n = 8.
: n nn (n 2)
, ( ,
).
n = 8 6.3.5. :
i = 1.
i , ""
(i+1)- ( ).
n (. . i = n) ,
, , ,
.
i- ,
(i1)-.
"" -.
C n2
n
, .
- , nn
, , .
, - ,
n!. n- , i , i- .
.

, . . ,
, .
:
void (i) { /* i- */
if (i > n) { ; }
for (_____k)
if (_____(i,k)) {
/* (i,k) */
_i-____(i,k);
(i+1);
_i-____(i,k);
}
}
, :
1) queens[N]: queens[i] ,
i- .
6 - . NP-
390
2) col[N]: col[i] 1, i , 0
.
3) RD[2*N-1] LD[2*N-1)] k-
(k = 1,2,...,2n1) . :
RD[i+k] , (i,k),
.
LD[N+i-k] , (i,k),
.
- .
, n.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
/* */
#define MAXN 100
/* */
unsigned col[MAXN] , RD[2*MAXN - 1],
LD[2*MAXN], queens [MAXN];
/* */
void printBoard()
{ unsigned i , j ;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (queens[i] == j) printf("x ");
else printf(". ");
}
printf("\n");
exit(0);
}
/*
void generate(unsigned i)
{ unsigned j;
if (i == n) printBoard();
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (col[j] && RD[i + j] && LD[n + i
col[j] = 0; RD[i + j] = 0; LD[n +
generate(i + 1);
col[j] = 1; RD[i + j] = 1; LD[n +
}
}
*/
- j]) {
i - j] = 0; queens[i] = j;
i - j] = 1;
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) col[i] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < (2*n - 1); i++) RD[i] = 1;
for (i = 0; i < 2*n; i++) LD[i] = 1;
generate(0);
printf(" ! \n");
return 0;
}
queens.c
6 - . NP-
391
:
x
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
.
.
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.
x
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
.
.
.
.
.
.
x
.
.
.
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.
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.
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.
.
x
.
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.
.
.
x
.
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.
x
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.
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.
x
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x
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x
.
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x
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.
x
.
.
.
.
.
,
(n!) [-1998][, , -1980].
:
1. : . , , ,
.
2. ( )
?
6.3.6.
, . (
[Christofides-1975]),
- :
: c t (c, t ).
cl[i][j] ( , i = 1,2,...,c, j = 1,2,...t), j a
i. , :
1) - .
2) .
c1
t1
c2
t2
c3
t3
c4
6.3.6a. .
6 - . NP-
392
: 4 c1, c2, c3 c4 t1, t2 t3. , , :

t1 c1 5 , t1 c2 5 , t1 c3 5 ,
t2 c2 5 , t2 c3 5 ,
t3 c2 5 , t3 c3 5 , t3 c4 5 .

6.3.6.: : 5.
ticj(x) , ti x cj. ,
:
1.
1)
2)
3)
4)
t1c2(5), t3c3(5), t2 , c2 c3 .
t1c3(5), t3c2(5), t2 .
t2 c2(5), t1 c1(5), t3 c4(5)
t2 c3(5)
20 .
2.
1)
2)
3)
t1 c1(5), t2 c2(5), t3 c3(5)

t1 c2(5), t2 c3(5), t3 c4(5)
t1 c3(5), t3 c2(5), t2 .
15 . ,
.
6.3.6.
1.
1-5
t1
c2
t2
t3
c3
6-10
c3
c2
11-15
c1
c2
c4
2.
1-5
t1
c1
t2
c2
t3
c3
6-10
c2
c3
c4
11-15
c3
c2
16-20
c3
6.3.6. .

: ,
. ( 6.3.6.):
1
...
t1
t2
...
6.3.6. .
, . . i-
, j- , i- j- . -
6 - . NP-
393
,
:
- (. .
).
,
.
, 2 - ,
6.3.6.
t1
t2
t3
1
c1
c2
c3
2
c1
c2
c3
3
c1
c2
c3
4
c1
c2
c3
5
c1
c2
c3
6
c2
c3
c4
7
c2
c3
c4
8
c2
c3
c4
9
c2
c3
c4
10
c2
c3
c4
11
c3
c2
12
c3
c2
13
c3
c2
14
c3
c2
15
c3
c2
6.3.6. .
,
, . 5 5 (
6.3.6.):
5
10
15
20
...
t1
t2
...
6.3.6. .
, ,
:
mX = min(cl[i][j]), i = 1,2,...,c, j = 1,2,...,t, cl[i][j] 0.

mX : ti cj , i = 1,2,...,t,
mX cl[i][j].
, cl[i][j]
, , ,
- - , , .
generate(teacher, level, mX,
totalHours) 4 : teacher ,
, mX , totalHours
. ( level) mX , -, generate(0, level+1, mX, totalHours+mX).
, - , mX
. k teacher
( 1.3.3.). , cl[k][teacher]
mX, (teacher == N)
mX ..
, totalHours <
minimal ( - -
) , , . :
if (totalHours >= minimal) return;
6 - . NP-
394
. ., -
, .
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
#define MAXT 100
/* */
#define MAXC 100
/* */
const unsigned t = 3;
/* */
const unsigned c = 4;
unsigned cl[MAXC][MAXT] = {
{ 5, 5, 5 }, /* 1 */
{ 5, 5, 5 },
{ 5, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 5 } /* C */
};
const unsigned MAX_VALUE = 20000;
char usedC[100][MAXC];
unsigned teach[MAXT], minimal;
void generate(unsigned teacher, unsigned level,
unsigned mX, unsigned totalHours)
{ unsigned i, j;
if (totalHours >= minimal) return;
if (teacher == t) {
unsigned min = MAX_VALUE;
for (i = 0; i < c; i++)
for (j = 0; j < t; j++)
if (cl[i][j] < min && 0 != cl[i][j]) min = cl[i][j];
if (min == MAX_VALUE) {
if (totalHours < minimal) minimal = totalHours;
}
else {
generate(0, level + 1, min, totalHours + min);
}
return;
}
/* teacher, min */
for (i = 0; i < c; i++) {
if (cl[i][teacher] > 0 && !usedC[level][i]) {
cl[i][teacher] -= mX;
usedC[level][i] = 1;
generate(teacher + 1, level, mX, totalHours);
usedC[level][i] = 0; /* */
cl[i][teacher] += mX;
}
}
/* ,
6 - . NP-
395
*/
if (i == c) generate(teacher + 1, level, mX, totalHours);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 100; i++)
for (j = 0; j < c; j++) usedC[i][j] = 0;
minimal = MAX_VALUE;
generate(t, 0, 0, 0);
printf(" %u .\n",
minimal);
return 0;
}
program.c
:
15 .
:
1. , .
2. ?
6.3.7.
, ,
, , . (,
.) . ,
- ( ) ,
. , ,
, :
A 01 ( 0 , 1 ),
11, 0111. ,
0111, , AM.
, , :
, ("" ). , ,
, 0 1, a, b, c, d, :
1)
2)
"0", "1", "01", "10"

"a", "b", "c", "d"
, :
"0" "a"
"1" "b"
"01" "c"
"10" "d"
( )
. , .
, "0110" : "abba", "cd" .
.
6 - . NP-
396
, ,
. , , str1.
count, , ( count 0). , count, .
(, - "0110" "0"
"01"). () ,
. , , count
. count
, .
initLanguage().
N, transf[i].st1 i- (1 i n)
i- , transf[i].st2.
, int translation[] , , ,
.
0 9. .
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAXN
#define MAXTL
40 /* */
200 /* */
/* */
/* */
char *str1 = "101001010";
struct
char
char
};
struct
transType {
*st1;
*st2;
transType transf[MAXN];
unsigned translation[MAXTL], pN, total = 0;

/* : 0 , 1- */
void initLanguage(void)
{ transf[0].st1 = ""; transf[0].st2 = "01";
transf[1].st1 = ""; transf[1].st2 = "1000";
6 - . NP-
transf[19].st1
transf[20].st1
transf[21].st1
transf[22].st1
transf[23].st1
transf[24].st1
transf[25].st1
transf[26].st1
transf[27].st1
transf[28].st1
transf[29].st1
transf[30].st1
transf[31].st1
transf[32].st1
transf[33].st1
transf[34].st1
transf[35].st1
transf[36].st1
transf[37].st1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
"";
"";
"";
"";
"";
"";
"";
"";
"";
"1";
"2";
"3";
"4";
"5";
"6";
"7";
"8";
"9";
"0";
transf[19].st2
transf[20].st2
transf[21].st2
transf[22].st2
transf[23].st2
transf[24].st2
transf[25].st2
transf[26].st2
transf[27].st2
transf[28].st2
transf[29].st2
transf[30].st2
transf[31].st2
transf[32].st2
transf[33].st2
transf[34].st2
transf[35].st2
transf[36].st2
transf[37].st2
397
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
"001";
"0010";
"0000";
"1010";
"1110";
"1111";
"1101";
"0011";
"0101";
"01111";
"00111";
"00011";
"00001";
"00000";
"10000";
"11000";
"11100";
"11110";
"11111";
}
/* */
void printTranslation(void)
{ unsigned i;
total++;
for (i = 0; i < pN; i++)
printf("%s", transf[translation[i]].st1);
printf("\n");
}
/* */
void nextLetter(unsigned
count)
{ unsigned i, k;
if (count == strlen(str1)) { printTranslation(); return; }
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
unsigned len = strlen(transf[k].st2);
for (i = 0; i < len; i++)
if (str1[i + count] != transf[k].st2[i]) break;
if (i == len) {
translation[pN++] = k;
nextLetter(count + strlen(transf[k].st2));
pN--;
}
}
}
int main(void) {
printf(" : \n");
initLanguage();
pN = 0;
nextLetter(0);
printf(" : %u \n", total);
return 0;
}
translat.c
6 - . NP-
398
:
, . ?
6.4.
. , :
1)
2)
e ,
( ).
.
5 ( 5.4.4.) . :
1)
2)
( ) , . .

, : , (v1,v2, ... ,vk ), -
(v1,v2, ..., vk , vk+1), .
, ,
, "" :
- -, ,
, -
.
. NP- ,
.
6.4.1. ( )
1. () M . N , mi (1 i N). ,
, . . M.
2. ( ) ,
M . N , mi () ci.
, , . .
- M.
, , ((M.N)), ,
( 8). ,
, NP- .
.
, . .
2N ,
: M
.
6 - . NP-
399
. (
, ci mi c[i] m[i] .)
( ),
A = {a1,a2,...,ak }. S(a1,a2,...,ak ) S(a1,a2,...,ak ) =
m[a1]+m[a2]+...+m[ak ] . A
ak+1 , :
S(a1,a2,...,ak ) + m[ak+1] M, , A .
ak+1 , S(a1,a2,...,ak ) + m[ak+1] M, , a1,a2,...,ak (. . ).
c[A] = c[a1]+c[a2]+...+c[ak ] , - , :
void generate(i) {
if (____ > M) return;
if (i == N) {
/* , -
, */
return;
}
_i-_;
generate(i+1);
_i-_;
generate(i+1); /* . . i- */
}
. 2N- , ,
- M. .
, ,
, , ,
- . ,
, :
( -)
A = {a1,a2,...,ak }, B = {b1,b2,...,bp}. VT
, Vmax ,
. ,
VT c[b1] c[b2] ... c[bp] Vmax,
, . ,
, ,
, :
( ) + ( ) =
= (c[a1]+...+c[ak ]) + (VT (c[a1]+...+c[ak ]+c[b1]+...+c[bp])) =
= VT c[b1] c[b2] ... c[bp],
, - Vmax, , - - . generate():
float
float
float
float
Ttemp;
Vtemp;
VmaX;
totalV;
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
, */
*/
6 - . NP-
400
{ if (Ttemp > K) return;
if (Vtemp + totalV < VmaX) return; /* */
if (i == N) {
if (Vtemp > VmaX) {
__;
VmaX = Vtemp;
}
return;
}
Vtemp += c[i]; Ttemp += m[i]; totalV -= c[i]; /* i */
generate(i+1);
Vtemp -=c [i]; Ttemp -= m[i]; /* _i-_; */
generate(i+1); /* . . i- "" */
totalV += c[i];
}
int main(void) {
totalV = c[1] + c[2] + ... + c[N];
generate(0);
return 0;
}
, i- . taken[] tN,
. - , , saveTaken[], sn . main() . N, M, c[N] m[N] .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
const double M = 10.5;
const double c[MAXN] = {10.3,9.0,12.0,8.0,4.0,8.4,9.1,17.0,6.0,9.7};
const double m[MAXN] = {4.0,2.6,3.0,5.3,6.4,2.0,4.0,5.1,3.0,4.0};
unsigned taken[MAXN], saveTaken[MAXN], tn, sn;
double VmaX, Vtemp, Ttemp, totalV;
{ unsigned k;
if (Ttemp > M) return;
if (Vtemp + totalV < VmaX) return;
if (i == n) {
if (Vtemp > VmaX) { /* */
VmaX = Vtemp; sn = tn;
for (k = 0; k < tn; k++) saveTaken[k] = taken[k];
}
return;
}
taken[tn++] = i; Vtemp += c[i]; totalV -= c[i]; Ttemp += m[i];
generate(i + 1);
tn--; Vtemp -= c[i]; Ttemp -= m[i];
generate(i + 1);
totalV += c[i];
}
6 - . NP-
401
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
tn = 0; VmaX = 0; totalV = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) totalV += c[i];
generate(0);
printf(" : %.2lf\n : \n", VmaX);
for (i = 0; i < sn; i++) printf("%u ", saveTaken[i] + 1);
printf("\n");
return 0;
}
bagrec.c
:
: 37.40
:
3 6 8
:
1. , 1.
2. , .
6.5.
, ,
6.5.2. 6.3.4.
. , .
G(V,E). (i,j)E ...
, i, j
. :
, (
, . :
o , .
o (
, ).
o (
/ / ).
o ( ""
).
, .
, , (. . ,
).
, (. . , ).
( , ).
6 - . NP-
402
, -
. ,
, .
6.5.1. "X"- "O"

, , -
( 10100 ). -,
:
33. 1 X, 2 O. ,
, .
(,
, X ).
6.5.1.:
X O
X
O
X O
X
X
6.5.1. X- O
6.5.1. T3 T4 ( 1 ), T2 ( 2, ), T1 .
, X- O,
( ).
checkPosition(int player, board), board , player. board1,board2,...,boardn
, board :
/* : 1 - player, */
/*
2 - */
/*
3 - */
int checkPosition(int player, board)
if ( ) {
if ( ) return 3; /* */
if (player == , ) return 1;
if (player != , ) return 2;
6 - . NP-
403
} else {
if (checkPosition(other_player,boardi)==1 i=1,..,n) return 2;
if (checkPosition(other_player,boardi)==2 i=1,..,n) return 1;
return 3;
}
}

, . 6.5., ,
( , )
, .
X
O X
T1
T2
X X
O X
O
X X
O X
O
T3
X X X
O X
O
O
O X X
O X
O
O X X
O X
O
X
T4
6.5.1. .
checkPosition() . ,
. , , ,
- ( 6.5.1.
). " 3
" .
6.5.1. 3 ( ).
6 - . NP-
404
checkPosition() X-
O. terminal(), ,
, , , :
#include <stdio.h>
/* */
const char startPlayer = 2;
/* */
char board[3][3] = {
{ '.', '.', '.' },
{ '.', 'X', '.' },
{ 'X', '.', 'O' }};
/* : 1, 1,
*
2, 2,
*
3,
*
0, .
*/
char terminal(char a[3][3])
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
/* */
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
if (a[i][j] != a[i][0]) break;
if (3 == j && a[i][0] != '.') {
if (a[i][0] == 'X') return 1; else return 2;
}
/* */
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
if (a[j][i] != a[0][i]) break;
if (3 == j && a[i][0] != '.') {
if (a[0][i] == 'X') return 1; else return 2;
}
/* */
if (a[0][0] == a[1][1] && a[1][1] == a[2][2] && a[1][1] != '.')
if (a[0][0] == 'X') return 1; else return 2;
if (a[2][0] == a[1][1] && a[1][1] == a[0][2] && a[1][1] != '.')
if (a[2][0] == 'X') return 1; else return 2;
}
/* ( ) */
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++)
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++)
if (a[i][j] == '.') return 0;
return 3;
}
/* : 1, player,
*
2,
*
3, */
char checkPosition(char player, char board[3][3])
{ unsigned i, j, result;
int t = terminal(board);
if (t) {
if (player == t) return 1;
if (3 == t) return 3;
if (player != t) return 2;
}
6 - . NP-
405
else {
char otherPlayer, playerSign;
if (player == 1) { playerSign = 'X'; otherPlayer = 2; }
else { playerSign = 'O'; otherPlayer = 1; }
/* char board[3][3];
*
*/
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < 3; j++) {
if (board[i][j] == '.') {
board[i][j] = playerSign;
result = checkPosition(otherPlayer, board);
board[i][j] = '.';
if (result == 2) return 1; /* . , */
/* player */
if (result == 3) return 3; /* */
}
}
}
/*
* player */
return 2;
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("%u\n", checkPosition(startPlayer, board));
return 0;
}
tictac.c
""
, , .
:
1. , X- O ,
: , , . . , . , .
2. X- O ,
nn, , , m .
- m 5.
3. , 33, , .
4. :
) ,
) ( ))
) (.. )
6.5.2.
X- O. , ( 6.5.1.), ,
. , 1.
6 - . NP-
406
( ): +,
1, , 2, 0, .
: i
i1,i2,..,ik V[i]
:
max( V [i1 ],V [i2 ],...,V [ik ]), 1

V [i]
min(V [i1 ],V [i2 ],...,V [ik ]), 2
, , ,
1, (
, /
). ( ),
.
value minimax( i) {
if (i__) return __;
(i1, i2, .., in) i;
if (i_e___)
return min(minimax(i1), .., minimax(in));
if (i_e___)
return max(minimax(i1), .., minimax(in));
}
, - - . X- O -
, + 0.
. , ,
,
(. . 6.5.4.). minimax() , .
.
:
X- O ,
.
6.5.3. -
- , . .
6.5.3. ,
A1. A1 V[B1],
V[B2], V[B3] .. V[B1]
. , B1 , V[B1] = max(V[C1,C2,C3]) = max(5,4,3) = 5. A1
, V[B1] = 5 , A1 - 5.
- B2. V[B2]
D1,D2,D3,... . -
, ,
D1, V[D1] = 6. , B2
6 ( ). , V[A1] 5.
B2 ( , -)
6 - . NP-
407
D2, D3,... , , V[B2] 6,

V[A1] 5.
, .
6.5.3.: , V[C1] = 4, V[C2] = 5, V[C3] = 6.
V[B1] = min(V[C1], V[C2], V[C3]) = min(4, 5, 6) = 4. , V[A1] 4. -
, V[D1] = 3, , V[B2] 3. V[A1] 4 V[B2] 3 , - B2 (-).
1
C1
min
max
B1
C2
C3
V[A1] = min(V[B1],V[B2],...);
max
B2
D1
V[B1] = max(V[C1],V[C2],...),...
D2
D3
6.5.3. .
: ,
, -
- :
-
- : , , . -, ,

, . -
- .
-
- .
- +. -, - ,
. - -
.
, :
- - .
, , , , - .
- ( ) -
- .
- ( ) -
- .
6 - . NP-
min
B1
C1
C2
max
V[A1] = max(V[B1],V[B2],...);
V[B1] = min(V[C1],V[C2],...), ...
min
B2
C3
408
D1
D2
D3
6.5.3. .
, .
minimaxCutoff() , + (
):
value
Na
Nb
if
if
minimaxCutoff(N, A, B) {
= A; /* Na - ,
= B; /* Nb - ,
(N__) return __;
(N____)
for (__Ni__N) {
val = minimaxCutoff(Ni, Na, Nb);
Nb = min(Nb, val);
if (Nb <= Na) break; /* -
}
return Nb;
} else { /* if (N____) */
for (__Ni__N) {
val = minimaxCutoff(Ni, Na, Nb);
Na = max(Na, val);
if (Na >= Nb) break; /* -
}
return Na;
}
*/
*/
*/
*/
- - ,
.
:
X- O ,
- .
- .
6.5.4. -
. - , ,
- . .
, , . , , ,
6 - . NP-
409
.. , ,
, .
, [Brassard,Bratley1996]:
10; 5; , 3,25; 1;
( )
.
, , , +,
. 0.
6.5.2. ,

:
value eval( i) {
return ______;
}
value minimax( i, depth) {
if (i__) return __(+,-,0);
if (depth > maxDepth) return eval(i); /* */
_(i1, i2, .., in)____i;
if (i_e___)
return min(minimax(i1,depth+1), .., minimax(in,depth+1));
if (i_e___)
return max(minimax(i1,depth+1), .., minimax(in,depth+1));
}
- maxDepth , -
. , . , ,
maxDepth ( eval(i)) - : ( maxDepth + 1), ,
- .
- - .
1997 Deep Blue, , 200,000,000 . -
, , .
eval() (
). ,
,
.
:
1. X- O.
2. X- O -
.
6.6.
6.6.1.
6.1.
( 6.1.).
6 - . NP-
410
6.2.
, , ( 6.1.).
6.3.
( 6.1.) :
n .
n, -
q (q > 1, q < n).
6.4.
6.2. , NP- A
B, B NP-. ( 6.2.)
6.5.
, NP ( 6.2.) (, NP- ).
6.6.
" n, -
q (q > 1, q < n)." NP.
NP-?
6.7.
6.3. (,
)?
6.8.
. (
6.3.1.)
6.9.
( X 2 X3 X1) X2 ( X 1 X 3 )?
6.10.
A (B C) = (A B) (A C),
. ( 6.3.1.)
6.11.
. ( 6.3.1.)
6.12.
A B A B .
6 - . NP-
411
6.13.
. ,
.
6.14. , , {,
} {, } {, , }.
6.15. , {, } {, , }?
6.16.
,
, .. r (1 r n)
r . ( 6.3.2.)
6.17.
6.3.2.
6.18.
.
( 6.3.2.)
6.19.
- , , . () , ? ( 6.3.3.)
6.20.
- , ,
(, ). ( 6.3.3.)
6.21.
6.3.3. ,
.
6.22.
6.3.4. , .
6.23.
6.3.4. ,
. , ,
.
6.24.
( 6.3.4.):
)
)
6.25.
n (n > 4) nn .
. a , . (
6.3.4.)
6 - . NP-
412
6.26.
n (n > 4) nn , . .
a , ,
. ( 6.3.4.)
6.27.
n (n > 4) nn .

. ( 6.3.4.)
6.28.

(.. -
k).
6.29.
6.28. 6.26?
6.30.

6.3.5.:
. , , ,
.
6.31.
( )
? ( 6.3.5.)
6.32.
6.3.6. , .
6.33.
6.3.6. ?
6.34.
6.3.7. , .
?
6.35.
, 1 6.4.1.
6.36.
6.4.1. ,
.
6.37.
, X- O ,
: , , . . , . , . ( 6.5.1.)
6 - . NP-
413
6.38.
X- O ,
nn, , , m . m 5. ( 6.5.1.)
6.39.
, 33, ,
. ( 6.5.1.)
6.40.
:
) ,
) ( ))
) (.. )
( 6.5.1.)
6.41.
X- O ,
.
( 6.5.2.)
6.42.
X- O ,
- .
- . ( 6.5.3.)
6.43.
X- O.
( 6.5.4.)
6.44.
X- O -
. ( 6.5.1.)
6.6.2.
- NP-
- NP- , . NP-
. ,
NP-, ,
:
( 9).
, ,
.
( 9). NP- . , , , .
, NP-,
.
6 - . NP-
414

( 8).
. .
, ,

. .
, , 1979
"" NP- [Garey,Johnson-1979]. ,
, ( ). - - :
( , ). ,
- .
. : (
, , .) .
, , ,
.
. ( ) , ( - )
, , .
, . ,
[Garey,Johnson-1979],
.
:
6.45. 3- (3-COL)
.
"" ( )
: , , , , ,
.
, .
, , 3 .
,

..
- .
- , - ,
.
- - .
6.46.
.
, .
: 5.4.4., 6.2., 9.2.3. .
6.47.
n k, 1 k n.
, k .
. ,
(
k = n).
6 - . NP-
415
6.48.
m C1, C2, ..., Cm X1, X2, ..., Xn
.
"" "" X1, X2, ..., Xn, C1, C2, ..., Cm .
6.3.1.
6.49. -
n k, 1 k n.
s, t .
s t, k .
6.3.3.
6.50.
n k, k 1.
, ,
( ) - k.

, .
6.51.
A aA
s(a). k.
BA , s(x)
xB k.
1 6.4.1. . 8.2.1., .
6.52.
A. a s(a).
A A1 A2,
s( x ) s( y ) .
xA1
yA2
,
( ) ( ) ,

. 8.2.2.
6.53. .
A aA
s(a). k.
BA , s(x), xB k.
.
6.54.
A n . aA s(a). b k, 1 k n.
k A1, A2, ..., Ak , Ai
(1ik) b.
k ,
b , . -
6 - . NP-
416
k,
.
6.55.
n ( 1,2,...,n)
. (a, b, c, d) , a, b, c d.
k, 1 k n.
kk,
, .
[-5/1998]
6.56.
n S = {s1,s2,...,sn} W = {w1,w2,...,w2n} 2n
, wi n S.
2n nn, .
. C nn, S ,
W.
6.57.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
UV, k ,
i,jU , (i,j)E.
5.7.2.
6.58.
G(V,E).
E E1 E2
, (i,j), (j,k), (k,i) (. .
G1(V,E1), G2(V,E2) 3).
6.59.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
G U, UV - k ,
iV, iU jU , (i,j) E.
6.60.
G(V,E) m k, 1 k m.
1
k ( 1 k) , ,
.
, , k
. NP-
. [Gibbons,Rytter1987].
6.61. -
S = {s1,s2,...,sn} ( 0 1)
k.
s - k , pS
s.
, , - NP-.
6 - . NP-
417
6.62.
G(V,E) m , E1, E1E k, 1 k m.
( ),
eE1 , - k.
6.63. ""
A = <a1,a2,...,an> B = <b1,b2,...,bm>
.
Div(x,Y) (Y ) yY, x
y. c, Div(c, A) > Div(c,
B).
NP-
. c , 1.
, NP-. ,
( ) - .
6.64.
a, b, c.
x y , (a.x2) + (b.y) = c
, 19
x y ,
a, b c.
6.65.
a, b c.
x, x c , x2 a (mod b).
6.66.
n {(a1,b1), (a2,b2), ..., (an,bn)},
ai bi, 1 i n.
x , ai x (mod bi), 1 i n.
6.67.
k M nn, 0 1.
M - k , . . (ai, bi, ci, di), 1 i k, ai bi, ci di
, :
- (i,j), 1 i, j n M[i][j] == 1 ,
l (1 l k) al i bl cl j dl.
- : l (1 l k), i (al i bl),
j (cl j dl) M[i][j] == 1.
, ( ):
- - k
.
6.68.
, s t r
C = {(a1,b1), (a2,b2), ..., (ar,br)}.
s t , (ai,bi)C -
ai, bi .
6 - . NP-
418
6.69.
G(V,E) n m k, 1 k m.
E1 E k ,
G(V,E1) .
: n
s1,s2,...,sn, . ,
() ()
.
6.70.
G(V,E) 2n m k, 1 k m.
G U W,
n- , (i,j) E, iU, jW - k.
,

.
6.71.
A n C (a, b, c) .
X Y n . , X Y f:XY, X
Y : Y X.
, f:X{1,2,...,n} X 1 n.
f:X{1,2,...,n},
(a,b,c)C :
f(a) < f(b) < f(c)
f(b) < f(c) < f(a)
f(c) < f(a) < f(b)
6.72.
n- A C (a, b, c),
a, b, c A.
f:A{1,2,...,n} , (a, b,
c)C f(a) < f(b) < f(c) f(c) < f(b) < f(a).
6.73.
S k , n r.
H(x,y) x y , x y. x
n , y, yS H(x,y) r.
NP- [Frances-Litman-1997].
6.74. B-
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
G, . .
f:V {1,2,...,n} , (i,j) E |f(i)f(j)| k.
6.75.
G(V,E).
E1, E1E ,
G1(V,E1) 3, 0.
6 - . NP-
419
6.76.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
UV - k ,
(i,j)E i,j U.
6.77.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
f:V {1,2,...,n},
| f (i) f ( j) | k
( i , j )E
6.78.
G(V,E) n k-
{(s1,t1), (s2,t2),..., (sk ,tk ) }.
k ( ) s i
ti.
6.79.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
V t, 1 t k V1, V2, ..., Vt , Vi Gi(Vi,Ei)G .
6.80. -
G1(V1,E1), G2(V2,E2) k.
F1E1 F2E2 , :
- F1 F2 -
k.
- G1(V1,F1), G2(V2,F2) .
6.81. 2-
C1,C2,...,Cm n X = {X1, X2, ...,
Xn}, Xi, XjX.
k, 1 k m.
"" "" , k .
k = m - 6.4. 2-SAT
( m) .
6.82. (k-)
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
UV k ,
U G(U,E) , . . iU, jU (i,j) E.
6.83.
G(V,E) 2n .
:
- (2n2n)/2 +1 .
- (2n2n)/2 +1 n-.
6.84.
G(V,E).
, .. U, UV, :
- i,j U , . (i,j) E
- i V\U, j U , (i,j) E.
6 - . NP-
420
6.85.
X, Y, Z n M
m (xi, yi, zi), xiX, yiY, ziZ, 1 i m.
Q M n ,
(i, j, k)Q, (u, v, w)Q i u, j v, k w.
-
( 5.7.6.), .
6.86.
S m C1,C2,...,Cm.
S S1 S2 , Ci , i =
1,2,...,m S1, S2.
6.87.
C1,C2,...,Cm k, 1 k m.
k , .
6.88.
A n aA s(a).
j k, 1 k n.
A k A1,A2,...,Ak , i =
1,2,,k:
s ( x) 2 j
xAi
6.89. 3-
A 3m b. aA s(a), b/4 < s(a) < b/2. ,
s(a) mb .
aA
A m A1, A2, ..., Am ,

Ai 3 A Ai ( i
= 1,2,...,m) b.
6.90. " "
, G(V,E) t . U V, ,
. k.
" " - k ,
" " , . . ,
TU , :
- T - k .
- iV jT, i j t.
6.91. " "
G(V,E) n V0V.
"" "" V0
V - 4 , . . V0, E1, V1, E2,
V2, E3, V3, E4, V4 , :
- Vi V, 0 i 4.
- Ei E, 1 i 4.
- V4V.
6 - . NP-
421
- (u,v) Ei vVi-1, 1 i 4.
- Ei, , 1 i 4.
- Vi = Vi-1 {w: (v,w) Ei}, 1 i 4.
6.92. -
G(V,E) n . (i,j)E
e(i,j) l(i,j), . s t k w.
s t, :
- - w.
- - k.
,
- ( 5.4.2.), .
6.93. -
G(V,E) m k, 1 k m.
E1E - k ,
, . . E1
eE, eE1 E1.
6.94.
G(V,E) 3n .
V n V1, V2,...,Vn
(, V), 3 , - ,
Vi = {ui,vi,wi} (ui, vi), (vi, wi), (wi, ui) E, 1 i n.
6.95.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
V t, 1 t k V1, V2,...,Vt (, V), ,
Vi Gi(Vi,Ei) G .
6.96.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
V t, 1 t k
V1, V2,...,Vt (, V) ,
Vi Gi(Vi,Ei)G , . .
.
6.97.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
t, t k V1, V2,...,Vt, V (
), :
- Vi Gi(Vi,Ei) G .
- (u,v)E Vi, u
v.
6.98.
G(V,E) n m k, 1 k m.
d, d n.
E1E k ,
G(V,E1)G , - d.
6 - . NP-
422
6.99.
G(V,E) m k, 1 k m.
E1E k ,
G(V,E1) G - i, jV.
6.100. k-
G(V,E) n m . k
b, 1 k n 1 b m.
E1E - b ,
G1(V,E1) G k-.
6.101.
G(V,E) n k.
f:V{1,2,...,n} , i, 1 i n
(u,v)E, f(u) i f(v), - k.
6.102.
G(V,E) m , s, t
k, 1 k m.
E1E - k ,
P Q s t ( )
eE1, P Q.
6.103.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
U, UV p (p k) ,
G1(U,E1) G, U, p .
6.104.
G(V,E) n k, k n.
t, t k V1, V2,...,Vt V (
) , ( 1 i t):
- Gi(Vi,Ei)G, Vi, .
- Vi - 4.
6.105.
G1(V1,E1) G2(V2,E2) k.
U V1V2 (. .
i,j , iV1, jV2) k , <u,v>U
<x,y>U, (u,x) E1 , (v,y) E2.
6.106.
W, X, Y, m .
uWXY f(u). b.
3m- WXY m A1,A2,...,Am , :
- Ai W, X
Y.
f (u ) b , Ai, 1 i n.
uAi
6 - . NP-
423
6.107.
X. (x,y), x,yX
d(x,y). b.
X X1, X2, X3
, Xi (1 i 3) x,yXi d(x,y) b.
6.108. 2-
G(V,E) s.
E1E - s ,
(v,w)E , : 1) (v,w) E1; 2) (v,x) E1 (x,w) E1 xV.
, G1(V,E1) 2-
G(V,E).
2- ( - t-) t- ,
.
6.109.
G(V,E) k, 1 k n.
G , k , .. .
[Dunne-1987]
6.110.
G(V,E) k, 1 k n.
G , , k.
6.111.
.
b.
, :
- 5 .
- - b.
6.112.
G(V,E) n k, 1 k n.
, G1(V,E1) :
- G1(V,E1) .
- G(V,E1) - k.
6.113. "-"
G(V,E) n , s
. "-" "-". k.
G1(V1,E1) G, :
- s V1
- wV1 w "-", , w, E1.
- wV1 w "-", , w, E1.
- E1 - k .
6.114.
G(V,E) b.
6 - . NP-
424
,
u v, u,vV, - b.
6.115.
T . tT l(t) 1 2.
T . d (deadline).
, T d : T{1,2,...,n}, :
- u 0 t T, (t) u (t) + l(t) - 2.
- tT, (t) + l(t) d.
, i -
j (j) (i) + l(i).
6.116. - 2
T . tT l(t). d.
, d.
6.117.
G(V,E) n ,
- 2 (. . - ).
k.
(v1,v2,...,vn) (V0,V1,...,Vn)
V, :
- Vi - k V (1 i n1).
- V0 , Vn ( 0).
- i = 1,2,...,n : viVi; Vi\{vi}
Vi-1; Vi-1 u, (vi,u)E.
. -
, .
( 16 32),
.
" " ( . straight-line
programs), . " " , " ",
k .
6.118.
f n X1, X2,...,Xn,
A = <a1, a2,...,an>, f(a1, a2,...,an) = 1. k.
f ,
- k.
, :
- , , X1, X2,...,Xn.
- 0 1.
- , , 0.
- , , 1.
(X1, X2,...,Xn)
, ,
. -
6 - . NP-
425
. f(X1, X2,...,Xn),
A ,
f(A). t - v
v , t.
-
6.119.
mn
. 5
1 ( ) 6.6.2.
6.6.2. .
,
60 (.. m.n = 60) ,
.
6.120. n-
n- , n- 1.
n. n- ,
.
6.121.
n nn, 1 n2 , ,
, (n/2).(n2+1).
nn.
6.122.
n ( 1.30.).
, /
, 1 (1.5.3.).
7

Fools ignore complexity.
Pragmatists suffer it.
Some can avoid it.
Geniuses remove it.
~ Epigrams in Programming
-, -
, . ,

.

.
? .
, -
(). . ,
, ().
,
. , , -. , ,
. .
, , ,
, - .
7.1. k-
, , . ,
n1 :
int findMax(int m[], unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned i;
int max;
for (max = m[0], i = 1; i < n; i++)
if (m[i] > max) /**/
max = m[i];
return max;
}
maximum.c
? ,
.
, . ,
, (-
7 -
428
), , . ,
n1.
.
, . , .
, (log2 n).

. ,
,
. ,
, . ,
x y .
.
. , , /
2n1 (
, /**/.). ,
,
.
- , - 3n/2 . :
, - , - , .
void findMinMax(int *min, int *max, const int m[],const unsigned n)
/* */
{ unsigned i, n2;
for (*min = *max = m[n2 = n/2], i = 0; i < n2; i++)
if (m[i] > m[n-i-1]) {
if (m[i] > *max)
*max = m[i];
if (m[n-i-1] < *min)
*min = m[n-i-1];
}
else {
if (m[n-i-1] > *max)
*max = m[n-i-1];
if (m[i] < *min)
*min = m[i];
}
}
maximum.c
, ?
, , , - . : - , - , - -:
/* */
void swap(int *el1, int *el2)
{ int tmp = *el1; *el1 = *el2; *el2 = tmp; }
int findSecondMax(int m[], unsigned n)
{ int x,y;
7 -
429
unsigned i;
x = m[0]; y = m[1];
if (y > x)
swap(&x,&y);
for (i = 2; i < n; i++)
if (m[i] > y)
if ((y = m[i]) > x)
swap(&x,&y);
return y;
}
maximum.c
. , , (n2)-
. ,
2n3.
- k- -
n- . (nk+1)- . , , ,
< ( ) > ( ), k- .
,
k- k- . , ,
k, n.log2 n. ,
(n + k.log2 n), k
( (n),
(n.log2 n) , - , 3.1.9.).
, (min(n + k.log2 n, n+(nk+1).log2 n)). ,
k > [n/2], . , k
n/2, ,
k (nk+1) ,
.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX 100
int m[MAX];
const unsigned k = 10; /* */
void init(int m[], unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
m[i] = rand() % (2*n + 1);
}
void siftMin(int
{ int i,j;
int x;
i = l; j = i +
while (j <= r)
if (j < r)
if (m[j] >
j++;
l,int r) /* . */
i + 1; x = m[i];
{
m[j+1])
7 -
if (x <= m[j])
break;
m[i] = m[j];
i = j;
j = j*2 + 1;
}
m[i] = x;
}
void siftMax(int l,int r) /* . */
{ int i,j;
int x;
i = l; j = i + i + 1; x = m[i];
while (j <= r) {
if (j < r)
if (m[j] < m[j+1])
j++;
if (x >= m[j])
break;
m[i] = m[j];
i = j;
j = j*2 + 1;
}
m[i] = x;
}
void heapFindK(unsigned k) /* k- */
{ int l,r;
char useMax;
if (useMax = (k > n/2))
k = n k - 1;
l = n/2; r = n - 1;
/* */
while (l-- > 0)
if (useMax) siftMax(l,r); else siftMin(l,r);
/* (k-1)- */
for (r = (int)n-1; r >= (int)(n-k); r--) {
m[0] = m[r];
if (useMax) siftMax(0,r); else siftMin(0,r);
}
}
void print(int m[], unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%8d", m[i]);
}
int main(void) {
init(m,n);
printf(" :"); print(m,n);
printf("\n k- : k=%u", k);
heapFindK(k);
printf("\nk- : %d", m[0]);
return 0;
}
heap.c
430
7 -
431
-
. , (
3.2.2.), cj j
. , [l,r].
cl, cl+1, cl+2, ... j,
- k. j. ,
,
.
, ( 3.1.6.)
, .
,
( ).
l = 0, r = n1 x = m[k] (,
0 n1).
i j :
m[h] x, h < i
m[h] x, h > j
i>j
:
i < k. x - .
, l = i. ( 7.1.)
j i
7.1. i < k.
j > k. x - .
, r = j. ( 7.1.)
j i
7.1. j > k.
j < k < i. x . , -
, - . . ( 7.1.)
j ki
7.1. j < k < i.

,
i, j k. 3 k- k- .
void find(int m[],unsigned n,unsigned k) /* k- */
{ int i,j,l,r;
int x;
l = 0; r = n - 1;
while (l < r) {
x = m[k]; i = l; j = r;
for(;;) {
7 -
432
while (x > m[i]) i++;

while (x < m[j]) j--;
if (i > j)
break;
swap(m + i, m + j);
i++;
j--;
}
if (j < (int)k)
l = i;
if ((int)k < i)
r = j;
}
}
mid_elem.c
2n,
, k- , . -, ,
(min(n + k.log2 n, n + (nk+1).log2 n)), , - . , - ,
1, (n2). ,
, ,
- .
, ,
. x,
( - m[r]),
mid, , p, l
. k p, k- (l,mid).
(kp)- (mid+1,r).
, ( ):
unsigned partition(unsigned l,unsigned r) /* */
{ int i;
unsigned j;
int x;
i = l - 1; x = m[r];
for (j = l; j <= r; j++)
if (m[j] <= x) {
i++;
swap(m+i,m+j);
}
if (i == (int)r) /* <= x. 1. */
i--;
return i;
}
unsigned find(int l, int r, unsigned k) /* */
{ unsigned mid, p;
if (l == r)
return l;
mid = partition(l,r);
p = mid - l + 1;
return k < p ? find(l,mid,k) : find(mid+1,r,k-p);
}
mid_el2.c
7 -
433
,
, -.
, x. x ,
, . .
.
x? , , , ,
. . , k- 28n . n 55
. , ( 3.1.4.), n(n1)/2
, n 55 28n n(n1)/2.
, 28t t < n. n/7
, 7 ,
(), . , 7(71)/2 = 21 .
, 21(n/7) = 3n.
n/7-
(). 28(n/7) = 4n .
:
1. 7. Si, i = 1, 2, ..., n/7.
- 7 .
2. Si mi.
3. M mi, .
- . , partition(), x L[] :
L1[], - x, L2[], x, L3[],
- x.
unsigned select(int L[],
/* */
unsigned k) /* */
{ n = length(L); /* L[] */
if (n <= 7) {
bubbleSort(L,n);
return L[k];
}
/* L n/7 S[i] 7 . */
split(L, S = {S[i] | i = 1,2,...,n/7});
for (i = 0; i < n/7; i++)
x[i] = select(S[i],3); /* */
M = select({x[i]| i=1,2,...,n/7}, n/14);
partition(L,L1,L2,L3);
if (k <= length(L1)) then
return select(L1,k);
else if (k > length(L1) + length(L2)) then
return select(L3,k-length(L1)-length(L2));
else
return M;
}
7 -
434
7.1. .
x , 2n/7 - x, 2n/7 - x ( 7.1.).
3n , 4n ,
n , 28(5n/7)
(
2n/7 ). ,
28n . . . . , 28
, 2, . , n
16384
. , n > 16384 ,
- . 28n ,
15n. , , , 391/72
5,4306.n. , 3n,
2,95.n ! [Dor,Zwick-1996]
:
1. k- , .
2. , k- ,
, ,
i, j k, 7.1., 7.1. 7.1.
3. k- , , .
4. 5 ? 3?
? .
5. .
7.2.
7.1. n- (. . ,
). , , n/2 .
{2, 3, 3, 1, 3} 3, {1, 1, 2, 3}
.
, , . - , . ,
7 -
435
, (
) , - . -
CDataType, char.
char , , int
float.
, ,
n/2 . findMajority(),
, , , ,
( ). 1, , 0
.
count(), - . - .
#include <stdio.h>
#define CDataType char
unsigned count(CDataType m[], unsigned size, CDataType candidate)
{ unsigned cnt, i;
for (i = cnt = 0; i < size; i++)
if (m[i] == candidate)
cnt++;
return cnt;
}
char findMajority(CDataType m[],unsigned size,CDataType *majority)
{ unsigned i, size2 = size / 2;
for (i = 0; i < size; i++)
if (count(m, size, m[i]) > size2) {
*majority = m[i];
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
int main(void) {
CDataType majority;
if (findMajority("AAACCBBCCCBCC", 13, &majority))
printf(": %c\n", majority);
else
printf(" .\n");
return 0;
}
major1.c
(n2), n-
, .
, . , count()
, . ,
, . ,
. ,
, .
(n/2)- . ,
7 -
436
, , ,
.
{ unsigned i, j, cnt, size2 = size / 2;
for (i = 0; i <= size / 2; i++) {
for (cnt = 0, j = i; j < size; j++)
if (m[i] == m[j]) cnt++;
if (cnt > size2) {
*majority = m[i];
return 1;
}
}
return 0;
}
major2.c
, , , - , n/2+1 , (n2). . , ,
, ,
.
{ unsigned i, j, cnt, size2 = size / 2;
for (i = 0; i <= size / 2; i++) {
for (cnt = 0, j = i; j < size; j++)
if (cnt + size - j <= size2)
break;
else if (m[i] == m[j])
cnt++;
if (cnt > size2) {
*majority = m[i];
return 1;
}
}
return 0;
}
major3.c
,
: , . . . - - .
(n2).
, - . , , , , . .
(, ,
, , .):
{ heapSort(m, size); /* mergeSort(m,size); */
if (count(m, size, m[size / 2]) > size2) {
*majority = m[size / 2];
7 -
437
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
major4.c
,
.
( 3.1.9.) ( 7.4. -),
(n.log2 n) - ,
(n.log2 n). , .
(n.log2 n) 2 3 , -
(n2).
( k- ) , . , , , ,
(n), 5,43n163 , n
> 32. ( 7.1.)
{ CDataType med;
med = findMedian(m, size);
if (count(m, size, med) > size2) {
*majority = med;
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
major5.c
, ,
, . ,
,
.
.
( 3.2.2.).
.

n/2 . (k), ,
k, .
(n+k). k ( k < n)
(n).
#define MAX_NUM 127
CDataType cnt[MAX_NUM + 1];
{ unsigned i, j, size2 = size / 2;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX_NUM; i++)
cnt[i] = 0;
/* */
for (j = 0; j < size; j++)
cnt[m[j]]++;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX_NUM; i++)
7 -
438
if (cnt[i] > size2) {

*majority = i;
return 1;
}
return 0;
}
major6.c
, , , .
( , ). ,
x , .
.
. :
1)
2)
3)
. .
x, . x .
x y, .
x, y. ( x , y .)
, ,
. - (
) , .
,
, 0,
size1.
unsigned count(CDataType m[], unsigned left,
unsigned right, CDataType candidate)
{ unsigned cnt;
for (cnt = 0; left <= right; left++)
if (m[left] == candidate)
cnt++;
return cnt;
}
char findMajority(CDataType m[], unsigned left,
unsigned right, CDataType *majority)
{ unsigned mid;
if (left == right) {
*majority = m[left];
return 1;
}
mid = (left + right) / 2;
if (findMajority(m, left, mid, majority))
if (count(m, left, right, *majority) > (right - left + 1) / 2)
return 1;
if (findMajority(m, mid + 1, right, majority))
if (count(m, left, right, *majority) > (right - left + 1) / 2)
return 1;
return 0;
}
major7.c
7 -
439
? , - . .
( ) 0, n 2n , 1), 2) 3).
. n- T(n), :
T(1) = 0
T(n) = T(n/2) + 2n
( 1.4.10) , T(n) (n.log2 n).
- ? ,
, , ,
:
1. ,
.
2. , ,
, .
. ,

. , {1,1,2,3,4} ( ) 3
4 ( ), {1,1,2}, 1 .
, : 1)
, 2) ,
( ) . ,
. , : 1 2
. ,
: , .
( ). , , . ,
- n/2 . ,
: (,
, ).
,
.
, . (: AA BB A). ,
, (: AA B).
, - , .
, .
n- T(n), -
:
T(1) = 0
T(n) = T(n/2) + n/2
( 1.4.10.) , T(n) (n).
,

. , ,
. , ,
.
7 -
440
void findMajority(CDataType m[],unsigned size,CDataType *majority)

{ unsigned i, curCnt;
char part = 0;
do {
for (curCnt = 0, i = 1; i < size; i += 2)
if (m[i - 1] == m[i])
m[curCnt++] = m[i];
if (i == size) {
m[curCnt++] = m[i - 1];
part = 1;
}
else if (part)
m[curCnt] = m[size - 2];
else if (m[size - 2] == m[size - 1])
m[curCnt] = m[size - 2];
else
curCnt--;
size = curCnt;
} while (size > 1);
*majority = m[0];
}
major8.c

.
, , .
,
. ? , ,
,
(,
). -
, , ,
, ,
. ,
. , . . .
do {
if (m[i - 1] == m[i])
m[curCnt++] = m[i];
if (size & 1)
*majority = m[size - 1];
size = curCnt;
} while (size > 0);
}
major9.c
? . ,
, ,
. , (. . , ),
. :
7 -
441
,
. , , ,
: .
:
.
do {
if (m[i - 1] == m[i])
m[curCnt++] = m[i];
if (!(curCnt & 1))
m[curCnt++] = m[size - 1];
size = curCnt;
} while (size > 1);
*majority = m[0];
}
major10.c
( -)
,
. 1.
m[i-1] m[i], cnt[i-1] cnt[i],
:
1. m[i-1] == m[i]
, cnt[i-1] + cnt[i].
2. m[i-1] != m[i]
2.1. cnt[i-1] == cnt[i]
.
2.2. cnt[i-1] < cnt[i]
m[i] cnt[i] - cnt[i-1].
2.3. cnt[i-1] > cnt[i]
m[i-1] cnt[i-1] - cnt[i].
.
, , , .
, .
:
unsigned *cnt = (unsigned *) malloc(size * sizeof(*cnt));
for (i = 0; i < size; i++) cnt[i] = 1;
do {
for (curCnt = 0, i = 1; i < size; i += 2) {
if (m[i - 1] == m[i]) {
cnt[curCnt] = cnt[i - 1] + cnt[i];
m[curCnt++] = m[i];
}
else if (cnt[i] > cnt[i - 1]) {
cnt[curCnt] = cnt[i] - cnt[i - 1];
m[curCnt++] = m[i];
}
else if (cnt[i] < cnt[i - 1]) {
cnt[curCnt] = cnt[i - 1] - cnt[i];
7 -
442
m[curCnt++] = m[i - 1];

}
}
if (size & 1) {
cnt[curCnt] = cnt[i - 1];
m[curCnt++] = m[i - 1];
}
size = curCnt;
} while (size > 1);
free(cnt);
*majority = m[0];
}
major11.c
(n) (
2.1.). . , .

. , . ,
,
. .
. , . ,
, . ,
,
. ,
.

, :
ABC(: )
BC (: )
C (: )
(: C)
,
. , ,
, . ,
.
, -. :
/* , */
#define STACK_SIZE 100
CDataType stack[STACK_SIZE];
unsigned stIndex;
void stackInit(void) { stIndex = 0; }
void stackPush(CDataType elem) { stack[stIndex++] = elem; }
CDataType stackPop(void) { return stack[--stIndex]; }
CDataType stackTop(void) { return stack[stIndex - 1]; }
char stackIsEmpty(void) { return 0 == stIndex; }
{ unsigned i, cnt;
stackInit();
for (stackPush(m[0]), i = 1; i < size; i++) {
if (stackIsEmpty())
stackPush(m[i]);
else if (stackTop() == m[i])
7 -
443
stackPush(m[i]);
else
stackPop();
}
if (stackIsEmpty()) return 0;
for (*majority = stackPop(), i = cnt = 0; i < size; i++)
if (m[i] == *majority)
cnt++;
return(cnt > size / 2);
}
major12.c
? ,
. ,
(, ), , .
: ( , ).
, 0.
:
1)
2)
0, , 1.
0:
2.1) , 1.
2.2) , 1.
.
0, . 0, ,
. ,
, .
, .
A A A C C B B C C C B C C
^
?:0
^
A:1
^
A:2
^
A:3
^
A:2
^
A:1
7 -
444
^
?:0
^
B:1
^
?:0
^
C:1
^
C:2
^
C:1
^
C:2
^
C:3
C . , C A, C
, . . .
, , .
:
char FindMajority(CDataType m[],unsigned size,CDataType *majority)
{ unsigned cnt, i;
for (i = cnt = 0; i < size; i++) {
if (0 == cnt) {
*majority = m[i];
cnt = 1;
}
else if (m[i] == *majority)
cnt++;
else
cnt--;
}
if (cnt > 0) {
for (i = cnt = 0; i < size; i++)
if (m[i] == *majority)
cnt++;
return(cnt > size / 2);
}
return 0;
}
major13.c
7 -
445
, , , ( ) . , , .
, .
, .
, , .
. ,
, .
, , ,
, ,
. ,
- (: ABC, C ).
. ,
.
, ,
. , -
, , , , -
. , 2n, , ,
, 5,43n163, n > 32. n 1
, 6,43n 164, n > 32. ( 7.1.)
:
1. , , , ,
.
2. , x
, x .
3. , m[] , , m[i] m[j] , .
4. , , ,
,
, .
7.3.
A B, a[]. , C
. , , . .
a[]. , . ,
,
. ,
b[], a[],
a[].
- a[] b[] ( n
m ) c[]. : 3
: . a[] b[]
- c[], c[] ,
- .
- c[], . ,
c[].
( while- memcpy()) :
7 -
446
i = j = k = 0;
while (i < n && j < m)
c[k++] = (a[i] < b[j]) ? a[i++] : b[j++];
if (i == n)
while(j < m)
c[k++] = b[j++];
else
while(i < n)
c[k++] = a[i++];
,
while-.
( - ) a[] b[],
. ,
a[] b[]:
i = j = k = 0; a[m] = b[n] = INFINITY; mn = m + n;
while (k < mn)
c[k++] = (a[i] < b[j]) ? a[i++] : b[j++];
n + m ,
-, memcpy(). , memcpy()
, ,
, (
):
i = j = k = 0;
while (i < n && j < m)
c[k++] = (a[i] < b[j]) ? a[i++] : b[j++];
if (i == n)
memcpy(c+k,b+j,m-j);
else
memcpy(c+k,a+i,n-i);
-
, A B C , . . C, C.
, ,
A B .
,
- , i j
. - . ( ), .
. .
,
. struct CElem
key.
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <time.h>
#define MAX
12
#define ARRAYS 6
7 -
struct CElem {
int key;
/* */
};
struct CList {
unsigned len, point;
struct CElem data[MAX];
struct CList *next;
};
struct CList *init(unsigned mod) /* */
unsigned i, j;
srand(time(NULL));
for (head = NULL, i = 0; i < ARRAYS; i++) {
p->len = MAX;
p->point = 0;
p->data[0].key = (rand() % mod);
for (j = 1; j < MAX; j++)
/* */
p->data[j].key = p->data[j-1].key + (rand() % mod);
p->next = head;
head = p;
}
return head;
}
void merge(struct CList *head)
{ struct CList *p, *q, *pMin;
struct CElem k1, k2;
int i;
printf("\n");
p->next = head;
head = p;
for (i = 0; i < MAX*ARRAYS; i++) {
p = head; pMin = head;
while (NULL != p->next) {
k1 = p->next->data[p->next->point];
k2 = pMin->next->data[pMin->next->point];
if (k1.key < k2.key)
pMin = p;
p = p->next;
}
printf("%8d", pMin->next->data[pMin->next->point].key);
if (pMin->next->len-1 == pMin->next->point) {
q = pMin->next;
pMin->next = pMin->next->next;
free(q);
}
else
pMin->next->point++;
}
}
{ unsigned i;
447
7 -
448
for (; NULL != head; head = head->next) {

for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
printf("%6d", head->data[i].key);
printf("\n");
}
printf("\n");
}
int main(void)
{ struct CList *head;
head = init(500);
printf("\n :\n");
print(head);
printf(" :");
merge(head);
return 0;
}
mergearr.c
a1,a2,a3,a4,a5 | a6,a7,a8,a9,a10 | a11,a12,a13,a14,a15 | a16,a17,a18,a19,a20
b1
b2
b3
, merge() n + m (m n
). m n . m = n
2n1 . m = 1? ,
( 4.3.) , B1,
- log2 n , (n+1).
, , :
, , - ,
m = 1 , m = n .
7.3. .
C - . ,
n > m A m + 1 () . Bm Ak A. Bm Ak , Ak C, , Ak , . .
. (Bm Ak )
Bm , C Bm Bm A.
- , 2,
2log2n/m , n/m.
, C. ( 7.3.)
,
binaryMerge(), . a[] b[],
m n , c[], :
int binarySearch(struct CElem m[], int left,
int right, struct CElem elem)
{ int middle;
do {
middle = (left + right) / 2;
if (m[middle].key < elem.key)
7 -
449
left = middle + 1;
else
right = middle - 1;
} while (left <= right);
return right;
}
void binaryMerge(struct CElem a[], struct CElem b[],
struct CElem c[], int n, int m)
{ int t, t2, cind, k, j;
cind = n + m;
while (n > 0 && m > 0) {
if (m <= n) {
t = (int) (log(n / m) / log(2));
t2 = 1 << t; /* T2 <-- 2^T */
if (b[m - 1].key < a[n - t2].key) {
/* a[n-t2-1],...,a[n] */
cind -= t2;
n -= t2;
for (j = 0; j < t2; j++)
c[cind + j] = a[n + j];
}
else {
k = binarySearch(a, n - t2, n - 1, b[m - 1]);
for (j = 0; j < n - k - 1; j++)
c[cind - n + k + j + 1] = a[k + j + 1];
cind -= n - k - 1;
n = k + 1;
c[--cind] = b[--m];
}
}
else {
t = (int) (log(m / n) / log(2));
t2 = 1 << t; /* T2 <-- 2^T */
if (a[n - 1].key < b[m - t2].key) {
/* b[m-t2-1],...,b[m] */
cind -= t2;
m -= t2;
for (j = 0; j < t2; j++)
c[cind + j] = b[m + j];
}
else {
k = binarySearch(b, m - t2, m - 1, a[n - 1]);
for (j = 0; j < m - k - 1; j++)
c[cind - m + k + j + 1] = b[k + j + 1];
cind -= m - k - 1;
m = k + 1;
c[--cind] = a[--n];
}
}
}
if (n == 0)
for (j = 0; j < m; j++)
c[j] = b[j];
else
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
c[j] = a[j];
}
binmerge.c
7 -
450
:

, .. .
7.4.
, ,
. .
, (),
().
. ,
. ,
0 1 .
( 7.3.) ,
. a[],
, .
. ( 7.3.) .
b[] a[], . .
, - (
) ,
. :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX 100
int a[MAX],
b[MAX];
/* - */
/* */

/* */
void generate(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
a[i] = rand() % (2*n + 1);
}
/* */
void printList(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%4d", a[i]);
}
/* */
void mergeSort(unsigned left,
{ unsigned i, j, k, mid;
if (right <= left) return;
mid = (right + left) / 2;
mergeSort(left, mid);
mergeSort(mid + 1, right);
unsigned right)
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* a[] b[] */
7 -
451
for (i = mid + 1; i > left; i--)

b[i - 1] = a[i - 1];
/* */
for (j = mid; j < right; j++)
b[right + mid - j] = a[j + 1]; /* */
/* a[] */
for (k = left; k <= right; k++)
a[k] = (b[i] < b[j]) ? b[i++] : b[j--];
}
int main(void) {
generate();
printf(" :\n");
printList();
mergeSort(0, n-1);
printf(" :\n");
printList();
return 0;
}
merge_a.c
.
.
a[] b[] b[] a[],
. , a[] ,
b[]: , (
b1[]), (b2[]). b1[],
a[] ( ).
b2[], a[] (
) .. 4
: a[]/b[] b[]/a[] / .
(-) . ,
. , .
struct list { /* */
int value;
struct list *next;
} *empty; /* */
struct list *merge(struct list *a, struct list *b)
{ struct list *head, *tail;
/* , */
tail = head = empty;
for (;;) {
if (a->value < b->value) {
tail->next = a;
a = a->next;
tail = tail->next;
if (NULL == a) {
tail->next = b;
break;
}
}
else {
7 -
452
tail->next = b;
b = b->next;
tail = tail->next;
if (NULL == b) {
tail->next = a;
break;
}
}
}
return head->next;
}
merge_l1.c
- .
.
, .
struct list *mergeSort(struct list *c, unsigned long n)
{ struct list *a, *b;
unsigned long i, n2;
/* : */
if (n < 2)
return c;
/* */
for (a = c, n2 = n / 2, i = 2; i <= n2; i++)
c = c->next;
b = c->next;
c->next = NULL;
/* , */
return merge(mergeSort(a, n2), mergeSort(b, n - n2));
}
merge_l1.c
.
NULL. z, next z, value ( INFINITY).
z.
- , mergeSort()
. .

, , -.
, :
1, 2. ,
. , NULL,
,
. next z z, .
:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define INFINITY (int)((1 << (sizeof(int)*8 - 1)) - 1)
7 -

struct list { /* */
int value;
struct list *next;
} *z; /* */
/* */
struct list *generate(unsigned long n)
{ struct list *p, *q;
unsigned long i;
for (p = z, i = 0; i < n; i++) {
q = (struct list *) malloc(sizeof(struct list));
q->value = rand() % (2*n + 1);
q->next = p;
p = q;
}
return p;
}
void printList(struct list *p) /* */
{ for (; p != z; p = p->next)
printf("%4d", p->value);
}
struct list *merge(struct list *a, struct list *b)
{ struct list *c;
c = z;
/* , */
do {
if (a->value < b->value) {
c->next = a;
c = a;
a = a->next;
}
else {
c->next = b;
c = b;
b = b->next;
}
} while (c != z);
c = z->next;
z->next = z;
return c;
}
struct list *mergeSort(struct list *c)
{ struct list *a, *b;
/* : */
if (c->next == z)
return c;
/* */
for (a = c, b = c->next->next->next; b != z; c = c->next)
b = b->next->next;
b = c->next;
c->next = z;
453
7 -
454
/* , */
return merge(mergeSort(a), mergeSort(b));
}
int main(void) {
struct list *l;
/* z */
z = (struct list *) malloc(sizeof(struct list));
z->value = INFINITY;
z->next = z;
l = generate(n);
printf(" :\n");
printList(l);
l = mergeSort(l); /* , 1 . */
printf(" :\n");
printList(l);
return 0;
}
merge_l2.c
, .
.
.
. mergeSort()
, .
. for.
, ,
.. ,
, -
. .
. todo .
while , ,
. .

. [Sedgewick-1992]
struct list *mergeSort(struct list *c)
{ unsigned long i, n, n2;
struct list *a, *b, *head, *todo, *t;
head = (struct list *) malloc(sizeof(struct list));
head->next = c;
a = z;
for (n = 1; a != head->next; n <<= 1) {
todo = head->next;
c = head;
while (todo != z) {
t = todo;
/* a[] */
for (a = t, i = 1; i < n; i++)
t = t->next;
/* b[] */
b = t->next; t->next = z;
for (t = b, i = 1; i < n; i++)
7 -
t = t->next;
/* a[] b[]
todo = t->next; t->next
c->next = merge(a, b);
/*
for (n2 = n + n, i = 1;
c = c->next;
455
*/
= z;
*/
i <= n2; i++)
}
}
return head->next;
}
merge_l3.c
? , (n.log2
n). - ,
( 3.1.10.). 3.2., () ,
. , .
( 3.1.9.) ( 3.1.6.) , .
, , - ( - ). - (n2), - , 3.1.4. (, , .) (n.log2
n), - ,
.
, ,
n: .
, (
[-1980]). ,
, - , , n.
,
, , . ,
, . . .
. . ,
, ,
.
.
,
. ,
. ,
15-20 ( )
( 3.1.2.).
:
1.
: 100; 1000; 10000; 100000 .
7 -
456
2. ,
:
) 3
) k , k > 3
3. :
) -
) -
- - .
4. ,
.
5. ,
.
6. , :
)
)
)
7. ,
( 7.3.).
7.5.
1.1.1. xn (x , n ). - ( - ), [-1995]:
n2 n2
x x .x , n
n 1
x .x, n
n
, ,
: ,
( ). , , .
.
#include <stdio.h>
const double base = 3.14;
const unsigned d = 11;
double power(double x, unsigned n)
{ if (0 == n) return 1;
else
if (n % 2) return x * power(x, n - 1);
else return power(x * x, n / 2);
}
int main(void) {
printf("%lf^%u = %lf\n", base, d, power(base, d));
return 0;
}
powrec.c
7 -
457
,
. , n = 15 -
:
1) x1
2) x2 = x1.x1
3) x3 = x2.x1
4) x6 = x3.x3
5) x7 = x6.x1
6) x14 = x7.x7
7) x15 = x14.x1
. . 7 . , :
1) x1
2) x 2 = x 1.x1
3) x 3 = x2. x1
4) x 4 = x3. x1
5) x 7 = x4. x3
6) x 8 = x7. x1
7) x15 = x8. x7
- 6 , :
1) x1
2) x2 = x1.x1
3) x3 = x2.x1
4) x5 = x3.x2
5) x10 = x5.x5
6) x15 = x10.x5
:
1) x1;
2) x2 = x1.x1;
3) x4 = x2.x2;
4) x5 = x4.x1;
5) x10 = x5.x5;
6) x15 = x10.x5
:
1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 15
1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15
1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 15
, 1,
. .
, , ,
. [-1998]
:
( 9), , - , -.
7 -
458
7.6.

. , A
= (aij)mn B = (bij)nr :
n
cij aik bkj

k 1
nn C (n3): n2 (n).
, , ,
(1), n.
, ,
. 60- , (nlog7).
,
.
, ,
, .
.
A B 2 2:
c11 c12 a11 a12 a11 a12
c21 c22 a21 a22 a21 a22

, :
cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j, i = 1,2 j = 1,2
, 8 4 . ,
7 ( Pi
):
P1 = (a11 + a22)(b11 + b22)
P2 = (a21 + a22)b11
P3 = a11(b12 b22)
P4 = a22(b21 b11)
P5 = (a11 + a12)b22
P6 = (a21 a11)(b11 + b12)
P7 = (a12 a22)(b21 + b22)
c11 = P1 + P4 P5 + P7
c12 = P3 + P5
c21 = P2 + P4
c22 = P1 + P3 P2 + P6
, , : ( ) 18.
, , -
(- ) /.
. . . ,
, . ,
. , ,
7 -
459
.
( [Brassard, Bratley-1987]):
P1 = (a21 + a22 a11) (b22 b12 + b11)
P2 = a11b11
P3 = a12b21
P4 = (a11 a21)(b22 b12)
P5 = (a21 + a22)(b12 b11)
P6 = (a12 a21 + a11 a22)b22
P7 = a22(b11 + b22 b12 b21)
c11 = P2 + P3
c12 = P1 + P2 + P5 + P6
c21 = P1 + P2 + P4 P7
c22 = P1 + P2 + P4 + P5
, , .
, ([Aho, Hopcroft, Ullman-1987]):
P1 = (a12 a22)(b21 + b22)
P2 = (a11 + a22)(b11 + b22)
P3 = (a11 a21)(b11 + b12)
P4 = (a11 + a12)b22
P5 = a11(b12 b22)
P6 = a22(b21 b11)
P7 = (a21 + a22)b11
c11 = P1 + P2 P4 + P6
c12 = P4 + P5
c21 = P6 + P7
c22 = P2 P3 + P5 P7
aij, bij cij nn, ,
2n, 7, 8
nn. - . , n2 , n3
n3 . . . .
? n ,
(n/2)(n/2). , n 2,
22. ,
7 . T(n)
n, 2, :
T(n) = 7T(n/2) + 18(n/2)2, n > 2
( 1.4.10.) T(n) (nlog7). log 7 2,81 < 3,
.. - .
, , n 2? - n,
2. . -
. , , - 7 .

. ? : ,
7 . : n = 2
7 -
460
, . n = 3, 4, ? (
n) ?
(n 2) , . . . n , . n/2 , ,
.
, . .
,
. :
. .
n . ( 7.6.)
11
21
12
22
B11
b21
b12
b22
7.6. A B.
C11 ( 7.6.).
C11
c 21

c12

c 22
A11B11 a12b21
a 21B11 a 22b21
A11b12 a 21b22
a 21b12 a 22b22
7.6. C A B.
,
n.
,
. 1996 ,
- . , ,
- .
.
/ 18 15, .
:
S1 = a21 + a22
S2 = S1 a11
S3 = a11 a21
S4 = a12 S2
T1 = b12 b11
T2 = b22 T1
T3 = b22 b12
T4 = b21 T2
P1 = a11b11
7 -
461
P2 = a12b21
P3 = S1T1
P4 = S2T2
P5 = S3T3
P6 = T4b22
P7 = a22T4
U1 = P 1 + P 4
U2 = U1 + P 5
U3 = U1 + P 3
c11 = P1 + P2
c21 = U2 + P7
c22 = U2 + P3
c12 = U3 + P6

n = 2, . 1971 .
, , ( .). - 33
- 21 , (nlog3 21), . . (n2,771244).
- -
. ,
7070 143 640 ( 343 000,
). - - -
: (n2,521813) 1979 ., (n2,521801) 1980 ., (n2,376) 1986 .
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
7.7.
, ,
(n2) n- (, , n).
,
.
. , n- X Y, , n 2 ( , ). X Y ,
A, B C, D n/2 , :
X = 2n/2.A + B
Y = 2n/2.C + D
XY :
XY = 2n.AC + 2n/2.(AD+BC) + BD
, XY 4
n/2 , 3 - n+1 n/2
7 -
462
( 2n 2n/2). AC, AD, BC BD

,
, :
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + cn, n > 1 n 2
(. 1.4.10.), T(n) (n2), . .
, , : . - (
7.6.), .
. - ,
, AD BC:
. :
XY = 2n.AC + 2n/2.[(AB)(DC) + AC + BD] + BD
3 , 6 ( 2 ) 2 .
(,
, . . n = 1, ):
T(1) = 1
T(n) = 3T(n/2) + cn, n > 1 n 2
( 1.4.10.) T(n) (nlog23). log2 3 1,59 < 2,
. . - . , , :
XY = 2n.AC + 2n/2.[(A+B)(C+D) AC BD] + BD
, (. . ), . ( , 2,
. .) o
. , X Y ,
n 2. n = 1 .
[Aho,Hopcroft,Ullman1987]
int mult (int X,
{
int s;
int m1,m2,m3;
int A,B,C,D;
Y, n)
/* XY */
/* */
/* X Y */
/* */
if (1 == n)
return (X*Y);
s = sign(X) *sign(Y);
X = abs(X);
Y = abs(Y);
A = n/2 X;
B = n/2 X;
C = n/2 Y;
D = n/2 Y;
m1 = mult(A,C,n/2);
m2 = mult(A-B,D-C,n/2);
m3 = mult(B,D,n/2);
/* *** */
7 -
463
return s * (m1<<n + (m1+m2+m3)<<(n/2) + m3); /* *** */

}
, ,
/* *** */, :
m2 = mult(A+B,C+D,n/2);
/* *** */
return s * (m1<<n + (m2-m1-m3)<<(n/2) + m3); /* *** */
, n 2? n ,
. n/2 , , . .
, ,
(nlog23).
, -, ,
n/2- n- , (n+1)-.
(A+B)(C+D), , (n+1) ( AC BD .). X = 9999 Y = 9998.
:
A = 99, B = 99, C = 99 D = 98
AC = 99.99 = 9801
BD = 99.98 = 9702
(A+B)(C+D) = 198.197 = 39006
(. . 5- )
- 1
(nlog23). .
[Brassard, Bratley 1987].
, m n, m n?
, m < n. - ,
(nlog23) (mn) . , - , m < n(log23)1. - m.
, n/m .
(mn(log23)1).
: ,
? : - - , - .
. , , , - 500 .
:
1. .
2.
- .
3. ,
, . , 5 ( 9)
n/3 .
.
4. , 2k1
k .
7 -
464
,
(nx) x > 1.
7.8.
: n A, B C.
. (
7.8.)
:
1. .
2. - -.
, ,
- . ,
, [-1993],
.
7.8. .
1
. , , n
a A C, n1 A B,
n ( - ) A
C n1 B C.
- (),
, ( - )
(). :
#include <stdio.h>
void diskMove(unsigned n, char a, char b)
{ printf(" %u %c %c.\n", n, a, b); }
void hanoy(char a, char c, char b, unsigned numb)
{ if (1 == numb)
diskMove(1, a, c);
else {
hanoy(a, b, c, numb - 1);
diskMove(numb, a, c);
hanoy(b, c, a, numb - 1);
}
}
int main(void) {
printf(" : %u\n", n);
7 -
465
hanoy('A', 'C', 'B', n);

return 0;
}
hanoy.c
n = 2, 3 4:
: 2
1 A B.
2 A C.
1 B C.
: 3

1
2
1
3
1
2
1
A
A
C
A
B
B
A
C.
B.
B.
C.
A.
C.
C.
: 4

1
2
1
3
1
2
1
4
1
2
1
3
1
2
1
A
A
B
A
C
C
A
A
B
B
C
B
A
A
B
B.
C.
C.
B.
A.
B.
B.
C.
C.
A.
A.
C.
B.
C.
C.
-
.
, ,
, . ,
1. .
2
:
1. n , ,
. n .
2. .
3. - -.
3
:
1. -
n () ().
2. ,
- .
3. - -.
7 -
466
4

. n C, ; n B .
1. , -
- -. e
, - . , .
2.
.
:
1. 2, 3 4.
2. , 2, 3 4 1.
7.9.
, ,
. :
(III '95)
n ( 1 n). n , n
, n1 , . .
, .
n . j-
i- , i
j. ( i k j, , k
i .)
i j- , j- i- 0.
, n = 3 n = 4 ( :
, : ):
2
1
0
3
0
1
0
3
2
2
1
4
3
3
4
1
2
4
3
2
1
: . , nn ( n), "-", i- j- , i j (1 i, j n).

.
n = 1. n = 2 ,
: 7.9.
1
2
1
0
1
2
1
0
7.9. 2 .
i:j, , i j (1 i, j n). 3 .
7 -
467
? , 1:2 3:4,
1:3 2:4, 1:4 2:3. 7.9.
1
2
3
4
1
0
1
2
3
2
1
0
3
2
3
2
3
0
1
4
3
2
1
0
7.9. 4 .
- , n = 2
2 3
3 2
,
0 1
1 0
2.
n = 8? n = 4, 4 4 . ( 7.9.)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
2
1
0
3
2
5
4
7
6
3
2
3
0
1
6
7
4
5
4
3
2
1
0
7
6
5
4
5
4
5
6
7
0
1
2
3
6
5
4
7
6
1
0
3
2
7
6
7
4
5
2
3
0
1
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
7.9. 8 .
, 7.9. :
0 7 , . .
7 , . , .
. i:j, j:i, (1 i, j n). , . .
i:i, 1 i n. n = 16, 32, 64, n,
2. .
. . n = 2k . n,
n/2 (), 4
(). .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
unsigned m[MAX][MAX];
void copyMatrix(unsigned stX, unsigned stY, unsigned cnt, unsigned add)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < cnt; i++)
7 -
468
for (j = 0; j < cnt; j++)

m[i + stX][j + stY] = m[i + 1][j + 1] + add;
}
void findSolution(unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned i;
m[1][1] = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i <<= 1) {
copyMatrix(i + 1, 1, i, i);
copyMatrix(i + 1, i + 1, i, 0);
copyMatrix(1, i + 1, i, i);
}
}
void print(unsigned n)
/* */
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
printf("%3u", m[i][j]);
printf("\n");
}
}
int main(void) {
findSolution(n);
print(n);
return 0;
}
tourn1.c
, n, 2. , n. , n.
n : nn,
, . . n(n+1). , - . (n+1)-
, . 1
1 1,
[1;n]. n 1. 7.9.
n = 5. , , (n+1)-
. (?)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
5
1
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
5
7.9. 5 .
( 7.9.).
1
0
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
1
7 -
469
2
3
4
5
2
3
4
5
0
4
5
1
4
0
1
2
5
1
0
3
1
2
3
0
2
3
4
5
7.9. 5 .
n .
. n1, , , , n- : m[k][k], k n-, n .
, n = 4, n = 3
( 7.9.).
1
2
3
1
1
2
3
2
2
3
1
3
3
1
2
4
1
2
3
7.9. 3 .
1
2
3
4
1
0
2
3
1
2
2
0
1
2
3
3
1
0
3
4
1
2
3
0
7.9. 4 .
n- ,
7.9. findSolution():
{ unsigned i;
unsigned saveN = n;
if (n % 2 == 0) /* n , n-1 */
n--;
/* n - . */
for (i = 0; i < n * (n + 1); i++)
m[i % (n + 1)][i / (n + 1)] = i % n + 1;
/* n */
n = saveN;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (n%2 == 0) /* , n */
m[i][n - 1] = m[n - 1][i] = m[i][i];
m[i][i] = 0;
/* 0 */
}
}
tourn2.c
7 -
470
, , :
i j? . - ,
.
(n = 2k). A B s t, n. s + t 1, s + t n, s + t n, s + t > n.
.
: - ,
s + t . n , l 2l 1,
2l n 2l n, 2l > n. 1
n/2 , . .
-
i j?, ,
. . :
{ unsigned i, j;
unsigned saveN = n;
if (n % 2 == 0) /* n , n-1 */
n--;
/* n - . */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if ((m[i][j] = i + j + 1) > n)
m[i][j] -= n;
/* n */
n = saveN;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (n % 2 == 0) /* , n */
m[i][n - 1] = m[n - 1][i] = m[i][i];
m[i][i] = 0;
/* 0 */
}
}
tourn3.c
, 0, 1.
:
1. ,
.
2.
n 2.
3. ,
n .
4.
n, n 2.
5. .
7 -
471
7.10.
UNIX .
,
. ,
, . , , , , - .
- ,
-. m, n.
? ,
: , .
. ,
1
1. k m x.
2. nk k .
3. x m ( k ).
. , k = 1
shiftBy1(), (n). :
2
1. k shiftBy1().
, , , -
(n2).
, ,
, ? ,
. m[] tmp,
m[k+1] m[1], m[2k+1] m[k+1] . .,
m[] n. m[1],
tmp. , ,
, m[2] ..
( , 0.):
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
struct CElem {
int data;
/* ... */
} m[MAX];
const unsigned k = 2; /* */
7 -
472
void init(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
m[i].data = i;
}
unsigned gcd(unsigned x, unsigned y)
{ while (y > 0) {
unsigned tmp = y;
y = x % y;
x = tmp;
}
return x;
}
void shiftLeft1(unsigned k)
{ /* m[] k , */
unsigned i, ths, next, gcdNK;
struct CElem tmp;
for (gcdNK = gcd(n, k), i = 0; i < gcdNK; i++) {
ths = i; tmp = m[ths];
next = ths + k;
if (next >= n)
next -= n;
while (next != i) {
m[ths] = m[next];
ths = next;
next += k;
if (next >= n)
next -= n;
}
m[ths] = tmp;
}
}
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%d ", m[i].data);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
init();
shiftLeft1(k);
print();
return 0;
}
shift1.c
. A k m, B nk. m k AB BA. , k < n/2, . . A -
B. B BL BR, BR k , . . , A.
7 -
473
ABLBR BLBRA.
A BR ( k ), A . BL BR B. B , , - .
, : .
,
. :
void swap(unsigned a, unsigned b, unsigned l)
{ /* m[a..a+l-1] m[b..b+l-1] */
unsigned i;
struct CElem tmp;
for (i = 0; i < l; i++) {
tmp = m[a + i];
m[a + i] = m[b + i];
m[b + i] = tmp;
}
}
{ /* m[] k .
* , } */
unsigned i, j, p;
p = i = k;
j = n - k;
while (i != j)
if (i > j) {
swap(p - i, p, j);
i -= j;
}
else {
swap(p - i, p + j - i, i);
j -= i;
}
swap(p - i, p, i);
}
shift2.c
, , . ,
, :
BA = (ARBR)R.
AR - , A, . BR (ARBR)R.
, : BA A,
B, . :
void reverse(unsigned a, unsigned b) /* m[a..b] */
{ unsigned i, j, k, cnt;
struct CElem tmp;
for (cnt = (b-a)/2, k=a, j=b, i=0; i <= cnt; i++, j--, k++) {
tmp = m[k];
m[k] = m[j];
m[j] = tmp;
7 -
474
}
}
{ /* m k , */
reverse(0, k - 1);
reverse(k, n - 1);
reverse(0, n - 1);
}
shift3.c

(n). , - n , n. ,
ShiftLeft1() ,
ShiftLeft3() ( [Bentley-1990], [1998d]).
:
1. shiftLeft1(), shiftLeft2()
shiftLeft3().
2. BA = (ARBR)R.
7.11.

. - - .
.
: nn, n 2. .
, 22, .
,
.
: , .
, 22k 1 3
k, k > 0. : (2k 1)(2k +1). 2k 1, 2k 2k +1. , . .
3, 2k . 2k 1 2k +1. (2k 1)(2k +1) = 22k 1 3. . .
3 ,
, , 3. ,
.
, n = 2k , ( k).
1) : k = 0 n = 1 ,
k = 1, . . n = 2, , .
2) : , k, . . 2k 2k , .
3) : , k+1, . .
2k+12k+1, .
7 -
475
, .
2k 2k , .
, , ,
.
2k 2k .
, ,
( 7.11.).
7.11. .
.
.
:
.
7.12.
7.12.1.
7.1.
k- ( 7.1.),
.
7.2.
, k- ,
, ,
i, j k, 7.1., 7.1. 7.1.
7.3.
k-
, , ( 7.1.).
7.4.
5
( 7.1.)? 3?
? .
7.5.
( 7.1.).
7.6.
, , , ,
( 7.2.).
7 -
476
7.7.
, x
, x ( 7.2.).
7.8.
, m[] , , m[i] m[j] , (
7.2.).
7.9.
, , , , ,
( 7.2.).
7.10.

, .. ( 7.3.).
7.11.

: 100; 1000; 10000; 100000 ( 7.4.).
7.12.
( 7.4.),
:
) 3
) k , k > 3
7.13.
(
7.4.):
) -
) -
- - .
7.14.
, ( 7.4.).
7.15.
, ( 7.4.)
.
7.16.
( 7.4.),
:
)
)
)
7.17.
( 7.4.),
( 7.3.).
7.18.
( 9), , - , 7.5.
7 -
477
7.19.
( 7.6.).
7.20.
( 7.6.).
7.21.
( 7.6.).
7.22.
( 7.7.).
7.23.

- ( 7.7.).
7.24.
,
, . , 5 ( 9)
n/3 . ( 7.7.).
7.25.
, 2k1
k .
,
(nx) x > 1.
7.26.
2, 3 4 7.8.
7.27.
, 2, 3 4 7.8.
1.
7.28.
7.9. ,
.
7.29.
7.9.
n 2.
7.30.
7.9. ,
n .
7.31.
7.9. n, n 2.
7.32.
7.9. .
7 -
478
7.33.
shiftLeft1(), shiftLeft2()
shiftLeft3() 7.10.
7.34.
BA = (ARBR)R 7.10.
7.35.
7.11.
7.12.2.
7.36. -
( 7.1.), ( 3.1.6.) , (n.log2 n).
(
3.1.9.).
7.37. k-
k- - .
:
k
k- x ( 7.1.),
x
( ) k-
.
7.38. -
n , . ,
.
? n-?
7.39.
n , .
( ), .
? n-?
7.40.
, - ? ?
( 3.1.6.)
( 3.1.9.), (?)
( 3.2.3.),
( 4.3.)
( 4.4.)
( 4.5.)
- ( 10.4.1.)
( 10.4.2.)
7 -
479
8

"A mind that is stretched
to a new idea never returns
to its original dimension."
~ Oliver Wendell Holmes
8.1.
- ( ), -. - -
,
.
. - ,
:
. ,
-
( 7).
, , , ,

. - (
), . -
- .
, :
, ..
, .
,
.
, , -
. ,
, .
, ,
,
.
( 1.2.2.):
{ if (n < 2) return n;
else return fib(n-1) + fib(n-2);
}
, , ?
. ,
fib(n) n,
8 -
482
, , .
.
8.1. ,

.

, n- ( 8.3.1.), . , ,
.
(. dynamic
programming), -. ,
. ,
- .

, .
.
, ( ) . .
,
.
.
, ( SAP Microsoft).
, . .
. ( , 8.3.1),
( , 8.2.1.), ( , 8.2.3.), -.
, .
. ,
, , , , . , , : ,
, -
, .
:
. , .
, .
, ( 8.2.3.)
, , .
, - .
.
, ,
. -
, - .
, .
8 -
483
, , , . (?)
, , . , (, .),
, , .
.
-, .
. (, , ), - ,
.. , ,
- , ,
, . - . . .
,
memoization. ,
: -.
.
,
, , . , ,
, .
, .
, , .
. "" -
,
( 6.3.).
.
,
. :
-, -.
. - -.
,
, . .
. ( , -, ,
, ,
. , ,
, .)
, , .
.
- ,
.
,
. -.
, - .
, .
- .
, - ,
. -
, ,
- .
8 -
484
:
1. ,
?
2. , .
3. ?
8.2.
8.2.1.
- , . , (
6.4.1 9.1.5.). -
(0-1 ) ,
. .
M N ,
mi ci. , , M. M, N, ci mi (1 i N).
:
N
x c
i 1
i i
:
N
x m
i 1
M,
ci 0, mi 0, xi 0,1, i 1,2,..., n
ci mi ( ), xi
.
: F(i), i.
F (i)
max c j F (i m j )
j 1, 2,...,N ;m j i
i0
i0
, ,
F. ,
. - F(i) set[i],
, .
,
, set[i] .
, (memoization).
,
NOT_CALCULATED . ,
F(i) i = 1, 2, , N, Fn[i]
( ) NOT_CALCULATED,
8 -
485
Fn[i] .
F(). .
F(), .
, calculate(),
, ,
F().
:
#include <string.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define NOT_CALCULATED (unsigned) (-1)
#define MAXN
30 /* */
#define MAXM
1000 /* */
char set[MAXM][MAXN];
unsigned Fn[MAXM];
const
const
const
const
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
/* k = 1..M */
/* */
m[MAXN] = {0,30,15,50,10,20,40,5,65};
/*
c[MAXN] = {0,5,3,9,1,2,7,1,12};
/*
M = 70;
/*
N = 8;
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
/* k */
void F(unsigned k)
{ unsigned i, bestI, fnBest, fnCur;
/* - F */
for (bestI = fnBest = 0, i = 1; i <= N; i++) {
if (k >= m[i]) {
if (NOT_CALCULATED == Fn[k - m[i]]) F(k - m[i]);
if (!set[k - m[i]][i])
fnCur = c[i] + Fn[k - m[i]];
else
fnCur = 0;
if (fnCur > fnBest) {
bestI = i;
fnBest = fnCur;
}
}
}
/* - */
Fn[k] = fnBest;
if (bestI > 0) {
memcpy(set[k], set[k - m[bestI]], N);
set[k][bestI] = 1;
}
}
/* */
void calculate(void) {
unsigned i, sumM;
/* */
memset(set,0,sizeof(set)); /* . */
for (i = 0; i <= M; i++) /* . */
Fn[i] = NOT_CALCULATED;
/* ? */
for (sumM = m[1], i = 2; i <= N; i++) sumM += m[i];
8 -
486
if (M >= sumM) {
printf("\n !");
return;
}
else {
F(M); /* */
/* */
printf("\n :\n");
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++)
if (set[M][i])
printf("%5u", i);
printf("\n : %u", Fn[M]);
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("%s%u", "\n : ", N);
printf("%s%u", "\n : ", M);
calculate();
return 0;
}
knapsack 1.c
:
:
2
3
7
: 13
: ( ) , ,
1 (
). , N
( M) , MAXN MAXM.
, . ,
7 8, ,
, .

F(1), F(2), ..., F(M), . ,
, . . , .
. F()
Fn[] calculate().
void calculate(void)
{ unsigned maxValue;
/* */
unsigned maxIndex;
/* , */
unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= M; i++) { /* . Fn(i) */
maxValue = maxIndex = 0;
for (j = 1; j <= N; j++)
if (m[j] <= i && !set[i - m[j]][j])
if (c[j] + Fn[i - m[j]] > maxValue) {
maxValue = c[j] + Fn[i - m[j]];
maxIndex = j;
}
8 -
487
if (maxIndex > 0) { /* - i? */
Fn[i] = maxValue;
/* set[i] set[i-m[maxIndex]]
* maxIndex */
memcpy(set[i], set[i - m[maxIndex]], N);
set[i][maxIndex] = 1;
}
if (Fn[i] < Fn[i - 1]) { /* */
Fn[i] = Fn[i - 1];
memcpy(set[i], set[i - 1], N);
}
}
/* */
printf("\n :\n");
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++)
if (set[M][i])
printf("%5u", i);
printf("\n%s%u", " : ", Fn[M]);
}
knapsack2a.c
, calculate(), ( ), ,
.
- set[].
( char). . , , ,
8 . , .
, - . -
, . (memset() memcpy()) 8 - ,
. . -.
? j ,
F(i), - set[i][j] 1.
1 j%8 set[i][j].
set[i][j/8]&(1 << (j%8)). / () % ( ).
, . , 8 3 , 8 "" 7. set[i][j>>3]&(1<<(j&7)). , m[i][j] 1 set[i][j>>3] |= 1 << (j & 7). 8 - .
:
char set[MAXM][MAXN / 8]; /* k = 1..M */
void calculate(void)
{ unsigned maxValue;
/* */
unsigned maxIndex;
/* , */
unsigned i, j;
8 -
488
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= M; i++) { /* . F(i) */
maxValue = maxIndex = 0;
for (j = 1; j <= N; j++) {
if (m[j] <= i && !(set[i - m[j]][j >> 3] & (1 << (j & 7))))
if (c[j] + Fn[i - m[j]] > maxValue) {
maxValue = c[j] + Fn[i - m[j]];
maxIndex = j;
}
}
if (maxIndex > 0) { /* - i? */
Fn[i] = maxValue;
/* set[i] set[i-m[maxIndex]]
* maxIndex */
memcpy(set[i], set[i - m[maxIndex]], (N >> 3) + 1);
set[i][maxIndex >> 3] |= 1 << (maxIndex & 7);
}
if (Fn[i] < Fn[i - 1]) { /* */
Fn[i] = Fn[i - 1];
memcpy(set[i], set[i - 1], (N >> 3) + 1);
}
}
/* */
printf("\n :\n");
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++)
if (set[M][i >> 3] & (1 << (i & 7)))
printf("%5u", i);
printf("\n%s%u", " : ", Fn[M]);
}
knapsack2b.c
. . . F[i][j] (1 i < N, 0 j < M),

M. F[i][j] ,
, i , j.
F[N][M].
:
F[i][j] = max(F[i-1][j], F[i-1][j-mi]+ci)
. - :
, F[i][j], i.
F[i][j] F[i-1][j], F[i-1][j-mi]+ci.
, .
F[0][j] = 0, j = 0, 1, ..., M. :
unsigned F[MAXN][MAXM]; /* */
void calculate(void) /* */
{ unsigned i,j;
for (j = 0; j <= M; j++)
F[0][j] = 0;
8 -
489
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++)

for (j = 0; j <= M; j++)
if (j >= m[i] && F[i-1][j] < F[i-1][j-m[i]] + c[i])
F[i][j] = F[i-1][j-m[i]] + c[i];
else
F[i][j] = F[i-1][j];
}
knapsack3a.c
. ,
15 6 ,
( !):
const
const
const
const
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
m[MAXN] = {0,1,2,3,5,6,7};
/* */
c[MAXN] = {0,1,10,19,22,25,30}; /* */
M = 15;
/* */
N = 6;
/* */
knapsack3a.c
F[][],
calculate(). printTable():
void printTable(void) /* F[][] */
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 0; j <= M; j++)
printf("%4u",F[i][j]);
}
}
knapsack3a.c
N\M
1
2
3
4
5
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
10
10
10
10
10
3
1
11
19
19
19
19
4
1
11
20
20
20
20
5
1
11
29
29
29
29
6
1
11
30
30
30
30
7
1
11
30
32
32
32
8
1
11
30
41
41
41
9
1
11
30
42
44
44
10
1
11
30
51
51
51
11
1
11
30
52
54
54
12
1
11
30
52
55
59
13
1
11
30
52
57
60
14
1
11
30
52
66
66
15
1
11
30
52
67
71
8.2.1. knapsack3a.c.
8.2.1. . . ,
. F[6][15] F[5][15],
F[6][15] == F[5][15m6] + c6, , 6
. - F[5][8] == F[4][8] F[5][8] F[4][8m5] + c5,
, 5 .
F[4][8]. F[4][8] F[3][8], F[4][8] == F[3][8m4] + c4, . . 4
. F[3][3] F[2][3] F[3][3] == F[2][3m3] + c3 .. 3 . F[2][0].
0, . ( , F[2][0] = F[1][0] =
F[0][0]).
:
void printSet(void) /* , */
8 -
{
490
/* */
/* */
unsigned i = N,
j = M;
while (j != 0) {
if (F[i][j] == F[i-1][j])
i--;
else {
printf("%u ",i);
j -= m[i];
i--;
}
}
knapsack3a.c
: , .
-.
, 3, 4 6.
. , . ,
6.

, . ,
, . -
, -, .
. :
const
const
const
const
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
unsigned
m[MAXN] = {0,6,3,10,2,4,8,1,13,3};
/* */
c[MAXN] = {0,5,3,9,1,2,7,1,12,3};
/* */
M = 14;
/* */
N = 9;
/* */
knapsack3b.c
13 , : {2, 3, 7}, {2, 6, 9}, {3, 7, 9} {7, 8}. ? 8.2.1., .
N\M
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
0
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
0
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
0
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
7
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
7
8
5
5
5
6
6
7
7
7
7
9
5
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
10
5
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
11
5
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
12
5
8
9
10
10
10
11
11
11
13
5
8
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
14
5
8
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
8.2.1. knapsack3b.c.
F[9][14] == F[8][14] F[9][14] == F[8][14m9] + c9. , 9 , .
- printSet() ,
8 -
491
F[8][14]. ,
, .
() set[],
. : i, j k. i j
F[][], k set[].
unsigned set[MAXN]; /* , max */
void printAll(unsigned i, unsigned j, unsigned k)
{ /* , */
/*
*/
if (0 == j) {
printf("\n : ");
for (i = 0; i < k; i++)
printf("%u ",set[i]);
}
else {
if (F[i][j] == F[i-1][j])
printAll(i-1,j,k);
if (j >= m[i] && F[i][j] == F[i-1][j-m[i]] + c[i]) {
set[k] = i;
printAll(i-1,j-m[i],k+1);
}
}
}
/* ... */
printAll(N,M,0);
/* ... */
knapsack3b.c
printAll() 8.2.1.: {7, 3, 2},
{8, 7}, {9, 6, 2} {9, 7, 3}. ,
. , .
- , F[i][j] = max(F[i1][j],F[i1][jmi]+ci), , . ,
F[][] , i-
F[i][.] F[i-1][.].
. F[] ( )
OldF[]. F[] i- F[i][.], OldF[]
(i1)- F[i-1][.].
unsigned calculate(void) /* */
{ unsigned F[MAXM], OldF[MAXM]; /* */
unsigned i,j,k;
for (j = 0; j <= M; j++)
OldF[j] = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= N; i++) {
for (j = 0; j <= M; j++)
if (j >= m[i] && OldF[j] < OldF[j-m[i]] + c[i])
F[j] = OldF[j-m[i]] + c[i];
else F[j] = OldF[j];
for (k = 0; k < M; k++)
OldF[k] = F[k];
8 -
492
}
return F[M];
}
knapsack3c.c

(N.) (N+).
. , F(k) k, ,
, ,
- k.
, , ,
, . , ,
,
.
- .
(N.M). knapsack3c.c,
.
(N.M).
(knapsack1.c). , , ,
F() - . (N), knapsack1.c, knapsack2a.c
knapsack2b.c, (N+) knapsack3a.c. , knapsack3b.c, (N++s), s
.
, . , ,
. : #i,
.
- . , #i , .
. , . ,
, ( ) , - . ,
.
, :
unsigned F[MAXM];
/* */
unsigned best[MAXM]; /* */
void calculate(void) /* */
{ unsigned i,j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= M; i++)
F[i] = 0;
/* */
for (j = 1; j <= N; j++)
for (i = 1; i <= M; i++)
if (i >= m[j])
if (F[i] < F[i-m[j]] + c[j]) {
F[i] = F[i-m[j]] + c[j];
8 -
493
best[i] = j;
}
}
knapsack4.c
1.
1 2, . . . . , 14:
: 14
:
7
7
,
, , . :
7 2. . 14
14 7.
, ,
(M.N), set[][] . best[]
.
. F[] best[]
:
void printSet(void)
/* , */
/* */
/* */
unsigned value = M;
printf("\n : ");
while (value) {
printf("%4u ", best[value]);
value -= m[best[value]];
}
knapsack4.c
, (N.M). (M).
(N+M), , ci mi .
( set[][]
best[]) -
.
best[] 0.
( 1), best[] .
char used(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ /* j , F[i] */
while (i != 0 && best[i] != 0)
if (best[i] == j)
return 1;
else
i -= m[best[i]];
return 0;
}
8 -
494
void calculate() /* */
{ unsigned i,j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= M; i++)
best[i] = 0;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= M; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= N; j++)
if (i >= m[j])
if (F[i] < F[i-m[j]] + c[j])
if (!used(i-m[j],j)) {
F[i] = F[i-m[j]] + c[j];
best[i] = j;
}
}
knapsack5.c
. - ,
M. - .
,
. , ,
. ,
,
M mi ( ci ). ,
,
,
. .
( 2.5.): ( )
.
. , , M, N, ci mi ,
.
, M mi . ,
. .
: ci = 1, mi = i M = N/2.
:
1. ,
.
2. , ( ).
3. set[] ? ?
4. , ?
, .
5. k .
?
6. ci = 1, mi = i M = N/2.
8 -
495
8.2.2.
:
n .
, ,
. . a b , . ab. , a b.
:
p , S .
a - () S, p/2,
b = p.
S? . S . mk k- . S m1.
S m2 m2+m1. S
. , S m3,
m1+m3, m2+m3 m1+m2+m3. S 3
. , k (k = 1, 2, ..., n) S s + mk ,
s S.
can[]. can[i]
1 0, i
. can[0] 1,
0. j k can[j] 1, 1 can[j+m[k]].
can[] - -.
. ,
can[] , k-
can[m[k]] 1. -, can[m[k]], 1
can[m[k]+m[k]] (
can[m[k]] 1),
can[m[k]+m[k]+m[k]] ( can[m[k]+m[k]] e 1) .. ,
1 (
) 1 .
, . -
.
- p/2 k can[], can[k] == 1.
, , , p/2, p.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX
100 /* */
#define MAXVALUE 200 /* */
unsigned char can[MAX*MAXVALUE]; /* ? */
const unsigned m[MAX] = {3,2,3,2,2,77,89,23,90,11}; /* */
/* */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned long p; /* */
unsigned i, j;
8 -
496
/* p */
for (p = i = 0; i < n; p += m[i++])
;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= p; i++)
can[i] = 0;
can[0] = 1;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = p; j+1 > 0; j--)
if (can[j])
can[j + m[i]] = 1;
/* - p/2 */
for (i = p / 2; i > 1; i--)
if (can[i]) {
printf("\n%s%u%s%lu", " :",i," :",p-i);
return;
}
}
int main(void)
{ solve();
return 0;
}
alanbob.c
, ,
(n.p). ,
c, n. p
c.n. (c.n2), . . (n2). , , can[], 8
8.2.1.
,
, . can[j] o can[],
can[j] 1. a ( ,
)
p. m[p] p a, , , . ..,
.
, can[],
,
.
curSum,
.
unsigned last[MAX*MAXVALUE]; /* ? */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned long p; /* */
unsigned long curSum = 0;
8 -
497
unsigned i, j;
/* p */
for (p = i = 0; i < n; p += m[i++])
;
/* */
for (last[0] = 0, i = 1; i <= p; i++)
last[i] = NOT_SET;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
for (j = p; j+1 > 0; j--)
if (NOT_SET != last[j] && NOT_SET == last[j + m[i]])
last[j + m[i]] = i;
curSum += m[i];
}
/* - p/2 */
for (i = p / 2; i > 1; i--) {
if (NOT_SET != last[i]) {
printf("\n%s%u%s%lu", " :",i," :",p-i);
printf("\n :");
while (i > 0) {
printf(" %u", m[last[i]]);
i -= m[last[i]];
}
printf("\n .");
return;
}
}
}
alanbob2.c
:
: 136; : 166
: 11 90 23 2 2 3 2 3
.
:
1. ,
,
last[k].
2. , ?
8.2.3.
,
, , , .
n , :
M1M2...Mn
8 -
498
n+1 : r0, r1, ..., rn ,

Mi ri1ri ( ri1 ri ), i = 1, 2, ..., n.
A B pq qr
q
cij aik .bkj , i = 1, 2, ..., p; j = 1, 2, ..., r.

k 1
C pr.
p.q.r. ,
, , - .
( 7.6.).
B ( pq sr). , q A s B,
AB ( BA, r = p).
-,
.
, , . . A, B C, , : (AB)C = A(BC). , ,
. , 4 A, B, C D :
(A(B(CD)))
(A((BC)D))
((AB)(CD))
((A(BC))D)
(((AB)C)D)
, ,
.
: 1(1020), 2(2050), 3(501) 4(1100).
: 1(2(34)), :
1. L1 = 3 4
50.1.100
= 5000 [50100]
2. L2 = 2 L1
20.50.100 = 100000 [20100]
3. M = M1 L2
10.20.100 = 20000 [10100]
125000 . (1(23))4,
2200 :
1. L1 = 2 3
20.50.1
= 1000 [201]
2. L2 = 1 L1
10.20.1
= 200 [101]
3. M = L2 4
10.1.100
= 1000 [10100]
, , , , .
. ,
r0, r1,..., rn.
, , . , ,
. . - . , M1,
M2, ..., Mn, Mi, Mi+1, ..., Mj, 1 i j n. i = 1, j = n -
8 -
499
. , k (i k < j) , B = Mi, Mi+1, ..., Mk C = Mk+1,

Mk+2, ..., Mj, B C.
, B C
- . :
mij , MiMi+1...Mj, 1 i j n. (1 i j n):
mi , j
i j
0
j 1
min mi ,k mk 1, j ri 1 rk r j i j
k i
, mi,k mk+1,j k i j, mi,j. ,

.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
#define INFINITY (unsigned long)(-1)
unsigned long m[MAX][MAX];
/* - */
/* */
const unsigned long r[MAX+1] = {12,13,35,3,34,2,21,10,21,6};
/* */
/* */
unsigned long solveRecursive(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ unsigned k;
if (i == j) return 0;
m[i][j] = INFINITY;
for (k = i; k <= j - 1; k++) {
unsigned long q = solveRecursive(i, k) +
solveRecursive(k + 1, j) +
r[i - 1] * r[k] * r[j];
if (q < m[i][j])
m[i][j] = q;
}
return m[i][j];
}
void printMatrix(void) /* */
{ unsigned i,j;
printf("\n :");
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
printf("%8lu", m[i][j]);
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n. : %lu",solveRecursive(1,n));
printMatrix();
return 0;
}
8 -
500
matrix1.c
,
.
Mi, Mi+1, ..., Mj, 1 i j n n(n+1)/2. , . , , memoization,
,
. , (n3).
long solveMemo(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ unsigned k;
unsigned long q;
if (NOT_SOLVED != m[i][j]) /* */
return m[i][j];
if (i == j)
/* */
m[i][j] = 0;
else {
/* */
for (k = i; k <= j - 1; k++)
if ((q = solveMemo(i,k)+solveMemo(k+1,j)+r[i-1]*r[k]*r[j])
< m[i][j])
m[i][j] = q;
}
return m[i][j];
}
long solveMemoization(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = i; j <= n; j++)
m[i][j] = NOT_SOLVED;
return solveMemo(1, n);
}
matrix2.c
- , (mij)
. , , , . , . .
,
i j.
(
) -: , , ,
k, . k. -
. , - , 8.2.3.
m1,1 = 0
m1,2 = 10000
m1,3 = 1200
m1,4 = 2200
k2,1 = 1
m2,2 = 0
m2,3 = 1000
m2,4 = 3000
k3,1 = 1
k3,2 = 2
m3,3 = 0
m3,4 = 5000
k4,1 = 3
k4,2 = 3
k4,3 = 3
m4,4 = 0
8.2.3. , .
8 -
501
- i j, i = 1 j = n.
, m1,n, .
, (
solve()). printMatrix() m[][] .
.
, , ,
( getOrder()).
( buildOrder()
printMultiplyPlan()).
-, -
- , j, i+j, . . j
, , 1.
- (1 i i+j n):
mi , j
0
i j 1
min mi ,k mk 1, j ri 1 rk ri j
k i
j0
j0
j = 1.
. , j 2. (
) ,
. j 3 ..
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
/* - */
struct {
unsigned left;
unsigned right;
} order[MAX * MAX];
/* */
unsigned long cnt;
/* */
/* */
const unsigned long r[MAX+1] = {12,13,35,3,34,2,21,10,21,6};
/* */
/* , ,
* ,
* , */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
m[i][i] = 0;
/* */
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
8 -
for (i = 1; i <= n - j; i++) {
m[i][i + j] = INFINITY;
for (k = i; k < i + j; k++) {
unsigned long t = m[i][k]+m[k+1][i+j] + r[i-1]*r[k]*r[i+j];
/* */
if (t < m[i][i + j]) {
m[i][i + j] = t;
m[i + j][i] = k;
}
}
}
}
}
unsigned buildOrder(unsigned ll,unsigned rr) /* */
{ long ret = cnt++;
if (ll < rr) {
order[ret].left = buildOrder(ll, m[rr][ll]);
order[ret].right = buildOrder(m[rr][ll] + 1, rr);
}
else {
order[ret].left = ll;
order[ret].right = rr;
}
return ret;
}
void printMatrix(void) /* */
{ unsigned i, j;
printf("\n :");
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
}
}
void printMultiplyPlan(void) /* */
{ unsigned long i;
printf("\n :");
for (i = 0; i < cnt; i++)
if (order[i].left == order[i].right)
printf("\nL[%lu] = M%u", i, order[i].left);
else
printf("\nL[%lu]=L[%u]*L[%u]",i,order[i].left,order[i].right);
}
void getOrder(unsigned ll, unsigned rr) /* */
{ if (ll == rr) printf("M%u", ll);
else {
printf("(");
getOrder(ll, m[rr][ll]);
printf("*");
getOrder(m[rr][ll] + 1, rr);
printf(")");
}
}
502
8 -
503
int main(void) {
solve();
cnt = 0; buildOrder(1, n);
printf("\n : %lu", m[1][n]);
printMatrix();
printMultiplyPlan();
printf("\n : ");
getOrder(1, n);
return 0;
}
matrix3.c
:
: 2872
:
0
5460
1833
3057
1636
2140
2296
2980
2872
1
0
1365
2691
1324
1870
2004
2710
2572
1
2
0
3570
414
1884
1534
2724
1926
3
3
3
0
204
330
684
1170
1332
1
2
3
4
0
1428
1100
2268
1500
5
5
5
5
5
0
420
840
1092
5
5
5
5
5
6
0
4410
2520
5
5
5
5
5
7
7
0
1260
5
5
5
5
5
8
7
8
0
:
L[0] = L[1] * L[10]
L[1] = L[2] * L[3]
L[2] = M1
L[3] = L[4] * L[5]
L[4] = M2
L[5] = L[6] * L[7]
L[6] = M3
L[7] = L[8] * L[9]
L[8] = M4
L[9] = M5
L[10] = L[11] * L[16]
L[11] = L[12] * L[15]
L[12] = L[13] * L[14]
L[13] = M6
L[14] = M7
L[15] = M8
L[16] = M9
: ((M1*(M2*(M3*(M4*M5))))*(((M6*M7)*M8)*M9))
:
1. ,
, , .
2. , .
3. , , .. , n(n 1)/2 .
4. , n?
5. , ?
8 -
504
8.2.4. .
: , . 1 n .
, . , , . . ,

, - [Computer-5/98].
.
.
() n- (n2)
.
T ( n)
1 2n

n 1 n
, n . . n
k (k = 1, 2, ..., n1).
:
1
n 1
P ( n) P ( k ) P ( n k )
k 1
n 1
(1)
n2
P(n) = T(n1).
. - , :
6.
n+1
.
(n+2)- n n1 .
n . ( 1)
(2n)!/(n!n!) n+1.
ci, :
c0 = 1,
cn+1 = c0cn + c1cn1 + c2cn2 + ... + cnc0, n 0.
(2)
, :
7.
c0 = 1 (n+2)cn+1 = (4n+2)cn, n 0.
x
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1 1 4x
2x
(3)
(4)
8. n .
9. n .
10. , n n
.
11. , n+1
n+1 (
).
8 -
505
12. (0,0) (n,n) ,

x
, y = x, . ( 10)
13. (0,0) (n+1,n+1),
x ,
y = x, . ( 11)
14. , A B, n
, A , B.
15. , 2n , ,
, . ( 2)
,
( ). - . ,
n- n2 , n3 .
, 72 = 5 73 = 4
( 8.2.4.).
,
n .
8.2.4.. Ai 1 Ai Mi, i = 1, 2, ...,
6. , A0 A6 !
A4
A4
A3
A5
A3
A5
A2
A2
A6
A6
A0
A0
A1
A1
8.2.4a. .
A4
M4
M5
A5
A3
M3
A2
M6
A6
M2
A0
M1
A1
8.2.4. .
A0 A4 ( 8.2.4.). , 4
, . ,
: (M1M2M3M4)(M5M6). A1 A4 ,
8 -
506
(M1(M2M3M4))(M5M6),
A1 A3
(M1((M2M3)M4))(M5M6). (
8.2.4.).
A1
A5
A6
A4
A2
A3
8.2.4. (M1((M2M3)M4))(M5M6).
, n
, . . .
(n+1)-.
: .

.
L1 L2 (L1 , i- k, L2 (k+1)- j-) r[i-1].r[k].r[j], r[.]
. ,
: i1, k j. ,

, . ,

,
.
R . R, (P+2R), P . , P . ,
, r[i-1].r[k].r[j]
d[i-1][k] + d[k][j] + d[i-1][j], 1 i k < j n,
d[n1][n2] ( ) n1 n2. , ,
. , ,
: , .
M
F = P + 2R. R, P: R = (FP)/2.
(1 i j n):
i j
0
mi , j j 1
min mi ,k mk 1, j d i 1,k d k , j d i 1, j i j
k i
(5)
8 -
507
- - ,
j, i+j, . . j ,
, 1. , (1 i i+j n):
mi , j
0
i j 1
min mi ,k mk 1, j d i 1,k d k ,i j d i 1,i j
k i
j0
(6)
j0
- n- (
) n1 : , , . , n1.
solve().
. calcDist() d[][]. , m[1][n], R = (m[1][n]P)/2,
P . printResult().
k,
. :
writeCut().
#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#define MAX 80
#define INFINITY 1e20
double d[MAX][MAX];
double m[MAX][MAX];
/* */
/* - */
const struct {
/* */
int x;
int y;
} coord[MAX] = {{1,1},{5,-2},{10,1},{7,7},{1,7}};
/* */
void calcDist(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
d[i][j] = sqrt(
(coord[i].x - coord[j].x) * (coord[i].x - coord[j].x) +
(coord[i].y - coord[j].y) * (coord[i].y - coord[j].y));
}
/* ,
* , */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
for (i = 1; i < n; i++)
m[i][i] = 0; /* */
for (j = 1; j < n; j++) {
/* */
for (i = 1; i < n - j; i++) {
for (k = i; k < i + j; k++) {
double t = m[i][k] +
m[k+1][i+j] +
d[i-1][k] +
8 -
d[k][i+j] +
d[i-1][i+j];
if (t < m[i][i+j]) {
m[i][i+j] = t;
m[i+j][i] = k;
}
508
/* */
}
}
}
}
/* */
void printResult(void)
{ unsigned i;
double p = d[0][n-1]; /* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
p += d[i][i+1];
printf("\n . %.2lf", (m[1][n-1] - p)/2);
}
/* */
void writeCut(unsigned ll, unsigned rr)
{ if (ll != rr) {
writeCut(ll, (unsigned) m[rr][ll]);
writeCut((unsigned) m[rr][ll] + 1, rr);
if (ll != 1 || rr != n-1)
printf("(%u,%u) ", ll, rr + 1);
}
}
int main(void) {
calcDist();
solve();
printResult();
printf("\n : ");
writeCut(1, n-1);
return 0;
}
catalan.c
:
17.49
: (1,3) (1,4)
:
1. ?
2. (1), (2) (3).
3. .
4. 8.2.4. A0 A6 ?
8.2.5.
, . - 8.2.4.
n
, (n+1)- n .
n .
8 -
509
,
2.3.
. ,
, , , . ,
,
.
( 2.4.),
. , -
45%
[-1980]. , ,
B- ( 2.4.2.),
, . B , , .
- ( 2.5.),
.
, ,
. ,
- log2 n . ,
n - n . .
(. .
-, - )
a1, a2, ..., an : a
.
n 1
2
a1, a2, ..., a

, a
,a
, ..., an.
n 1
n 1
n 1
2 1
2 1
2 2
,
. ,
.
, , ,
. ,
- . , , for
if - main goto [Sedgewick-1992].
, , - , -.
.
,
, .
.
, , d1 < d2 < ... < dn f1, f2, ..., fn , . . , . (, , . .
,
. , <.)
,
fi. 8.2.5.
. i, fi.
8 -
510
. : 1.4 = 4 (
f5 4). 1 3.2 = 6,
3 , f1 e 2. ,
4 3.3 = 9, 3 , f4 = 3.
, ( 8.2.5.):
2.3 + 7.2 + 1.4 + 3.3 + 4.1 + 6.2 + 5.3 = 64
5
4
2
7
1
2
6
6
4
3
7
5
3
1
2
8.2.5. .
, ,
( 8.2.3.). -
, di < di+1 < ... <
di+j. k (1 i k i+j n)
dk , , di < di+1 < ... < dk1
dk+1 < dk+2 < ... < di+j (1 j n1, 1 i nj).
s, s
di < di+1 < ... < di+j. ,
,
, . s.
, ,
, , s,
.
, , . . , . .
,
.
: - 8.2.5, , ( 0 2). . , m[i][i-1] 0, 1 i n+1. ,
m[][], , [Sedgewick-1992].
, k, . (n3) (n2). ,
- ,
- t t [-1996]. (
. ,
, ,
-. , ,
8 -
511
- ,
.)
? ,
. : 1) k 1; 2)
. getOrder().
, 90. h,
, ,
. getOrder(1,n,0).
. 8.2.5.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
/* - */
const unsigned long f[MAX+1] = {2,7,1,3,4,6,5}; /* */

/* */
/* */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k;
unsigned long t;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
m[i][i] = f[i-1];
m[i][i-1] = 0;
}
m[n+1][n] = 0;
/* */
for (j = 1; j <= n - 1; j++) {
for (i = 1; i <= n - j; i++) {
for (k = i; k <= i + j; k++) {
/* */
if ((t = m[i][k - 1] + m[k + 1][i + j]) < m[i][i + j]) {
m[i][i + j] = t;
m[i + j + 1][i] = k;
}
}
for (k = i-1; k < i + j; k++)
m[i][i+j] += f[k];
}
}
}
/* */
void PrintMatrix(void)
{ unsigned i,j;
8 -
512
printf("\n :");
for (i = 1; i <= n+1; i++) {
printf("\n");
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
}
}
/* */
void getOrder(unsigned ll, unsigned rr, unsigned h)
{ unsigned i;
if (ll > rr)
return;
if (ll == rr) {
for (i = 0; i < h; i++)
printf("
");
printf("d%u\n", rr);
}
else {
getOrder(ll, m[rr + 1][ll] - 1, h + 1);
for (i = 0; i < h; i++)
printf("
");
printf("d%lu\n", m[rr + 1][ll]);
getOrder(m[rr + 1][ll] + 1, rr, h + 1);
}
}
int main(void) {
solve();
printf("\n : %lu",
m[1][n]);
PrintMatrix();
printf("\n :\n"); getOrder(1,n,0);
return 0;
}
tree.c
8.2.5, . . . (
, .)
:
: 64
:
2
11
13
20
32
49
64
0
7
9
16
28
43
58
2
0
1
5
13
25
37
2
2
0
3
10
22
33
2
2
4
0
4
14
24
2
2
4
5
0
6
16
5
5
5
5
6
0
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
0
:
d1
d2
d3
d4
8 -
513
d5
d6
d7
:
1. ,
:
)
)
)
2.
8.2.5.?
3. .
4. (
8.2.3.), ( 8.2.4.)
.
8.2.6. -
. X = (x1, x2, ..., xm) Y = (y1, y2, ..., yn). -
Z = (z1, z2, ..., zk ), X Y . ,
Z X, Z
X. .
-.
8.2. , Z = (z1, z2, ..., zk ) X = (x1, x2, ...,
xm), i1 < i2 < ... < ik , xi j = zj, j = 1, 2, ..., k, 1 i1 < ik
n.
( ): X = aaaabbca Y = baadcaba. , aaa, abca ba
X, dca, bad aaa Y. a, aa ab X
Y, , 4, aaaa.
, - , aaaba,
.
, : X
Y,
X 2|X| ( 2m). F(i,j)
- Xi = (x1, x2, ..., xi) Yj = (y1, y2, ..., yj), 1 i m, 1 j n.
, xi = yj, F(i,j) = F(i1,j1) + 1. ,
- Zij Xi Yj xi ( yj,
). , xi yj, , Zij xi yj.
Zij xi, Zij - Xi1 = (x1, x2, ..., xi1) Yj, . . Zij
= Zi1,j. : F(i,j) = F(i1,j). Zij yj,
Zij - Xi Yj1 = (y1, y2, ..., yj1), . . Zij = Zi,j1 F(i,j) =
F(i,j1). Zij xi, yj, , Zij -
Xi-1 Yj1, . . Zij = Zi1,j1, F(i,j) = max(F(i1,j),F(i,j1)). ,
, - .
:
8 -
514
0
i 0 j 0
F i, j F (i 1, j 1) 1
i 0, j 0, xi y j
max F (i 1, j ), F (i, j 1) i 0, j 0, x y
i
j
, ,
. - ,
. m*n.
.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAXN 100
#define MAX(a,b) (((a)>(b)) ? (a) : (b)) /* - */
char F[MAXN][MAXN];
/* */
const char x[MAXN] = "acbcacbcaba";

const char y[MAXN] = "abacacacababa";
/* */
/* */
/* - */
unsigned LCS_Length(void)
{ unsigned i, j, m, n;
m = strlen(x); /* */
n = strlen(y); /* */
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= m; i++)
F[i][0] = 0;
for (j = 0; j <= n; j++)
F[0][j] = 0;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= m; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
if (x[i - 1] == y[j - 1])
F[i][j] = F[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
else
F[i][j] = MAX(F[i - 1][j], F[i][j - 1]);
return F[m][n];
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n - : %u", LCS_Length());
return 0;
}
lcs1.c
, (mn). : ,
. .
-, ,
( ), :
1) xi = yj, , Zij xi, . .
F[i][j] = F[i-1][j-1] + 1;
2) xi yj, F[i-1][j] F[i][j-1],
F[i][j] = F[i-1][j], , xi Zij
8 -
515
xi yj, F[i-1][j] F[i][j-1],

F[i][j] = F[i][j-1], , yj Zij
: UPLEFT, UP LEFT, 1), 2) 3) . b[i][j]
( LCS_Length() -). -
. printLCS()
, .
, (
). printLCS2() .
- , b[][]
F[][] (
printLCS3()).
3)
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX
100
#define LEFT
1
#define UP
2
#define UPLEFT 3
char F[MAX][MAX];
char b[MAX][MAX];
const char x[MAX] = "acbcacbcaba";
const char y[MAX] = "abacacacababa";
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
/* - */
unsigned LCS_Length(void)
{ unsigned i, j, m, n;
m = strlen(x); /* */
n = strlen(y); /* */
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= m; i++)
F[i][0] = 0;
for (j = 0; j <= n; j++)
F[0][j] = 0;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= m; i++) {
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
if (x[i - 1] == y[j - 1]) {
F[i][j] = F[i - 1][j - 1] + 1;
b[i][j] = UPLEFT;
}
else if (F[i - 1][j] >= F[i][j - 1]) {
F[i][j] = F[i - 1][j];
b[i][j] = UP;
}
else {
F[i][j] = F[i][j - 1];
b[i][j] = LEFT;
}
}
}
return F[m][n];
}
/* () */
void printLCS(void)
{ unsigned i = strlen(x),
8 -
while (i
switch
case
case
case
}
516
j = strlen(y);
> 0 && j > 0)
(b[i][j]) {
UPLEFT: printf("%c", x[i - 1]); i--; j--; break;
UP:
i--; break;
LEFT:
j--;
}
/* */
void printLCS2(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{
if (0 == i || 0 == j)
return;
if (UPLEFT == b[i][j]) {
printLCS2(i - 1, j - 1);
printf("%c", x[i - 1]);
}
else if (UP == b[i][j])
printLCS2(i - 1, j);
else
printLCS2(i, j - 1);
}
/* */
void printLCS3(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ if (0 == i || 0 == j)
return;
if (x[i - 1] == y[j - 1]) {
printLCS3(i - 1, j - 1);
printf("%c", x[i - 1]);
}
else if (F[i][j] == F[i - 1][j])
printLCS3(i - 1, j);
else
printLCS3(i, j - 1);
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n
printf("\nPrintLCS:
printLCS();
printf("\nPrintLCS2:
printLCS2(strlen(x),
printf("\nPrintLCS3:
printLCS3(strlen(x),
return 0;
}
- : %u", LCS_Length());
( ): ");
: ");
strlen(y));
: ");
strlen(y));
lcs2.c
:

printLCS:
printLCS2:
printLCS3:
- : 9
( ): ababcacca
: accacbaba
: accacbaba
: (nm),
. , -
8 -
517
, ,
2.min(m,n) + (1) min(m,n) + (1), ,

[Cormen,Leiserson,Rivest1997]. (
8.2.1.).
:
1. .
2. , :
) 2.min(m,n) + (1)
) min(m,n) + (1)
8.2.7. -
, . X = (x1, x2, ..., xn). - X.
8.3. X = (x1, x2, ..., xn) ,
- ( ,
), . . x1 x2 ... xn.
. , . LNS(k) ( . Longest Non-decreasing
Subsequence) - Xk = (x1, x2, ..., xk ),
k X. . LNS(1) .
, LNS(k) LNS(k+1). ,

. (10, 40, 20, 30). 30
LNS(3), (10, 20).
(10, 40) . : ,
, ,
, , - .
: (1, 2, 5, 3, 4). , - , , , LNS(k+1). , ( 3)
- , ,
-. . . , - LNS(k). , (1, 2, 3, 4),
. (1, 5, 6, 2, 3, 4), , - , 2 - LNS(k).
, , , - . LNS(k) : LNS(k,s), - s,
Xk = (x1, x2, ..., xk ), 1 s k n.
LNS(k,s) . X . xk k, 1 k n. xk , , , ..., s- .
LNS(k, s1) xk LNS(k, s) s, 1 s k n.
- s s- xk . , xk
- - - , .
- - ,
, .
8 -
518
. :
/* */
for (k = 0; k <= n; k++) {
for (s = 1; s <= n; s++)
LNS[k][s] = +;
LNS[k][0] = -;
}
/* */
for (k = 1; k <= n; k++)
for (s = 1; s <= n; s++)
if (LNS[k-1][s-1] x[k] LNS[k-1][s])
LNS[k][s] = x[k];
else
LNS[k][s] = LNS[k-1][s];
- . s, LNS(k,s). r,
LNS_Length() .

X. LNS_Print() . LNS_Print2()
, .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
const int x[MAX] = {100, 10, 15, 5, 25, 22, 12, 22}; /* */
/* x[] ! */
int LNS[MAX][MAX];
/* */
/* - */
unsigned LNS_Length(void)
{ unsigned i, j, r;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
LNS[i][j] = MAX + 1;
LNS[i][0] = -1;
}
/* */
r = 1;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++) {
if (LNS[i - 1][j - 1] <= x[i] && x[i] <= LNS[i - 1][j]
&& LNS[i - 1][j - 1] <= LNS[i - 1][j]) {
LNS[i][j] = x[i];
if (r < j)
r = j;
}
else
LNS[i][j] = LNS[i - 1][j];
8 -
519
}
}
return r;
}
/* - ( ) */
void LNS_Print(unsigned j)
{ unsigned i = n;
do {
if (LNS[i][j] == LNS[i - 1][j])
i--;
else {
printf("%d ", x[i]);
j--;
}
} while (i > 0);
}
/* - */
void LNS_Print2(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ if (0 == i) return;
if (LNS[i][j] == LNS[i - 1][j])
LNS_Print2(i - 1, j);
else {
LNS_Print2(i, j - 1);
printf("%d ", x[i]);
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned len = LNS_Length();
printf("\n - : %u", len);
printf("\n (): "); LNS_Print(len);
printf("\n: "); LNS_Print2(n, len);
return 0;
}
lns1.c
:
- : 4
(): 22 22 15 10
: 10 15 22 22
, (n2) , . . .
: -,

, . (n)
(n2).
- . xi.
xi.
xj, (i < j n). xi - xj,
xj.
xj e l, , xi, l + 1.
, xi, xj,
l . xj, . . xi
8 -
520
- ,
, xi. LNS(i)
xi. LNS(i)
:
n
( LNS ( j )) j : x j xi ,1 i j n
1 j max
i 1, x j xi
LNS (i)
1
-
( LNS_Length()).
, next[],
xi xi. ,
, ( LNS_Print()).
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
const int x[MAX] = {100, 10, 15, 5, 25, 22, 12, 22}; /* */
/* x[] ! */
unsigned LNS[MAX];
unsigned next[MAX];
/* x[i] */
/* */
/* - */
unsigned LNS_Length(unsigned *start)
{ unsigned i, j;
unsigned l; /* xi,
/* l xj: */
/*
1) i < j <= n */
/*
2) xi <= xj
*/
unsigned len = 0; /* ( ) */
for (i = n; i >= 1; i--) {
for (l = 0, j = i + 1; j <= n; j++)
if (x[j] >= x[i] && LNS[j] > l) {
l = LNS[j];
next[i] = j;
}
LNS[i] = l + 1;
if (LNS[i] > len) {
len = LNS[i];
*start = i;
}
}
return len;
}
/* - */
void LNS_Print(unsigned start)
{ for (; LNS[start] >= 1; start = next[start])
printf(" %d", x[start]);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned start;
8 -
521
printf(" - : %u\n",
LNS_Length(&start));
printf(": "); LNS_Print(start);
return 0;
}
lns2.c
? (n) (n2). .
(n.log2 n).
LNS(k) xi X, k . 1 k i n k1
, . . Xi1 = {x1, x2, ..., xi1}
k1, - xi. ,
LNS(.) . k , . . ,
LNS(k). xi.
1. xi < LNS(1). : LNS(1) = xi.
2. xi LNS(k). : LNS(k+1) = xi.
3. LNS(1) xi < LNS(k). j (1 < j k), LNS(j1) xi < LNS(j),
LNS(j) = xi.
(1), (n). (log2 n).
xi X , (n.log2 n) (n) [-1995]. .
unsigned LNS_Length(void)
{ unsigned i, r, k, l, med;
for (LNS[1] = x[1], k = 1, i =
if (x[i] < LNS[1])
/*
LNS[1] = x[i];
else if (x[i] >= LNS[k]) /*
LNS[++k] = x[i];
else {
/*
l = 1;
r = k;
/*
while (l < r - 1) {
med = (l + r) / 2;
if (LNS[med] <= x[i])
l = med;
else
r = med;
}
LNS[r] = x[i];
}
}
return k;
}
lns3.c
2; i <= n; i++) {
1 */
2 */
3 */
*/
8 -
522
:
1. ,
. ,
(n).
2. . ?
3. . - ? ?
8.2.8.
s1 s2. s1 s2,
, :
replace(i,x)
i- (1 i |s1|) s1 x
insert(i,x)
x i s1
delete(i)
i- s1
, .
( )
s1 s 2 ( ).
.
- ( 8.2.6.).
-. .
, . s1
s2. .
.
.
F(i,j), () s1[1], s1[2], ..., s1[i] s2[1], s2[2], ..., s2[j]. cr s1
s2, ci e , cd .
F(i,j) ? :
1. s1[i] = s2[j]. F(i,j) = F(i 1,j1).
2. s1[i] s2[j]. :
F(i,j) = F(i1,j1) + cr. : .
F(i,j) = F(i,j1) + ci. s2 , s1.
F(i,j) = F(i1,j) + cd. s2 , .
: COST_DELETE == 1
(cd), COST_INSERT == 2 (ci) COST_REPLACE (COST_REPLACE == 0 (cr),
, COST_REPLACE == 3 ). , ,
1). F(i,j) F(i1,j1) + cr,
F(i,j1) + ci F(i 1,j) + cd.
. F(i,0) ,
i , .
, i s1.
F(i,0) = i.cd. , F(0,j) , .
j s2, j.ci.
editDistance().
, (nm), n s1, m
s2.
8 -
523
F[][] (n+m).
: INSERT, DELETE REPLACE. , INSERT DELETE s1.
s1,
, , , ,
s1. -.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define
#define
#define
#define
MAX
COST_DELETE
COST_INSERT
COST_REPLACE(i, j)
100
1
2
((s1[i] == s2[j]) ? 0 : 3)
#define min2(a, b) (((a) < (b)) ? (a) : (b))

/* M. 2 */
#define min(a, b, c)
min2(min2(a,b), (c)) /* M. 3 */
unsigned F[MAX+1][MAX+1];
unsigned n1;
unsigned n2;
/* */
/* */
/* */
const char *s1="_abracadabra";

const char *s2="_mabragabra";
/* 1 ( ) */
/* - ( ) */
/* */
unsigned editDistance(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= n1; i++)
F[i][0] = i * COST_DELETE;
for (j = 0; j <= n2; j++)
F[0][j] = j * COST_INSERT;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n1; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n2; j++)
F[i][j] = min(F[i - 1][j - 1] + COST_REPLACE(i, j),
F[i][j - 1] + COST_INSERT,
F[i - 1][j] + COST_DELETE);
return F[n1][n2];
}
/* */
void printEditOperations(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{
if (0 == j)
for (j = 1; j <= i; j++)
printf("DELETE(%u) ", j);
else if (0 == i)
for (i = 1; i <= j; i++)
printf("INSERT(%u,%c) ", i, s2[i]);
else if (i > 0 && j > 0) {
if (F[i][j] == F[i - 1][j - 1] + COST_REPLACE(i, j)) {
printEditOperations(i - 1, j - 1);
if (COST_REPLACE(i, j) > 0)
printf("REPLACE(%u,%c) ", i, s2[j]);
8 -
524
}
else if (F[i][j] == F[i][j - 1] + COST_INSERT) {
printEditOperations(i, j - 1);
printf("INSERT(%u,%c) ", i, s2[j]);
}
else if (F[i][j] == F[i - 1][j] + COST_DELETE) {
printEditOperations(i - 1, j);
printf("DELETE(%u) ", i);
}
}
}
int main(void) {
n1 = strlen(s1) - 1;
n2 = strlen(s2) - 1;
printf("\n : %u\n",
editDistance());
printEditOperations(n1, n2);
return 0;
}
transform.c
:
: 7
INSERT(1,m) DELETE(4) DELETE(5) REPLACE(7,g)
,
(nm) (m). ,
-, - ,
. .
,
, .
, , (mn)
(m). (min(n,m)),
, .
.
, , ,
, .
F(n,m) n/2
x F(n,m). ,
F(1,1) F(n/2,x) F(n/2,x) F(n/2,m).
. (nm). [Skiena1997]
- ,
-. - . (. . ),
. ,
- , . . - "" .

. , , -
, ,
, - . , - . -
8 -
525
. (. .
),
. [Skiena-1997]
.
smart . , , 8.2.8. (
):
ADVANCE
DELETE
REPLACE
INSERT
KILL
.

.
,
.
, .
.
, ,
.
.
8.2.8. smart .

, ,
- ( smart ) - . - .
, ,
(
).
.
, -,
F(i,0) = 0, F(i,0) = cd,
. REPLACE -
DELETE INSERT, , REPLACE
. , -
( 8.2.6.).
:
1.
(nm) (min(m,n)).
2. .
3. , , , ,
, .
4. , smart
.
5. ,
- ( 8.2.6.).
8 -
526
8.2.9.
. , n , si (1 i n). k .
.
, ,
.
.
,
, .
,
s1, s2, ..., sn.
k ,
, , .
:
1
k
s
i 1
, ,
. ,
, .
. : s1, s2, ..., sn i (1 i n): s1, s2, ..., si si+1, si+2, ..., sn. , k1 . k2
. :
j (1 j i). (sj+1, sj+2, ..., si) ,
(s1, s2, ..., sj) k3 . , , -
. .
. F(n,k), n k . . :
i
i
F i, j min max F l , j 1, s r , 1 i n, 1 j k
l 1
r l 1
, l + 1 i , . ,
:
F(1,j) = s1, 1 j k ( )
F(i,1) = s1 + s2 + ... + si, 1 i n ( )
.
, a .
, F(i,j)
i (1 i n) j (1 j k). nk.

(i,j) , -
. - ,
sl+1 + sl+2 + ... + si.
8 -
527
, (n).
, si,
. (1).
, ,
(n). (kn2).
F(i,j) F[][].
b[][], , .
. .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 80
#define MAX(a,b) (((a)>(b)) ? (a) : (b)) /* - */
unsigned long p[MAXN];
/* */
unsigned long F[MAXN][MAXN]; /* */
unsigned long b[MAXN][MAXN]; /* */
/* ( ) */
const unsigned s[MAXN] = {0,23,15,89,170,25,1,86,80,2,27};
/* */
/* k */
long doPartition(unsigned k)
{ unsigned i, j, l, m;
/* */
for (p[0] = 0, i = 1; i <= n; i++)
p[i] = p[i - 1] + s[i];
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
F[i][1] = p[i];
for (j = 1; j <= k; j++)
F[1][j] = s[1];
/* */
for (i = 2; i <= n; i++)
for (j = 2; j <= k; j++)
for (F[i][j] = INFINITY, l = 1; l <= i - 1; l++)
if ((m = MAX(F[l][j - 1], p[i] - p[l])) < F[i][j]) {
F[i][j] = m;
b[i][j] = l;
}
return F[n][k];
}
void print(unsigned from, unsigned to)
{ unsigned i;
printf("\n");
for (i = from; i <= to; i++)
printf("%u ", s[i]);
}
void printPartition(unsigned n, unsigned k)
{ if (1 == k)
8 -
528
print(1, n);
else {
printPartition(b[n][k], k - 1);
print(b[n][k] + 1, n);
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n : %lu", doPartition(k));
printPartition(n, k);
return 0;
}
partitio.c
:
: 170
23 15 89
170
25 1 86
80 2 27
:
1. b[][] ?
2. .
3. , .
8.3.
(, . . ) , . , - .
. , , ( , ;
).
, - , . . .
, , . ,
- . -
, - .
8.3.1.
(
1.2.2.). :
8 -
529
{ if (n < 2)
return n;
else
}
fibrec.c
, , () . :

, memoization.
. n .
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 256
const unsigned n = 10; /* 10- */
unsigned long m[MAX + 1];
/* , */
unsigned long fibMemo(unsigned n)
{ if (n < 2)
m[n] = n;
else if (0 == m[n])
m[n] = fibMemo(n - 1) + fibMemo(n - 2);
return m[n];
}
int main(void) {
memset(m, 0, MAX * sizeof(*m));
printf("\n%u- : %lu", n, fibMemo(n));
return 0;
}
fibmemo.c
, F0 = 1. ,
- .
n- , . :
n
1 1 Fn Fn1
(1)

1 0 Fn1 Fn2
, n-
n- . ,
( 7.5, [-1998c])
(log2 n), , , n.
- , ,
,
.
, :
8 -
530
#include <assert.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define SQR(X) ((X) * (X))
unsigned long matrE[2][2] = { { 1, 1 }, { 1, 0 } }; /* */
unsigned long matr[2][2]; /* */
void fibMatr(unsigned n, unsigned long matr[][2])
{ static unsigned long lMatr[2][2]; /* */
static unsigned long sq12;
/* */
if (n < 2)
memcpy(matr, matrE, 4 * sizeof(matr[0][0]));
else if (0 == n % 2) {
fibMatr(n / 2, lMatr);
sq12 = SQR(lMatr[0][1]);
matr[0][0] = SQR(lMatr[0][0]) + sq12;
matr[1][1] = SQR(lMatr[1][1]) + sq12;
matr[0][1] = matr[0][0] - matr[1][1];
matr[1][0] = matr[0][1];
}
else {
fibMatr(n - 1, lMatr);
matr[1][1] = lMatr[0][1];
matr[0][1] = lMatr[0][0];
matr[0][0] = lMatr[0][0] + lMatr[1][0];
matr[1][0] = lMatr[0][1];
}
}
int main(void) {
fibMatr(n - 1, matr);
printf("\n%u- : %lu", n, matr[0][0]);
return 0;
}
fibmatr.c
, matr[][] 22. , , . : ,
/ , , , ,
a .
, - n- , :
Fn2 Fn2 , n 2k
1
Fn 2
2
Fn1 Fn2 , n 2k 1
(2)
8 -
531
, .
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 250
#define SQR(X) ((X)*(X))
unsigned long m[MAX+1];
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 250
#define SQR(X) ((X)*(X))
unsigned long m[MAX+1];
/* , */
unsigned long fMemo2(unsigned n)
{ if (n < 2)
m[n] = 1;
else if (0 == m[n])
if (1 == n % 2)
m[n] = fMemo2(n - 1) + fMemo2(n - 2);
else
m[n] = SQR(fMemo2(n / 2)) + SQR(fMemo2(n / 2 - 1));
return m[n];
}
int main(void) {
memset(m, 0, MAX * sizeof(m[0]));
printf("\n%u- : %lu", n, fMemo2(n - 1));
return 0;
}
fibmemo2.c
, , : - ?
. ,
n = 48
. - ,
double IEEE, ,
18-19. . .
1000- .
- n
: .
,
.
.
:
1. (1).
8 -
532
2. (2) .
3. , ,
(1). .
4. - .
5.
n- n: 10, 100, 200, 500,
1000.
8.3.2.
( 1.1.5), C nk n ,
k
- .
:
C nk
n!
, 0 k n, n k
k!n k !
1 , :
1
k 0 k n
n n 1 n 1

0 k n
k k 1 k
kn
0
:
unsigned long binom(unsigned n,unsigned k) /* . */
{ if (k > n) return 0;
else if (0 == k || k == n) return 1;
else return binom(n-1, k-1) + binom(n-1, k);
}
binom.c
n- : fibRec(). , : . , binom(6,4) binom(5,3) binom(5,4). binom(4,3),
. - -. , ,
C nk .
, . ,
.
, k-
(k1)- . - . ,
(n.k) (k).
#define MAX 200
unsigned long m[MAX];
unsigned long binomDynamic(unsigned n, unsigned k)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i <= n; i++) {
8 -
533
m[i] = 1;
if (i > 1) {
if (k < i - 1) j = k; else j = i - 1;
for (; j >= 1; j--) m[j] += m[j - 1];
}
}
return m[k];
}
binom2.c
:
1. , .
2. (n.k) ,
?
8.3.3.
: A B - 2n1 ,
p (0 p 1) q = 1p
. , n . . .
P(i,j) , i , j . , ,
, P(n,n), n . A 0
, . , P(0,j) = 1 (1 j n). , B 0 , A 0: P(i,0)
= 0 (1 i n). :
P(0,j) = 1, j = 1, 2, , n
P(i,0) = 0, i = 1, 2, , n
P(i,j) = p.P(i1, j) + q.P(i, j1) , i > 0 , j > 0
, P(0,0) . , , ( ,
.).
, n p P(n,n), . . . ,
, P(i,j). i = j = n
P(n,n):
/* */
float P(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ if (0 == j)
return 0.0;
else if (0 == i)
return 1.0;
else
return p * P(i - 1, j) + (1 - p) * P(i, j - 1);
}
series.c
( 8.3.1.) ( 8.3.2.)
. ,
P(3,4) P(2,4) P(3,3),
8 -
534
P(2,3). P(2,3) . -
-. 1.4.9.,
, P(n,n) (4n).
- , P(i,j) i j ,
. . i i + j [Aho,Hopcroft,Ullman1987]. , - , ,

. , P(i,j) binom(i+j,j).
P(i,j) = p.P(i1, j) + q.P(i, j1)

:
binom(i+j,j) = binom(i+j 1, j) + binom(i+j1, j1).
p q, , .
, , P(n,n),
2n . , ,

n
(2n)! / (2.n!).
, . (,
, n = 14).
. : char calculated ( : ?) float value ( ).
-. , ,
.
pDynamic() calculated 0, pDyn(),
.
#define MAX 100
#define q (1 - (p))
/* B */
const float p = 0.5;

/* A */
struct {
char calculated;
float value;
} PS[MAX][MAX];
/* ? */
/* */
float pDyn(unsigned i, unsigned j) /* */

{ if (!PS[i][j].calculated) {
PS[i][j].value = p * pDyn(i - 1, j) + q * pDyn(i, j - 1);
PS[i][j].calculated = 1;
}
return PS[i][j].value;
}
float pDynamic(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ unsigned k, l;
8 -
535
for (k = 1; k <= i; k++)

for (l = 1; l <= j; l++)
PS[k][l].calculated = 0;
for (k = 1; k <= i; k++) {
PS[0][k].value = 1.0;
PS[0][k].calculated = 1;
}
for (k = 1; k <= j; k++) {
PS[k][0].value = 0.0;
PS[k][0].calculated = 1;
}
return pDyn(i, j);
}
series2.c
calculated. , ,
, .
, 1,
. ,
, . ,
( 0),
. (?).
#define MAX 100
#define NOT_CALCULATED (-1)
#define q (1 - (p))
const float p = 0.5;
float PS[MAX][MAX];
/* B */
/* A */
float pDyn(unsigned i, unsigned j) /* */

{ if (PS[i][j] < 0)
PS[i][j] = p * pDyn(i - 1, j) + q * pDyn(i, j - 1);
return PS[i][j];
}
float pDynamic2(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ unsigned k, l;
for (k = 1; k <= i; k++)
for (l = 1; l <= j; l++)
PS[k][l] = NOT_CALCULATED;
for (k = 1; k <= i; k++)
PS[k][0] = 0.0;
for (k = 1; k <= j; k++)
PS[0][k] = 1.0;
return pDyn(i, j);
}
series3.c
, (n2)
, . , , , memoization.
,
.
,
, , -
8 -
536
. .
8.3.3.
j\i
0
1
2
3
4
0
0
0
0
1
1
1/2
1/4
1/8
1/16
2
1
3/4
1/2
5/16
3/16
3
1
7/8
11/16
1/2
11/32
4
1
15/16
13/16
21/32
1/2
8.3.3. P(i,j) n = 4 p = 1/2 (0 i, j n).

,
8.3.3., , :
. ,
? -,
, . ,
( 8.3.3.).
8.3.3. .
,

. ( - ,
, .)
float pDynamic3(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ float P[MAX][MAX];
unsigned s, k;
P[0][0] = 0.0; /* . */
for (s = 1; s <= i + j; s++) {
P[0][s] = 1.0;
P[s][0] = 0.0;
for (k = 1; k <= s - 1; k++)
P[k][s - k] = p * P[k - 1][s - k] + q * P[k][s - k - 1];
}
return P[i][j];
}
series4.c

(n2). , . (n2).
:
1. 0.0 - ? ?
2. , (n).
8 -
537
3. ( 1.1.5., 8.3.2.).
, ?
8.3.4.
: n : c0, c1, ..., cn1,
s. s
. c0, c1, ..., cn1 .
.
: , , . ,
.
- . F(s,m) ,
s , m.
:
0
s0
F ( s, s )
sm
F ( s , m) 1
F (s i, is) m & k : c s
i 1, 2 ,...,m ;k :ck i
k
F ( s i, i )
i 1, 2,...,m;k:ck i
. , 0
. , s - s. .
, ck s, m. ,
sck , , ck .
, , F(s ck , ck ). ,
F(sck , ck ) ck , ck s ck m, F(s,m).
, s.
count() F(s,m) , ,
. . memoization. s
count(s,s), F(s,s).
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXCOINS 100 /* */
#define MAXSUM
100 /* */
unsigned long F[MAXSUM][MAXSUM];
/* */
unsigned char exist[MAXSUM]; /* */
const unsigned coins[MAXCOINS] = {1,2,3,4,6}; /* */
const unsigned sum = 6;
/* , */
/* */
/* */
void init(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= sum; i++)
for (j = 0; j <= sum; j++)
F[i][j] = 0;
/* - */
8 -
538
for (i = 0; i <= sum; i++)

exist[i] = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
exist[coins[i]] = 1;
}
/* sum */
unsigned long count(unsigned sum, unsigned max)
{ unsigned long i;
if (sum <= 0)
return 0;
if (F[sum][max] > 0)
return F[sum][max];
else {
if (sum < max)
max = sum;
if (sum == max && exist[sum]) /* */
F[sum][max] = 1;
for (i = max; i > 0; i--) /* */
if (exist[i])
F[sum][max] += count(sum - i, i);
}
return F[sum][max];
}
int main(void) {
init();
printf("\n %u %lu",
sum, count(sum, sum));
return 0;
}
coin_min.c
:
6 10
, 10 1, 2, 3, 4
6, :
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
6
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
2
1
3
2
1
2
2
1
1
+ 1
+
+
+
+
+
+
1
1
2
1
1
1
+ 1
+ 1
+ 1 + 1
+ 1 + 1 + 1
:
1. .
2. .
8 -
539
8.3.5.
, ,
, . . , . ,
S.
- . .
F(s,k), s
k : c0, c1, ..., ck1. :
0
F ( s, k )
1 F s c k , k 1 F ( s, j ), j max c c k
i
F s c k , k 1 F ( s, j ), j max c c k
i
s0
k 0
l : cl s
. ,
s. :
1) k- . .
2) k- .
.
, s.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXCOINS
#define MAXSUM
#define SWAP(a, b)
100 /* */
100 /* */
{ a = a ^ b; b = a ^ b; a = a ^ b; }
unsigned long F[MAXSUM][MAXSUM]; /* */

/* */
const unsigned sum = 6; /* , */
unsigned coins[MAXCOINS] = {1,2,2,3,3,4,6}; /* */
/* */
void init(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 0; i <= sum; i++)
for (j = 0; j <= sum; j++)
F[i][j] = 0;
}
/* */
void sort(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
for (j = i + 1; j < n; j++)
if (coins[i] > coins[j])
SWAP(coins[i], coins[j]);
}
/* sum k */
unsigned long count(int sum, int k)
{ unsigned j;
if (sum <= 0 || k < 0)
8 -
540
return 0;
if (F[sum][k] > 0)
return F[sum][k];
else {
if (coins[k] == (unsigned)sum)
F[sum][k] = 1;
F[sum][k] += count(sum - coins[k], k - 1);
j = k;
while (coins[j] == coins[k]) j--;
F[sum][k] += count(sum, j);
}
return F[sum][k];
}
int main(void) {
init();
sort();
printf("\n %u %lu.",
sum, count(sum, n - 1));
return 0;
}
coinmin2.c
:
6 4.
, 4 1,
2, 2, 3, 3, 4 6, ( ,
, ):
6
6
6
6
=
=
=
=
6
4 + 2
3 + 3
3 + 2 + 1
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
8.3.6.
8.4. n
, , n.
n = 4 :
4
3
2
2
1
1
2
1 1
1 1 1
. -
S(n,m) n , m.
8 -
541
S(n,n). S(n,m)
[,-1988]:
1
S (n, n)
S (n, m)
1 S (n, n 1)
S (n, m 1) S (n m, m)
n 1 m 1
nm
nm
nm
1) S(n,1) = 1 ( - 1.)
2) S(1,m) = 1 ( m.)
3) S(n,m) = S(n,n), n < m ( n - n
.)
4) S(n,n) = 1 + S(n,n1) ( n, n ,
S(n,n1).)
5) S(n,m) = S(n,m1) + S(nm,m), n > m ( n
, - m, e S(n,m1), S(nm,m).)
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
unsigned long M[MAX][MAX];
/* */
/* n */
unsigned long getNum(unsigned n)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
if (1 == j)
M[i][j] = 1;
else if (1 == i)
M[i][j] = 1;
else if (i < j)
M[i][j] = M[i][i];
else if (i == j)
M[i][j] = 1 + M[i][i - 1];
else
M[i][j] = M[i][j - 1] + M[i - j][j];
return M[n][n];
}
int main(void)
{ printf(" %u : %lu",
n, getNum(n));
return 0;
}
breaknum.c
:
1. .
2. .
3. ?
8 -
542
4. .
8.3.7.
[Timus, 1009],
.
: n- k- . , , .
n k (2 k 10; n 2; 4 n + k 18).
:
4308063 7 ( k 9)
1000198
0002323 7-, 4 ( k 4)
,
. :
, . , ,
q(n,k). n-
k- , , nk .
F(n,k) = nk q(n,k).
? . n1 -
. , n = 8 :
00??????
x00?????
_x00????
__x00???
___x00??
____x00?
_____x00
0 0, ? k- (0, 1, ..., k1), x

k- (1, 2, ..., k1), _
, _ .
, , ,
, , ,
. , .
x.
? : ___x00??. F(s,k) s- k- . F(3,k), (k1), k2.
: F(3,k).(k1).k2
. ,
, :
s 2
qs, k k s 2 F i 1, k .(k 1).k s i 2

i 1
(ks2) . ,
:
F(0,k) = 1
F(1,k) = k
F(2,k) = k(k1)
8 -
543
- :
F(s,k) = ks q(s,k)
, F(n,k) -, F(3,k) s 1
. - memoization. k .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX
100
#define NOT_SOLVED (unsigned long)(-1)
unsigned long F[MAX];
/* */
unsigned long pow[MAX]; /* k */
void init(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = pow[0] = 1; i <= n; i++) {
pow[i] = k * pow[i - 1];
F[i] = NOT_SOLVED;
}
}
unsigned long solve(unsigned s)
{ unsigned i;
if (NOT_SOLVED == F[s]) {
F[s] = pow[s - 2];
for (i = 1; i < s - 1; i++)
F[s] += solve(i - 1) * (k - 1) * pow[s - i - 2];
F[s] = pow[s] - F[s];
}
return F[s];
}
int main(void) {
init(); F[0] = 1; F[1] = k; F[2] = k * k - 1;
printf("%lu\n", (k - 1) * solve(n - 1));
return 0;
}
no2zero.c
:
1. - ?
2. .
8.3.8.
. ,
. (. . ) . (
) . ,
(
. ,
8 -
544
.). -
, .
, , , .
. ,
, , ,
. , ,
.
8.5. ( [1996]):
= <N, T, S, P>,
:
N , ;
T , , N T
, . . NT = ;
S ( ), SN;
P () , :
= A, A , ,(NT)* (,
, );
(NT)*;
d() d(), ( - ), . .
.
* (. . , ), +
, d() .
, L = {ac,ad,bc,bd}
:
= <{S,A,B}, {a,b,c,d}, S, {SAB,Aa,Ab,Bc,Bd}>
. -
:
8.5.;
;
- ().
- , IBM, . (
. , ,
, .)
- L :
S ::= AB
A ::= a|b
B ::= c|d
S, A B (- <_>.
. : <>,
<> .). S , a b , ::=, |, <, >
. (S ::= AB ),
, . ::=
. ::= , , . | , <
> , .
8 -
545
,
, .
- :
;
- .
, . , - . - P. -
,
.
- . ,
( , )
.
.
P (
) . ( .) . , , . -.
,
, [-1984], [1996], [-1987] [-1980].

, , : 0, 1, 2 3. i = 1, 2, 3
i i1,
. - , :
1) 0 ( )
2)
1A2, 1, 2(NT)*, (NT)+, AN

1 ( )
1A212, 1, 2(NT)*, (NT)+, AN
3)
1 2 .
2 ( )
4)
A, (NT)+, AN
3 ( )
AB, AaB, Aa, aT, A,BN

,
S ( ). [-1996]
, . : 1 2:
1)
2)
1: Aa, aT, AN
2: ABC, A,B,CN
, A, :
8 -
546
L(A) = {bc | bL(B), cL(C), BC} {a | Aa}

, = <N,T,S,P>, L(S). ,
( ) , , .
, ,
. t[R][1...n][1...n], RN. n x (string). i,j (1 i j n) t[R][i][j] == 1 ,
xi, xi+1, ..., xj , R. :
t[R][i][j] == 1, , :
1) i == j Rxi
2)
k (i k < j) RTU , t[][i][k] == 1

t[U][k+1][j] == 1
( [Parberry-1995]):
unsigned cfl(void) {
for ( R)
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
if (Rxi)
t[R][i][i] = 1;
/* 2 */
for (d = 1; d < n; d++)
for (i = 1; i <= n-d; i++) {
j = i + d;
for ( R) {
t[R][i][j] = 0;
for ( RTU)
t[R][i][j] = kj 1i (t[T][i][k]t[U][k+1][j])
}
}
return t[S][1][n]; /* S */
}
- - .
1 2 .
0. 1) 1, 2
2. ,
( 8.2.1.): i == j,
[i,j] .
.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX
30
#define LETTERS 26
/* */
/* */
const struct { /* , : S->a */

char S, a;
} prodT[MAX+1] = {
{0,0},
/* */
{'S','s'}, /* S->s */
8 -
547
{'A','a'}, /* A->a */
{'B','b'} /* B->b */
};
const unsigned cntT = 3;
/* 1: S->a */
const char string[MAX + 1] = "aaasbbb"; /* , */
const struct { /* , : S->AB */
char S, A, B;
} prodNT[MAX+1] = {
{0,0,0},
/* */
{'S','A','R'}, /* S->AR */
{'S','A','B'}, /* S->AB */
{'R','S','B'}, /* R->SB */
};
const unsigned cntNT = 3;
/* 2: S->AB */
unsigned char t[LETTERS][MAX][MAX]; /* */
/* */
unsigned cfl(void)
{ unsigned i, j, k, l, d, let, n;
/* */
n = strlen(string); /* */
/* "" */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
for (let = 0; let < LETTERS; let++)
t[let][i][j] = 0;
/* 1 , */
for (i = 1; i <= cntT; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
if (prodT[i].a == string[j - 1])
t[prodT[i].S - 'A'][j][j] = 1;
/* 2 */
for (d = 1; d < n; d++)
for (i = 1; i <= n - d; i++)
/* S */
for (j = i + d, k = 1; k <= cntNT; k++)
for (l = i; l <= j - 1; l++)
if (t[prodNT[k].A - 'A'][i][l] && t[prodNT[k].B - 'A'][l+1][j])
t[prodNT[k].S - 'A'][i][j] = 1;
return t['S' - 'A'][1][n];
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n %s%s", cfl() ? "" : " ",
" !");
return 0;
}
cfl.c
:
!
:
1. .
8 -
548
2. aaasbbb -?
3.
. ?
4. . - .
5.
? ?
6. , - ?
7. ? XML? ?
8.3.9.
, , .
, .
,

, . :
0. p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z N,C,D,E,I.
1. p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z, ,
.
2. S , NS .
3. S T , CST, DST, EST IST.
4. , , 0,1,2 3.
, Isz NIsz , Cp Cqpq .
8.3.8. 1 . 2 : N (. .
NS), ,
S. 3 : T S, CST,
DST, EST IST . . .
F(i,j), , si, si+1,..., sj
.
, .
:
1. F(i,j) = 1, i = j sj{ p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z }
2. F(i,j) = 1, si = N F(i+1,j) = 1.
3. F(i,j) = 1, si{C,D,E,I} k, F(i+1,k) = 1 F(k+1,j) = 1
4. F(i,j) = 0
, - memoization.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 100
#define NOT_CALCULATED 2
unsigned char F[MAX][MAX]; /* */
const char *s = "NNNNNNNNECINNxqpCDNNNNNwNNNtNNNNs"; /* */
unsigned n; /* */
void init(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
8 -
549
n = strlen(s);
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
F[i][j] = NOT_CALCULATED;
}
unsigned char check(unsigned st, unsigned en)
{ unsigned k;
if (NOT_CALCULATED != F[st][en])
return F[st][en];
else {
/* 2 */
if (st == en)
F[st][en] = (s[st] >= 'p' && s[st] <= 'z');
else if ('N' == s[st])
F[st][en] = check(st + 1, en);
else if('C' == s[st] || 'D' == s[st] || 'E' == s[st] || 'I' == s[st])
{
k = st + 1;
while (k < en && !(check(st + 1, k) && check(k + 1, en)))
k++;
F[st][en] = (k != en);
}
else
F[st][en] = 0;
return F[st][en];
}
}
int main(void) {
init();
printf("\n. %s", check(0,n-1) ? "!" : "!!!");
return 0;
}
hedonia.c
:
1. .
2. NNNNNNNNECINNxqpCDNNNNNwNNNtNNNNs,
? ?
3. ?
4. , :
) ;
) ;
) -
8.3.10.
a
b
c
a
b
c
a
b
b
b
c
c
a
a
c
8.3.10. A = {a, b, c}.
8 -
550
x = x1x2...xn A k .
, a, A. A ,
, .
a,bA abA. A = {a, b, c}.
A 8.3.10.
abc. (ab)c, (ab)c = bc =
a. , a(bc), a(bc) = aa = b.
. , A, A, - a, x (
- ).
can(i,j,c), , , , i- j- , c (1 i j n). :
1)
2)
can(i,i,c) == 1, , xi == c
can(i,j,c) == 1, , i < j c1 c2 ,
c1*c2 == c p (i p < j), can(i,p,c1) == 1
can(p+1,j,c2)== 1
xi i- x, * . , table[][][]. p, can() 1.
, ,
.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define NOT_CALCULATED (unsigned char)(-1)
#define MAXSLEN 100 /* */
#define LETTS
3
/* */
/* */
char rel[LETTS][LETTS] = {
{ 'b', 'b', 'a' },
{ 'c', 'b', 'a' },
{ 'a', 'c', 'c' }};
char *s = "bacacbcabbbcacab";
unsigned char table[MAXSLEN][MAXSLEN][LETTS];
unsigned char split[MAXSLEN][MAXSLEN];
unsigned char can(unsigned char i, unsigned char j, unsigned char ch)
{ unsigned char c1, c2, pos;
if (table[i][j][ch] != NOT_CALCULATED)
return table[i][j][ch]; /* */
if (i == j)
return(s[i] == ch + 'a');
for (c1 = 0; c1 < LETTS; c1++)
for (c2 = 0; c2 < LETTS; c2++)
if (rel[c1][c2] == ch + 'a')
for (pos = i; pos <= j - 1; pos++)
if (can(i, pos, c1))
if (can(pos + 1, j, c2)) {
8 -
551
table[i][j][ch] = 1;
split[i][j] = pos;
return 1;
}
table[i][j][ch] = 0;
return 0;
}
void putBrackets(unsigned char i, unsigned char j)
{ /* */
if (i == j)
printf("%c", s[i]);
else {
printf("(");
putBrackets(i, split[i][j]);
printf("*");
putBrackets(split[i][j] + 1, j);
printf(")");
}
}
int main(void) {
unsigned char len = strlen(s);
memset(table, NOT_CALCULATED, sizeof(table));
if (can(0, len - 1, 0))
putBrackets(0, len - 1);
else
printf(" ");
return 0;
}
relation.c
:
(((b*a)*(c*a))*(((c*(b*c))*a)*((b*((b*b)*(c*a)))*(c*(a*b)))))
:
1. .
2. .
3. .
8.4.
- ,
,
.
- .
- ,
- ,
.
8 -
552
8.4.1.
: " " ,
. " " 1, 2, ..., 10 . ci (i = 1, 2, ..., 10), :
c1 = 12
c2 = 21
c3 = 31
c4 = 40
c5 = 49
c6 = 58
c7 = 69
c8 = 79
c9 = 90
c10 = 101
n (1 n 100) .
, -, ?
: , 10
. - , k
.
.
F(i), i . cj j . F(i) .
F(0) = 0.
F(i) = min[F(ij) + cj], 1 i n, 1 j min(i,k)
F(i) , 1.
i (1 i n) F(i), j
, . , F(i)
F . j ,
, i
.
(n).
j1, F(n). j2, F(nj1) . . . , .
, . , , , .
.
- F, , dist[]. solve()
for- (n) (k), , . . (1). (n.k).
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN
100
/* */
#define MAXK
20
/* */
#define INFINITY (unsigned)(-1)
struct {
unsigned last;
unsigned value;
/* */
/* */
8 -
553
} dist[MAXN];
const unsigned values[MAXK+1] = {0,12,21,31,40,49,58,69,79,90,101};
void solve(unsigned n) /* */
{ unsigned i, j;
dist[0].value = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
dist[i].value = INFINITY;
for (j = 1; j <= k && j <= i; j++)
if (dist[i - j].value + values[j] < dist[i].value) {
dist[i].value = dist[i - j].value + values[j];
dist[i].last = j;
}
}
}
void print(unsigned n) /* */
{ printf("\n%s%u", " : ", dist[n].value);
printf("\n :");
while (n > 0) {
printf("\n%u %u", dist[n].last, values[dist[n].last]);
n -= dist[n].last;
}
}
int main(void) {
solve(n);
print(n);
return 0;
}
taxi.c
:
: 147
:
3 31
6 58
6 58
:
1. .
2. .
3. ,
? ? ?
8.4.2.
[Timus, 1031]:
- .
, .
,
( 1).
8 -
554
.
8.4.2.
X
0 < X L1
L1 < X L2
L2 < X L3

C1
C2
C3
8.4.2. .
,
L3.
. , , . . .
.
. , :
, .
- memoization. , minPrice(k) k 3 :
1) minPrice(i1) + C1, i1 - , k,
- L1
2) minPrice(i2) + C2, i2 - , k,
- L2
3) minPrice(i3) + C3 i3 - , k,
- L3
s .
minPrice(k) = 0, k = 0, 1, , s
minPrice(k) = min(minPrice(i1) + C1, minPrice(i2) + C2, minPrice(i3) + C3), k > s
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 8000
#define NOT_CALCULATED
(unsigned long)(-1)
unsigned long minPrice[MAX];/* . */

const unsigned long dist[MAX] = {0,3,7,8,13,15,23}; /* */
/* */
const unsigned long l1 = 3, l2 = 6, l3 = 8,
c1 = 20, c2 = 30, c3 = 40;
const unsigned end = 6;
unsigned start = 2;
unsigned long calc(unsigned cur)
{ unsigned i;
unsigned long price;
if (NOT_CALCULATED == minPrice[cur]) {
/* - ,
1 */
for (i = cur - 1; i >= start && (dist[cur] - dist[i]) <= l1; i--);
if (++i < cur)
8 -
555
if ((price = calc(i) + c1) < minPrice[cur])

minPrice[cur] = price;
/* - ,
2 */
for (; i >= start && (dist[cur] - dist[i]) <= l2; i--);
if (++i < cur)
/* - ,
3 */
for (; i >= start && (dist[cur] - dist[i]) <= l3; i--);
if (++i < cur)
}
return minPrice[cur];
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < start; i++)
minPrice[i] = 0;
for (; i < n; i++)
minPrice[i] = NOT_CALCULATED;
/* */
start--;
printf(" : %lu\n", calc(end-1));
return 0;
}
railway.c
:
1. .
2. ,
: , , .
3. - .
? ? ? ,
?
8.4.3.
.
:
( ):
:
a1
a2
a4
a3
a5
a6
8 -
556
a7
a8
a9
a10
n n(n+1)/2 . x i- (1 i n) y
(i+1)- ,
y x. a5 a7, a8 a9. a2 a4 a5.
, n , :
;
,
, -;
.
: G(V,E), V = {a1, a2, , an(n+1)/2}

E = {(ai,aj) | ai aj }. G
n, . ,
n 1 ( )
, . . an(n+1)/2n+1, an(n+1)/2n+2, , an(n+1)/2 (
- , . . .).
, , G, .
, , ,
, .
2 3 ,
.
, . ,
. px
x k = 2, 3, , n : y
x px. px (. . x), py
y. py . , , py,
- py, , x py, px, -
px, px. ,
, . .
- .
.
k, k1. ,
k2 . . , , .
, - , .
, .
k k+1
, ,
, . :
v[x] x ( x- );
p[x] x;
pred[x] x x.
8 -
557
,
. :
1
:
1) :
p[1] = v[1];
p[x] = +, x = 2, 3 ,, n(n+1)/2.
2)
k = 1, 2,, n1:
a) p[x] x k (k < n).
y k + 1 :
p[y] = min(p[y],p[x]+v[y]).
) a p[y], x
y y:
pred[y] = x.
2
,
:
1) :
p[1] = v[1];
p[x] = +, x = 2,3,, n(n+1)/2.
2)
k = 2, 3, , n:
) p[y] y k1 (k n). x k :
p[x] = min(p[y]+v[x],p[y]+v[x],p[y]+v[x]),
y, y y x k1.
( -).
) a) p[x] y{y, y, y}, y x x:
pred[x] = y.
, N .
, N = n(n+1)/2, (n2).

. . , - , .
1:
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX
100
#define MAX2 MAX * (MAX + 1) / 2
#define INFINITY (unsigned)(-1)
unsigned p[MAX2];
unsigned pred[MAX2];
/* I */
/* i . */
const unsigned v[MAX2] = /* */

{ 0,1,22,33,5,6,77,8,22,7,225,177,738,737,778,39,28,9,10,11,12,13 };
8 -
558
/* */
void compare(unsigned ind1, unsigned ind2)

{ if (p[ind1] > p[ind2] + v[ind1]) {
p[ind1] = p[ind2] + v[ind1];
pred[ind1] = ind2;
}
}
/* */
void findMinPath(void)
{ unsigned i, j, sum;
/* */
for (p[1] = v[1], sum = 0, i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
for (j = 1; j <= i; j++) {
if (j > 1)
compare(sum + j + i - 1, sum + j);
compare(sum + j + i, sum + j);
compare(sum + j + i + 1, sum + j);
}
sum += i;
}
}
/* */
void print(const unsigned m[])
{ unsigned i, j, sum;
for (sum = 0, i = 1; i <= n; printf("\n"), sum += i++)
for (j = 1; j <= i; j++)
printf("%8u", m[sum + j]);
}
/* x */
void writePath(unsigned x)
{ printf("\n%s%u%s%u", " ", x,
" : ", p[x]);
printf("\n, (): ");
while (x != 1) {
printf("%u ", x);
x = pred[x];
}
printf("1");
}
/* */
void findMinLastRow(void)
{ unsigned i, minInd, end = n * (n + 1) / 2;
for (i = 1 + (minInd = end-n+1); i <= end; i++)
if (p[i] < p[minInd])
minInd = i;
writePath(minInd);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < (n + 3)*(n + 2)/2; i++)
p[i] = INFINITY;
printf(" :\n"); print(v);
findMinPath();
8 -
559
printf("\n :\n"); print(p);

findMinLastRow();
return 0;
}
triangle.c
: ( )
:
1
22
33
5
6
8
22
177
738
28
9
77
7
737
10
225
778
11
:
1
23
34
28
29
111
36
50
36
336
213
774
773
814
241
222
783
386
39
12
13
375
387
388
17 : 222
, (): 17 11 7 4 2 1
:
1. .
2. . ?
?
3. , .
8.4.4.
: n : c1, c2, ..., cn S.
S . c1, c2, ...,
cn .
: . F(k) , k. :
k 0
0
F (k )
min
F
(
k
c
k 0
i
i 1, 2,...,n;k ci
F(S) .
F(k) , k = 1. , F(k) k F ( ). k
, ,
. k
. , , . canJ() j- i- .
:
8 -
560
1. cj i
2. i cj
3. j i cj
( )
icj . ,
F(S), , .
(S). j1. j2
, icj1. j3 icj1cj2 .. ,
.
. findMin()
for (S) (n), canJ(),
(n). (S.n.n). ,

M, S M.n. (M.n 3). , M (n3).
, , , , , - S. , S ,
sums[]
(S.n2).
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXCOINS 100
#define MAXSUMA
1000
struct {
unsigned num;
unsigned last;
} sums[MAXSUMA];
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
/* */
const unsigned coins[MAXCOINS] = {0,5,2,2,3,2,2,2,4,3,5,8,6,7,9};
const unsigned sum = 31; /* , */
/* */
/* j- i- ? */
char canJ(unsigned i, unsigned j)
{ int k = i - coins[j];
if (k > 0 && sums[k].num < MAXCOINS)
while (k > 0) {
if (sums[k].last == j) break; /* j */
k -= coins[sums[k].last];
}
return(0 == k);
}
/* Sum */
void findMin(unsigned sum)
{ unsigned i, j;
sums[0].num = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= sum; i++) {
sums[i].num = MAXCOINS;
8 -
561
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++) {

if (canJ(i, j))
if ((sums[i - coins[j]].num + 1) < sums[i].num) {
sums[i].num = 1 + sums[i - coins[j]].num;
sums[i].last = j;
}
}
}
}
void print(unsigned sum)
{ /* */
if (MAXCOINS == sums[sum].num)
printf("\n .");
else {
printf("\n : %u", sums[sum].num);
printf("\n : ");
while (sum > 0) {
printf("%u ", coins[sums[sum].last]);
sum -= coins[sums[sum].last];
}
}
}
int main(void) {
printf("\n%s %u %s", " ",
sum," ?");
findMin(sum);
print(sum);
return 0;
}
coins.c
:
: 5
: 5 2 8 7 9
:
1.
, , ?
2. , .
3. .
8.4.5.
:
n (n < 1000) , 1 n.
Q[1..n] 1 n. P Q1 Q.
: P(i) = j Q(j) = i. i
P(i) .
.
, .
: , . F(i,j), -
8 -
562
, ,
i n j n . :
F i, j 1
max
k ,( i k n , P ( k ) n )
F k 1, P(k ) 1
:
F(i,j) = 0, i > n j > n
F(i,j) , F(1,1). i j n2 F(i,j)
- n
. ( , , -,
-, . . .)
, (n3) (n2).
,
nn F
.
?
F:
F(i,j) = 0, i > n j > n
F(i,j) = max(1 + F(i+1,P(i) + 1), F(i+1,j) ) P(i) j
- i P(i), , i i+1.
(n2) (n2).
- .
- ,
, . ,
, . , ( 8.2.1.),
(- :
).
.
i : F(i,1...n) F(i+1,1..n),
. F(x)
, x, x1, ..., n. T
F(x) n- :
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
F[i] = 1;
for (k = n; k >= 1; k--)
for (i = k + 1; i <= n; i++)
if (p[k] < p[i])
if (1 + F[i] > F[k])
F[k] = 1 + F[i];
, xP[x] iP[i] , F[x], 0, xP[x]

F[i] i .
max(F[i]) 1 i n. ,
8 -
563
, next[1..n], , F[i], 0 .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 1000
unsigned F[MAX];
/* */
unsigned next[MAX];
/* */
/* */
const unsigned p[MAX]={0,9,1,3,6,2,7,5,4,8}; /* . */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned k, i;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
F[i] = 1;
next[i] = 0;
}
/* */
for (k = n; k >= 1; k--)
for (i = k + 1; i <= n; i++)
if (p[k] < p[i])
if (1 + F[i] > F[k]) {
F[k] = 1 + F[i];
next[k] = i;
}
}
/* */
void print(void)
{ unsigned i, max, index;
for (max = F[index = 1], i = 2; i <= n; i++)
if (F[i] > max) {
max = F[i];
index = i;
}
printf("\n : %u\n", max);
do {
printf("%u ", index);
index = next[index];
} while (index);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
print();
return 0;
}
board.c
(n = 9):
i = 1
*
2
*
3
*
4
*
5
*
6
*
7
*
8
*
9
*
*
P(i) = 2
*
5
*
3
*
8
*
7
*
4
*
6
*
9
*
1
:
: 5
2 3 4 6 9
8 -
564
:
i = 1
*
2
*
3
*
4
*
5
*
6
*
7
*
8
*
9
*
*
P(i) = 2
*
5
*
3
*
8
*
7
*
4
*
6
*
9
*
1
:
1. .
2. .
8.4.6.
. n .
, - .
, Ti, i- . , . j (j+1)- (1 j n1) ,
, Rj, , - Tj + Tj+1.
, , .
n, Ti Rj.
, - . .
. ,
(i1)- . i- , i1- i2- . : i
i1, .
F(i),
i . :
F(i) = min(F(i1)+Ti, F(i2)+Ri1), 2 i n
i- , i1. ,
: F(0) = 0, F(1) = T1.
i Rj .
0, , :
F(i) = min(F(i1)+Ti1, F(i2)+Ri2), 2 i n
F(0) = 0, F(1) = T0
F(i) i = 1, 2, ..., n.
F(i) 1 i n,
. -,
, -, . .
F(i). F(n), , (n)
(n). .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN
1000
#define MIN(a, b) ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))
8 -
unsigned F[MAXN];
const unsigned T[MAXN] = {8,5,3,9,2,1,4,4,1,17};
const unsigned R[MAXN] = {1,3,9,4,2,4,9,3,8};
unsigned n = 10;
565
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
1 */
2 */
*/
/* */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i;
F[0] = 0; F[1] = T[0];
for (i = 2; i <= n; i++)
F[i] = MIN(F[i - 1] + T[i - 1], F[i - 2] + R[i - 2]);
}
/* */
void print(void)
{ printf("\n : %u", F[n]);
do
if (F[n - 1] + T[n - 1] == F[n])
printf("\n%u", n--);
else {
printf("\n(%u,%u)", n - 1, n);
n -= 2;
}
while (n > 0);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
print();
return 0;
}
tickets.c
:
: 24
(9,10)
8
(6,7)
(4,5)
3
(1,2)
:
1. .
2. ( 8.3.1.).
3. ?
8.4.7.
: n,
k , ,
. , ,
.

8 -
566
8.4.7.,
(- v).
1
2
3
0
0
0
0
1
10
15
20
2
15
20
30
3
25
30
40
4
40
45
50
5
60
60
60
8.4.7. .
3
, e 5
5
, , . 65
, 1 0, 2 4, 3 1.
( ) -
, n. ,
.
. F(i,j), 1 i k;
0 j n. , ,
j i . (2 i k, 1 j n):
1. F(i,0) = 0, 1 i k
2. F(1, j) = maxl v(1,l), 1 l min(j, ), 1 j n
3. F(i, j) = maxl (v(i,l) + F(i1, jl)), 1 l min(j, )
: , .
: j
, , , . ,
, , - , .
: , i , ji i1
. , ,
amount[][], F(i,j)
, i j.
, - ,
, . . memoization.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
MIN(a, b)
((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))
MAXPERCITY 100 /* */
MAXCITIES
50 /* */
MAXCARGO
200 /* . */
INFINITY
(unsigned)(-1)
unsigned F[MAXCITIES][MAXCARGO];
unsigned amount[MAXCITIES][MAXCARGO];
/* */
/* . */
8 -
567
unsigned inc;
unsigned k = 3;
/* */
unsigned n = 5;
/* */
const unsigned M = 5;
/* . */
const unsigned
{ 0, 10, 15,
{ 0, 15, 20,
{ 0, 20, 30,
};
v[MAXCITIES][MAXPERCITY] = {
25, 40, 60 },
30, 45, 60 },
40, 50, 60 }
/* */
unsigned maxIncome(unsigned city, unsigned ccargo)

{ unsigned i, max;
if (0 == ccargo)
return 0;
/* , ;) */
else if (0 == city) {
/* ccargo 1 , */
/* . */
for (i = max = 0; i <= MIN(ccargo, M); i++)
if (max < v[city][i]) {
max = v[city][i];
amount[city][ccargo] = i;
}
F[city][ccargo] = max;
return max;
}
else if (F[city][ccargo] != INFINITY) /* , */
return F[city][ccargo];/* */
else {
/* . . i */
/* (ccargo-i) */
for (i = max = 0; i <= MIN(ccargo, M); i++) {
inc = v[city][i] + maxIncome(city - 1, ccargo - i);
if (max < inc) {
max = inc;
amount[city][ccargo] = i;
}
}
F[city][ccargo] = max;
return max;
}
}
void scheduleCargo(void)
{ unsigned i,j;
for (i = 0; i <= k; i++)
for (j = 0; j <= n; j++)
F[i][j] = INFINITY;
F[k - 1][n] = maxIncome(k - 1, n);
}
void printResults(void)
{
printf("\n : %u", F[--k][n]);
for(;;) {
if (0 == n)
printf("\n %u . 0.", k+1);
else {
8 -
568
printf("\n %u . %u.", k+1, amount[k][n]);

n -= amount[k][n];
}
if (0 == k--) break;
}
if (n > 0)
printf("\n : %u", n);
}
int main(void)
{ scheduleCargo();
printResults();
return 0;
}
resource.c
:
:
3
2
1
65
1.
4.
0.
:
1. - .
2. .
3. , .
8.4.8.
"" "" . 1 365
. , : "", "", ..
, . n
"" m ""
, .
. B(d)
R(d), 1 d ,
[1;d]
"" ( ) . ,
, max(B(365), R(365)). B R (, 365 .):
1. B(0) = 0
2. B(d) = max (B(d1), R(b1) + db+1), d > 0, "" (bd)
3. R(0) = 0
4. R(d) = max (R(d1), B(b1) + db+1), d > 0, "" (bd) )
, d
:
1) d1;
2) "", d,
, "";
8 -
569
"", d,
, "".
, . , , -, .
( ), ,
.
B R d , - d, ,
, - d, .
- B R ,
, ,
. , ,
- .
d ,
, , -
. 365 ,
. n2/2 +
m2/2, . .
365 ( )
.
( 3.2.4.).
3)
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN
#define MAXD
5000
365
/* */
/* */
struct TZ { unsigned b, e; };
struct { unsigned cntBlue, cntRed; } B[MAXD], R[MAXD];
const unsigned m = 4; /* */
struct TZ blueOrders[MAXN] = { {1,5}, {12,20} };
struct TZ redOrders[MAXN] = { {2,10}, {6,11}, {15,25}, {26,30} };
/* */
void sort(struct TZ Z[], const unsigned count)
{ unsigned i, j;
struct TZ swp;
for (i = 0; i < count; i++)
for (j = i + 1; j < count; j++)
if (Z[i].e > Z[j].e) {
swp = Z[i];
Z[i] = Z[j];
Z[j] = swp;
}
}
/* */
void solveDynamic(void)
{ unsigned d, bb, be, blueIndex, redIndex;
8 -
570
/* */
B[0].cntBlue = B[0].cntRed = R[0].cntBlue = R[0].cntRed = 0;
blueIndex = redIndex = 1;
/* B[1..MAXD], R[1..MAXD] */
for (d = 1; d <= MAXD; d++) {
/* B[d] */
B[d] = B[d - 1];
for (blueIndex = 0; blueIndex < n; blueIndex++) {
if (blueOrders[blueIndex].e > d)
break;
else {
bb = blueOrders[blueIndex].b;
be = blueOrders[blueIndex].e;
if (R[bb-1].cntBlue + R[bb-1].cntRed + (be-bb+1)
> B[d].cntBlue + B[d].cntRed) {
B[d].cntBlue = R[bb - 1].cntBlue + (be - bb + 1);
B[d].cntRed = R[bb - 1].cntRed + 0;
}
}
}
/* R[d]: B[d] */
R[d] = R[d - 1];
for (redIndex = 0; redIndex < m; redIndex++) {
if (redOrders[redIndex].e > d)
break;
else {
bb = redOrders[redIndex].b;
be = redOrders[redIndex].e;
if (B[bb-1].cntBlue + B[bb-1].cntRed + (be-bb+1)
> R[d].cntBlue + R[d].cntRed) {
R[d].cntBlue = B[bb - 1].cntBlue;
R[d].cntRed = B[bb - 1].cntRed + (be - bb + 1);
}
}
}
}
}
/* */
void printResult(void)
{ if (B[MAXD].cntBlue+B[MAXD].cntRed > R[MAXD].cntBlue+R[MAXD].cntRed) {
printf("\n (): %u",
B[MAXD].cntBlue + B[MAXD].cntRed);
printf("\n : %u", B[MAXD].cntRed);
printf("\n : %u", B[MAXD].cntBlue);
}
else {
printf("\n (): %u",
R[MAXD].cntBlue + R[MAXD].cntRed);
printf("\n : %u", R[MAXD].cntRed);
printf("\n : %u", R[MAXD].cntBlue);
}
}
int main(void) {
8 -
571
sort(blueOrders, n);
sort(redOrders, m);
solveDynamic();
printResult();
return 0;
}
room.c
:
(): 25
: 11
: 14
15 1220, 210, 611, 1525 2630.

:
1.
. - : R : 15, B : 611, R : 1220 B : 2630.
2. , ?
8.4.9.

.
.
, , , ,
.
( -
-). .
, ( )
, , . ,
: ,
, .
Xij = {xi, xi+1, ..., xj}. 3 :
(1) k (k = 1, 2, ..., n) X1k , ( ) xk .
(2) k (k = n, n1, ..., 1) Xkn, ( ) xk .
(3) , .
(1) . l(k), k = 0, 1, ..., n X1k , (
) xk . s(k) . :
k 0
0
l (k )
max
l (i) k 0
1 i 0,1,...,
k 1; xi xk
s(k) . , X1k , ( ) xk ,
8 -
572
X1i xk .
, l(k) ,
. l(k),
s(k), . (2)
X (1).
. . len[x] L[x]. findIncSequence().
(2) L[]
(1).
(3) , n .
x1 xn t, x1 xt xt xn . . , back.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 100
struct ST {
unsigned len; /* . i */
unsigned back; /* . */
unsigned long sum; /* */
} max1[MAX], max2[MAX];
unsigned x2[MAX], rez[MAX];
unsigned top, bestLen, bestSum;
const unsigned x[MAX] = {0,10,20,15,40,5,4,300,2,1}; /* */
/* */
void findIncSequence(struct ST max[], const unsigned x[])
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = max[i].len = max[i].sum = 0; j < i; j++)
if (x[j] <= x[i])
if ((max[j].len + 1 > max[i].len)
|| ((max[j].len + 1 == max[i].len)
&& (max[j].sum + x[i] > max[i].sum)) )
{ max[i].back = j;
max[i].len = max[j].len + 1;
max[i].sum = max[j].sum + x[i];
}
}
/* */
void reverse(unsigned x2[], const unsigned x[])
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
x2[i] = x[n-i+1];
}
/* */
void solve(void) {
unsigned i;
/* (1) */
8 -
findIncSequence(max1, x);
/* (2) */
reverse(x2,x);
findIncSequence(max2, x2);
/* (3) */
for (bestLen = bestSum = 0, i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if (((max1[i].len + max2[n-i+1].len > bestLen))
|| ((max1[i].len + max2[n-i+1].len == bestLen)
&& (max1[i].sum + max2[n-i+1].sum > bestSum))) {
bestLen = max1[i].len + max2[n-i+1].len;
bestSum = max1[i].sum + max2[n-i+1].sum x[i];
top = i;
}
}
}
/* */
void buildSequence(void)
{ unsigned t, len, l;
/* */
for (l = max1[t = top].len, len = 0; t != 0; t = max1[t].back)
rez[l-len++] = x[t];
/* */
for (t = max2[n-top+1].back; t != 0; t = max2[t].back)
rez[++len] = x2[t];
}
/* */
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf("\n , : %u\n",
bestLen-1);
printf("\n : %0.2f\n",
(float) bestSum / (bestLen-1));
for (i = 1; i < bestLen; i++) printf("%u ", rez[i]);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
solve();
buildSequence();
print();
return 0;
}
trees.c
:
, : 7
: 11.71
10 20 40 5 4 2 1
:
1. ?
2. l(k), s(k).
573
8 -
574
3. , : ,
( 2: ).
8.4.10.
X Y n , , aibi
c(ai,bi), i = 1, 2, ..., n. ,
, .
, .
F(a,b) ,
(a,b). :
c(a1 , b1 )
F (a, b) c(a1 , b1 )
b/2
a/2
F (a i, b) F (i, b), max
F (a, b j ) F (a, j )
max max
i
1
j 1
a a1 , b b1
a b1 , b a1
F ,
F[]. F[i][j] =
(a,b) F[a][b] = F[b][a] = c(a,b). F[a][b] = ,
, .
, , , ,
, .
(n4).
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXSIZE 100
#define NOT_CALCULATED (unsigned)(-1)
struct { /* */
unsigned value;
int action;
} F[MAXSIZE][MAXSIZE];
unsigned sizeX, sizeY; /* */
/* */
void init(void)
{ unsigned x, y;
/* */
sizeX = 13;
sizeY = 9;
/* */
for (x = 1; x <= sizeX; x++)
for (y = 1; y <= sizeY; y++) {
F[x][y].value = NOT_CALCULATED;
F[x][y].action = 0;
}
/* */
F[11][1].value = 28; F[5][3].value = 31;
F[1][2].value = 4; F[2][1].value = 2;
F[3][1].value = 7; F[10][1].value = 23;
8 -
F[3][2].value = 14;
F[5][4].value = 41;
575
F[3][3].value = 17;
F[5][7].value = 96;
}
/* (x,y) */
unsigned solve(unsigned x, unsigned y)
{ int bestAction;
unsigned i, bestSol, x2 = x / 2, y2 = y / 2;
if (NOT_CALCULATED != F[x][y].value)
return F[x][y].value; /* */
bestSol = 0;
if (x > 1) {
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= x2; i++)
if (solve(i, y) + solve(x - i, y) > bestSol) {
bestSol = solve(i, y) + solve(x - i, y);
bestAction = i;
}
}
if (y > 1) {
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= y2; i++)
if (solve(x, i) + solve(x, y - i) > bestSol) {
bestSol = solve(x, i) + solve(x, y - i);
bestAction = -(int)i;
}
}
F[x][y].value = bestSol;
F[x][y].action = bestAction;
return bestSol;
}
/* */
void printSolution(int x, int y)
{
if (x > 0 && y > 0 && F[x][y].value > 0) {
if (F[x][y].action > 0) {
printSolution(F[x][y].action, y);
printSolution(x - F[x][y].action, y);
}
else if (F[x][y].action < 0) {
printSolution(x, -F[x][y].action);
printSolution(x, y - (-F[x][y].action));
}
else
printf("(%2u,%2u) --> %2u ", x, y, F[x][y].value);
}
}
int main(void) {
init();
printf("\n %u", solve(sizeX, sizeY));
printf("\n (X,Y)-->\n");
printSolution(sizeX, sizeY);
return 0;
}
cuts.c
8 -
576
:
305
(X,Y)-->
( 1, 2) --> 4 ( 1, 2) --> 4 (11, 1) --> 28 (11, 1) --> 28 ( 3, 1) --> 7
( 3, 1) --> 7 ( 3, 1) --> 7 ( 3, 2) --> 14 ( 3, 2) --> 14 ( 5, 7) --> 96
( 5, 7) --> 96
:
- ,
- .
:
1. .
2. , .
3. ,
, ?
8.4.11.
n {x1, x2, ..., xn}, , {1, 2, ..., n}. , . .
, ,
, , .
, . . , ,
. . ,
, n ,
, .
n- n- . - , , . , .
. Fmin(k,l) , l,
k, Fmax(k,l) . Fmin(k,l)
:
Fmin(k,l) = xk , l = 1
l > 1 Fmin(k,l) - (i = 1, 2, ..., l1):
Fmin(k,i) k+i1 Fmin(k+i,li)
Fmin(k,i) k+i1 Fmax(k+i,li)
Fmax(k,i) k+i1 Fmin(k+i,li)
Fmax(k,i) k+i1 Fmax(k+i,li)
Fmax(k,l):
Fmax(k,l) = xk l = 1
l > 1 Fmax(k,l) - (i = 1, 2, ..., l1):
Fmin(k,i) k+i1 Fmin(k+i,li)
Fmin(k,i) k+i1 Fmax(k+i,li)
Fmax(k,i) k+i1 Fmin(k+i,li)
Fmax(k,i) k+i1 Fmax(k+i,li), i = 1, 2, ..., l1 l > 1
8 -
577
, k > n, - k = k n,
. Fmin(k,n)
Fmax(k,n) , k = 1, 2, ..., n.
:
(k,l) (k,i) (k+i,li), . (k,l) , . , . , . . . , , .
, |,
|, | |.
-, ,
.
?
-. Fmin
Fmax, i . -
, . , , k > n kn
. (n3), - n2 Fmin Fmax,
- (n) .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 50
#define INFINITY (int)((1 << (sizeof(int)*8 - 1)) - 1)
#define MIN(a, b) ((a) < (b) ? (a) : (b))
#define MAX(a, b) ((a) > (b) ? (a) : (b))
struct {
long min, max;
unsigned lenMin, lenMax;
} F[MAXN][MAXN]; /* Fmin() Fmax() */
/* */
const long x[MAXN] = { 0, 9, -3, 8, 7, -8, 0, 7 }; /* ( 0) */
char sign[MAXN] = { ' ', '+', '*', '*', '-', '+', '*', '-' }; /* */
/* */
long oper(long v1, char sign, long v2)
{ switch (sign) {
case '+': return v1 + v2;
case '-': return v1 - v2;
case '*': return v1 * v2;
}
return 0;
}
/* */
void calculate(unsigned beg, unsigned len)
{ unsigned i, beg2;
long val1, val2, val3, val4, minValue, maxValue;
if (beg > n)
beg -= n;
if (F[beg][len].min != INFINITY) /* */
8 -
578
return;
if (1 == len) {
F[beg][len].min = F[beg][len].max = x[beg];
F[beg][len].lenMin = F[beg][len].lenMax = 0;
return;
}
/* */
F[beg][len].min = INFINITY;
F[beg][len].max = -INFINITY;
for (i = 1; i < len; i++) {
/* F[beg][i] F[beg+i][len-i] */
calculate(beg, i);
if (beg + i > n)
beg2 = beg + i - n;
else
beg2 = beg + i;
calculate(beg2, len - i);
val1 = oper(F[beg][i].min, sign[beg2 - 1], F[beg2][len - i].min);
val2 = oper(F[beg][i].min, sign[beg2 - 1], F[beg2][len - i].max);
val3 = oper(F[beg][i].max, sign[beg2 - 1], F[beg2][len - i].min);
val4 = oper(F[beg][i].max, sign[beg2 - 1], F[beg2][len - i].max);
/* F[beg][len] */
minValue = MIN(val1, MIN(val2, MIN(val3, val4)));
if (minValue < F[beg][len].min) {
F[beg][len].min = minValue;
F[beg][len].lenMin = i;
}
/* F[beg][len] */
maxValue = MAX(val1, MAX(val2, MAX(val3, val4)));
if (maxValue > F[beg][len].max) {
F[beg][len].max = maxValue;
F[beg][len].lenMax = i;
}
}
}
/* , min/max */
void printMinMax(unsigned beg, unsigned len, char printMin)
{ unsigned i, beg2;
if (beg > n)
beg -= n;
if (1 == len)
printf("%ld", x[beg]);
else {
if (len < n) printf("(");
i = printMin ? F[beg][len].lenMin : F[beg][len].lenMax;
if ((beg2 = beg + i) > n)
beg2 -= n;
printMinMax(beg, i, printMin); /* */
printf("%c", sign[beg2 - 1]); /* */
printMinMax(beg2, len - i, printMin); /* */
if (len < n)
printf(")");
}
}
/* , */
8 -
579
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
/* */
sign[0] = sign[n];
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
for (j = 1; j <= n; j++)
F[i][j].min = INFINITY;
/* */
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++)
calculate(i, n);
}
/* */
void print(void)
{ unsigned i, minIndex, maxIndex;
for (minIndex = 1, i = 2; i <= n; i++)
if (F[i][n].min < F[minIndex][n].min)
minIndex = i;
for (maxIndex = 1, i = 2; i <= n; i++)
if (F[i][n].max > F[maxIndex][n].max)
maxIndex = i;
printf("\n : %d\n", F[minIndex][n].min);
printMinMax(minIndex, n, 1);
printf("\n\n : %d\n", F[maxIndex][n].max);
printMinMax(maxIndex, n, 0);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
print();
return 0;
}
ring.c
:
: -3808
((((-8+0)*7)-9)+-3)*(8*7)
: 5040
(9+-3)*(8*((7-(-8+0))*7))
:
1. ,
: |, |, | |.
2. ?
3. Fmin Fmax.
?
4. , x c
c x.
8.4.12. -
, 10 .
8 -
580
8.6. - , i- - (i1)-. (i 2)
: X = {x1, x2, ..., xn}
-.
: , - X. ,
- , , X, -.
- X
X. 2n . -
X -.
, ,
? , - X -. .
. Xk {xk , xk+1,..., xn}, lk
rk xk , 1 k n.
Fi(k): - - Xk ,
- i (0 i 9). - - X
- F0(1), F1(1), ..., F9(1).
Fi(k) :
Fi (k ) Fi (k 1)
max F (k 1),1 F (k 1)
i
rk
k n
lk i
lk i
Fi(k) xk . lk xk
i, xk Fi(k). (?) i = lk ,
xk -
, xk rk . Fi(k) - , lk , ,
- (, i =
lk ).
,
Fi(k) , . ,
10n, ,
10 () .
, -,
. ,
(n + 20), 10n. , , ak -.
, xk . -,
, n.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 100
#define BASE 10 /* */
unsigned succ[MAX]; /* */
unsigned F[BASE]; /* F[i]: . i */
unsigned ind[BASE]; /* ind[i]: i */
8 -

const unsigned x[MAX] = {0, 72, 121, 1445, 178, 123, 3462, 762, 33434,
444, 472, 4, 272, 4657, 7243, 7326, 3432, 3465}; /* */
/* - */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i, l, r;
for (i = 0; i < BASE; i++)
F[i] = ind[i] = 0;
/* , 0 9 */
for (i = n; i > 0; i--) {
/* - - */
r = x[i] % BASE;
l = x[i];
while (l > BASE)
l /= BASE;
/* , */
if (F[r] >= F[l]) {
F[l] = F[r] + 1;
succ[i] = ind[r];
ind[l] = i;
}
}
}
void print(void)
{ unsigned i, bestInd;
/* - */
bestInd = 0;
for (i = 1; i < BASE; i++) /* 0 */
if (F[i] > F[bestInd])
bestInd = i;
/* */
printf("\n -: %u", F[bestInd]);
i = ind[bestInd];
do {
printf("%u ", x[i]);
i = succ[i];
} while (i > 0);
}
int main(void) {
solve();
print();
return 0;
}
domino.c
:
-: 8
121 123 33434 444 4 4657 7243 3465
581
8 -
582
:
1. .
2. ?
3. . ?
8.4.13.
: ,
:
1) - ,
-.
2) - , -.
, -
. 5 8, 3, 5, 7, 0
: 8, 3, 5, 0.
: , . .
, .
Fmin Fmax, k
. Fmin - x1, x2, , xk , xk , Fmax - x1, x2, , xk , xk .
:
1 max Fmax (i) i : 1 i k & xi x k
Fmin (k ) i k , xi xk
1 max Fmin (i) i : 1 i k & xi xk

Fmax (k ) i k , xi xk
, k = 1, 2, , n. ,
- 8.6. -,
. - -
Fmin(k) Fmax(k), k = 1, 2, , n. - - .
, k i,
(1 i, k n). ,
-. ,
.

, , . . 1 - .
, ( ) 1.
-
, . . /.
OPERATION, .
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX
1000
8 -
583
#define NO_IND
(unsigned) (-1)
#define OPERATION <
const int x[MAX] = {0,8,3,5,7,0,8,9,10,20,20,20,12,19,11}; /* 0 */
/* : , */
unsigned Fmin[MAX];
/* Fmin */
unsigned Fmin_back[MAX];
/* : , */
unsigned Fmax[MAX];
/* Fmax */
unsigned Fmax_back[MAX];
void calculateFMinMax(void)
{ unsigned ind, ind2;
/* */
Fmin[0] = Fmax[0] = 1;
Fmin_back[0] = Fmax_back[0] = NO_IND;
/* */
for (ind = 1; ind < n; ind++) {
Fmax_back[ind] = Fmin_back[ind] = NO_IND;
Fmin[ind] = Fmax[ind] = 0;
for (ind2 = 0; ind2 < ind; ind2++) {
/*
if (x[ind2] OPERATION x[ind] && Fmin[ind2] > Fmax[ind])
Fmax[ind] = Fmin[ind2];
Fmax_back[ind] = ind2;
}
/*
if (x[ind] OPERATION x[ind2] && Fmax[ind2] > Fmin[ind])
Fmin[ind] = Fmax[ind2];
Fmin_back[ind] = ind2;
}
}
/* 1 */
Fmin[ind]++;
Fmax[ind]++;
}
*/
{
*/
{
}
void markSolutionElements(unsigned *f1, unsigned *f2, unsigned *fInd1,
unsigned *fInd2, unsigned indF)
{ if (NO_IND == fInd1[indF])
return;
f1[indF] = f2[indF] = NO_IND;
markSolutionElements(f2, f1, fInd2, fInd1, fInd1[indF]);
}
void findSolution(void)
{ unsigned ind, bestFminInd, bestFmaxInd;
/* () - */
bestFminInd = bestFmaxInd = 0;
for (ind = 1; ind < n; ind++) {
if (Fmin[bestFminInd] < Fmin[ind])
8 -
584
bestFminInd = ind;
if (Fmax[bestFmaxInd] < Fmax[ind])
bestFmaxInd = ind;
}
/* */
if (Fmin[bestFminInd] > Fmax[bestFmaxInd])
markSolutionElements(Fmin, Fmax, Fmin_back, Fmax_back, bestFminInd);
else
markSolutionElements(Fmax, Fmin, Fmax_back, Fmin_back, bestFmaxInd);
/* */
if (NO_IND == Fmin[ind])
printf("%d ", x[ind]);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
calculateFMinMax();
findSolution();
return 0;
}
saw.c
:
8 3 5 0 20 12 19 11
:
1. .
2. ?
3. 8.4.9.
4. .
5. . , ? ?
8.5.
8.5.1.
8.1.
,
( 8.1.)?
8.2.
, (
8.1.).
8.3.
(
8.1.)?
8.4.
, 8.2.1. .
8 -
585
8.5.
8.2.1. ,
( ).
8.6.
set[] 8.2.1.?
?
8.7.
8.2.1. , ? , .
8.8.
k .
8.2.1. ?
8.9.
( 8.2.1.) ci = 1, mi =
i M = N/2.
8.10.
, ,
last[k] ( 8.2.2.).
8.11.
, 8.2.2. ?
8.12.
,
, , ( 8.2.3.).
8.13.
,
( 8.2.3.).
8.14.
8.2.3., ,
.. , n(n 1)/2 .
8.15.
( 8.2.3.) , n?
8.16.
, ( 8.2.3.) ?
8.17.
8.2.4.?
8.18.
(1), (2) (3) 8.2.4.
8.19.
(
8.2.4.).
8 -
586
8.20.
8.2.4. A0 A6 ?
8.21.
8.2.5. ,
:
)
)
)
8.22.

8.2.5.?
8.23.
8.2.5.
8.24.
(
8.2.3.), ( 8.2.4.)
( 8.2.5.).
8.25.
- ( 8.2.6.).
8.26.
8.2.6., :
) 2.min(m,n) + (1)
) min(m,n) + (1)
8.27.
8.2.7. ,
. ,
(n).
8.28.
8.2.7. .
?
8.29.
. 8.2.7.
- ? ?
8.30.
(
8.2.8.) (nm) (min(m,n)).
8.31.
( 8.2.8.).
8.32.
, 8.2.8.,
, ,
, .
8 -
587
8.33.
8.2.8. ,
smart .
8.34.
, 8.2.8.
- ( 8.2.6.).
8.35.

( 8.2.9.)?
b[][]
8.36.
( 8.2.9.).
8.37.
, 8.2.9.
.
8.38.
(1)
8.3.1.
8.39.
(2) 8.3.1.
8.40.
, ,
(1). ( 8.3.1).
8.41.
8.3.1 - .
8.42.
8.3.1 n- n: 10, 100, 200, 500,
1000.
8.43.
, ( 8.3.2.).
8.44.
(n.k) ( 8.3.2.) ,
( 8.3.1.)?
8.45.
8.3.3. 0.0 ? ?
8.46.
8.3.3. , (n).
8.47.
8.3.3. ( 1.1.5., 8.3.2.). , ?
8 -
588
8.48.
8.3.4. .
8.49.
8.3.4.
8.50.
8.3.5. .
8.51.
8.3.5.
8.52.
8.3.4. 8.3.5.
8.53.
8.3.6. .
8.54.
8.3.6. .
8.55.
8.3.6. ?
8.56.
8.3.4., 8.3.5. 8.3.6..
8.57.
8.3.7. ?
8.58.
8.3.7. .
8.59.
8.3.8. .
8.60.
aaasbbb 8.3.8.?
8.61.

( 8.3.8.). ?
8.62.
. 8.3.8. .
8.63.
( 8.3.8.)? ?
8.64.
8.3.8., - ?
8.65.
( 8.3.8.) ? XML? ?
8.66.
8.3.9. .
8 -
8.67.

8.3.9.? ?
589
NNNNNNNNECINNxqpCDNNNNNwNNNtNNNNs,
8.68.
(
8.3.8., 8.3.9.)?
8.69.
8.3.9. , :
) ;
) ;
) -
8.70.
8.3.10. .
8.71.
8.3.10.
.
8.72.
8.3.10.
8.73.
8.4.1. .
8.74.
8.4.1.
8.75.
8.4.1. ,
? ? ?
8.76.
8.4.2.
8.77.
8.4.2. , : , , .
8.78.
8.4.2. - .
? ?
? , ?
8.79.
8.4.3.
8.80.
8.4.3. ?
?
8.81.
8.4.3., .
8 -
590
8.82.

, , ( 8.4.4.)?
8.83.
8.4.4., .
8.84.
8.4.4. ( 8.2.1.).
8.85.
8.4.5.
8.86.
8.4.5.
8.87.
8.4.6.
8.88.
8.4.6. ( 8.3.1.).
8.89.
8.4.6. ?
8.90.
8.4.7. .
8.91.
8.4.7.
8.92.
8.4.7. ,
.
8.93.
. 8.4.8. : R : 15, B : 611, R : 1220 B : 2630.
8.94.
8.4.8. , ?
8.95.
8.4.9. ?
8.96.
8.4.9. l(k), s(k).
8.97.
8.4.9. , : ,
( 2: ).
8.98.
8.4.10.
.
8 -
591
8.99.
8.4.10. ,
.
8.100.
,
, ( 8.4.10.)?
8.101.
8.4.11. , : |, |, | |.
8.102.
8.4.11. ?
8.103.
8.4.11. Fmin Fmax.
?
8.104.
, x c
c x ( 8.4.11.).
8.105.
8.4.12.
8.106.
8.4.12. ?
8.107.
- ( 8.4.12.). ?
8.108.
8.4.13.
8.109.
8.4.13.
?
8.110.
8.4.13. 8.4.9.
8.111.
, 8.4.13.
8.112.
8.4.13. , -? ?
8.5.2.
8.113.
. l1, l2, ..., ln . , ,
M . i j ,
8 -
592
, ( ,
):
j
M j i lk
k i

. , k , b1,b2,...,bk
, b31 + b32 + ... + b3k1.
.
8.114.

. ,
n n. ,
. ,
. 20
, ( 1 ). -, 20 ,
17, 12. 49 :
THI|SISAS|TR|INGOFCHARS
THI SISAS|TR|INGOFCHARS 20
THI SISAS TR|INGOFCHARS 17
THI SISAS TR INGOFCHARS 12
-, 20, 10 8,
38 :
THI|SISAS|TR|INGOFCHARS
THI|SISAS|TR INGOFCHARS 20
THI|SISAS TR INGOFCHARS 10
THI SISAS TR INGOFCHARS 8
, ,
, - .
( ) , :
- , .
(-) - . .
(-) - . .
8.115.

. 1 0,75
, 1 2 , 1 0,70
. , 1 ,
5% : 0,75.20,7 = 1,05 . , n c1,
c2, ..., cn, R nn . R[i][j]
cj, ci. ,
:
R[c1 ][ci ].R[ci ][ci ]...R[ci ][ci ].R[ci ][c1 ] ,
1
ir is s r, 1 i,r n.
k 1
8 -
593
8.116.
1 n .
:
. ,
1 , , t,
CS(t) S(t)
. , k t, t+1 (k
CS(t)).S(t) .
.
6 . t, CB(t) 6
B(t) . , t k ,
t+6 (kCB(t)).B(t).
.
. , t k ,
t+1 k .
, S, B, CS CB n
. , ,
n , (n).
8.117.
.
, . ,
. .

( 0 11), . , ( 0). ,
. ,
, .
8.118. 2
. ,
? ,
,
. , ?
8.119.
, XY. . , . , t[i][j]
XY. t[i][j] == 1, , t[i][j] == 0 .
t[][],
, .
(XY), , .
(XY), - ,
. ,
.
8 -
594
8.120. 2
. ,
XY,
, ,
t[i][j] == 1. , - (X1) +
(Y1) X1 Y1
. .
, . -
(X1) + (Y1). .
8.121.
n .
, .
.
: ti, 1 i n. L.
, ,
, . . . (
9) , , , .
. ,
. 8.2.9.
8.122. 2
, ,
hi ,
- . ,
. . ,
. . , ,
. .
8.123.
, - ?
?
- ( 5.4.2.)
( 5.4.2.)
( 5.4.2.)
( 5.4.2.)
( 5.4.3.)
( 5.5.1.)
( 5.5.3.)
( 5.5.4.)
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( 5.7.1.)
?
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,
,
.
,

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.
,
,
...
9.1.
, , . : , ,
( ). ,
. ,
,
(
, 8.1.). , , :

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. , ,
, - ,
, , - , , .
,
, .
(
) , , .

, 5% - , ,

.

. , , :
m (m ),
, C = {a1, a2, ..., an}. ,
1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 . :
1) s = 0
9 -
2)
596
i ai (aiC), s + ai m.
2.1) , s + ai m, , . .
2.2) , i s ai.
2.2.1) s = n , . .
2.2.2) s < n, 2).
, 298
50 , 20, 5 ( 250 + 40 + 5 + 2 + 1 =
298).
, :
- ,
- . .

, ,
( 9.43.). , ,
2, 5, 20 30 40.
30 ( ), 5, . . 3
. , - : 20.
,
. , 6: 5
(
3 2).
,
, .
- , .
:
1. , : 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50.
2. , .
9.1.1.
, .
. p/q (
). , 7/9 :
7/9 = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/9
7/9 = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/36
7/9 = 1/9 + 1/9 + 1/9 + 1/9 + 1/9 + 1/9 + 1/9
: p q (q 0, p < q; p,qN). p/q :
p/q = 1/a1 + 1/a2 + ... + 1/an,
(ai aj, 1 i, j n, i j, ai 2, aj 2, ai, ajN).
: . , 3/7
:
3/7 = 1/3 + 1/11 + 1/231
3/7 = 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/19 + 1/1064
9 -

.
597
,
:
, ,
p/q ( 1, -
). , p/q = 7/9 - 1/2. - 1/a2,
1/2 + 1/a2 7/9, . . 1/a2 7/9 1/2, 1/a2 5/18.
- , , 1/4, :
1/a3 7/9 1/2 1/4 = 5/18 1/4 = 2/72,
. . a3 1/36, , 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/36 = 7/9. :
while (p > 1) {
____1/r__p/q;
___1/r;
p/q = p/q - 1/r;
}
. ,
1/r, p/q (q 0), . . r, 1/r p/q, r 2, q
2. r q/p. r,
q/p - , - q/p (
ceil(q/p)). ( -
, ), r,
: r = (q+p)/p;.
p/q 1/r . , p q :
p = p*r - q;
q = q*r;
, .
, p/q,
1/x, . . q % p == 0. , ,
p > 1
. (?) , .
/* q p, */
void cancel(unsigned long *p, unsigned long *q) {
if (0 == *q % *p) {
*q /= *p;
*p = 1;
}
}
void solve(unsigned long p, unsigned long q) {
printf("%lu/%lu = ", p, q);
cancel(&p, &q);
while (p > 1) {
/* 1/r, 1/r<=p/q */
unsigned long r;
r = (q + p) / p;
printf("1/%lu + ", r);
/* p/q - 1/r */
9 -
598
p = p * r - q;
q = q * r;
cancel(&p, &q);
}
if (p > 0)
printf("%lu/%lu ", p, q);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
solve(3, 7);
return 0;
}
egypt.c
:
3/7 = 1/3 + 1/11 + 1/231
:
1. , - .
2. ,
1/x. ?
.
3. , . , ?
4. [Knott-1].
ai .
1 ?
5. , ? ,
: r, r q/p. r = ceil(q/p) , r .
6. , ?
7. , . ,
?
9.1.2.
: n , (,
). i : si
fi. si fi
( ), .
,
, . . , , t
- i (si t fi, 1 i n).
9 -
599
1
2
3
4
1 3 5 7 9 10 13 14
9.1.2. : .
2
9.1.2. .

[Brassard,Bratley-1996]. . 9.1.2. . 1 4 , 1 2, 2
3 . (. . ).
1:
G(V, E) n , ""
i, j (fi < sj) (i, j) ( 9.1.2.). G ( 5.4.2 )
(n2).
2:
, ( 8). F,
0 t, :
F(t) = 0, i, fi < t
F(t) = max {F ( s ) 1} , .
i 1, 2,...,n
f i t
F(t0) t max { f } .
0
i
i 1, 2,...,n
memoization ( 8) ,
. , calc[t],
t. - 2n (
). t , . calc[2*n],
: calc[i].t , calc[i].maxl.
- .
, , n.
3:
,
(n.log2n), .
, ,
fi. (n.log2n),
.
9 -
600
:
:
1) i, fi (
, fi)
2) j, sj fi (. . "" ),
. 1) , ( 9.1.2.).
(1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
(2)
2
1
6
4
7
3
5
9.1.2. .
9.1.2. (2) (1), fi.
2, 1 6, 4, 7, 3
5. - :
___1;
i = 1; j = 1;
while (j <= n) {
j++;
if (s[j] > f[i]) {
___j;
i = j;
}
}
(, fi).
e .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 100
const unsigned s[MAXN] = { 3, 7, 5, 9, 13, 15, 17 };
const unsigned f[MAXN] = { 8, 10, 12, 14, 15, 19, 20 };
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i = 1, j = 1;
printf(" : %u ", 1);
while (j++ <= n)
if (s[j - 1] > f[i - 1]) printf("%u ", i = j);
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
solve();
return 0;
}
aselect.c
:
9 -
601
: 1 4 6
:
1. ,
, .
prenum[], prenum[j]
j. - j
prenum[j]. .
2. 1 ( - ).
3. 2 ( , 8).
: - () - ().
4. , 1 .
5. , 2 .
6. , 3 .
7. , . 1, 2 3 ?
9.1.3.
: , n .
: , , ,
(i, j) , i j "
".
.
, .
( 5.8.1., 6.3.2.). , ,
, ,
( .
-, ,
).
1:
.
.
, . ,
, :
. -
, .
2:
. ,
, .
, .
a, [Culberson-1993][Wai-2000].
, -, : 1
solve1(), 2 solve2(). .
9 -
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 200
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 1, 0, 1, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 0, 1, 0 },
{ 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1 },
{ 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0 },
{ 0, 1, 0, 1, 0, 0 }
};
unsigned color[MAXN];
/* */
void solve1(void)
{ unsigned i, j, c;
/* i - */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
c = 0;
do {
c++;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] && color[j] == c) break;
} while (j < n);
color[i] = c;
}
}
void solve2(void)
{ unsigned c = 0, cn = 0, i, j;
/* , ,
* .., */
while (cn < n) {
c++;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
if (!color[i]) {
int flag = 1;
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
if (A[i][j] && color[j] == c) {
flag = 0;
break;
}
if (flag) {
color[i] = c;
cn++;
}
}
}
}
}
void showColor(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) printf("%u-%u; ", i + 1, color[i]);
602
9 -
603
printf("\n");
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
printf("
for (i = 0; i < n;
solve1();
showColor();
printf("
for (i = 0; i < n;
solve2();
showColor();
return 0;
}
1: \n");
i++) color[i] = 0;
2: \n");
i++) color[i] = 0;
colorg.c
:
1:
1-1; 2-2; 3-1; 4-1; 5-2; 6-3;
2:
1-1; 2-2; 3-1; 4-1; 5-2; 6-3;
, ( ,
), ,
. , (
, e
).
: , , .. , , ( ),
, ( 9.1.3.).
9.1.3. .
:
void treeColor( i, int color) {
i = color; /* i color */
for ( j i) {
treeColor(j, !color);
}
9 -
604
}
main() {
treeColor(root, 0); /* */
return 0;
}
, - (
, ?), ,
. V1 , V2
( 9.1.3.).
V1
V2
9.1.3. .
.
:
1. 1 n.
. ?
, , ,
.
2. 1 ,
. ( ) . ?
3. 1 2.
4. , .
9.1.4.
(
5.7.1) . ,
, : ,
, ()
(). ,
( ) ,
, .
( ,
), , , , . . ,
k "" ,
9 -
605
( k). :
( ).
k ek ,
Di Dj. , , ek
-.
, ,
er (- ek ), Di Dj,
(er er) Di Dj Dr (Dr =
E\(DiDj):
1) , ,
, : - ,
er ek .
2) 9.1.4. .
ek
Di
er1
Dj
er2
Dr
9.1.4. , .
, er er ek . , er, er
ek , - ( , er er ek Di Dj,
ek ).
(
[-1996]), , , . , - .
:
- .
9.1.5.

.
, ( 6.4.1., 8.2.1.)
:
N , mi ci.
M ( ).
( 01 , ).
,
. ,
,
. , , ( ) ..
9 -
606
( ) ,
.
, , "": - (. .
ci/mi , , ), -
.., "" . - , . 9.1.5.
.
ci
1
2
3
25
12
16
mi
( )
10
8
8
(ci/mi)
2,5
1,5
2,0
9.1.5. 16 .
- ( 1) 10
( 25). 6 ,
6 3 (6 2 = 12),
( ) 25 + 12 = 37.
, , ,
. .
k j1,j2,...,jk i1,i2,...,it.
, ,
imax, (cimax/mimax). , ,
: - ,
( > 0) , k,
imax.
,
. sort() , solve()
, - . .
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 1000
const
float
float
const
unsigned n = 3;
c[MAXN] = { 25, 12, 16 };
m[MAXN] = { 10, 8, 8 };
float M = 16;
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
float ratio[MAXN];
void swap(float *a, float *b)
{ float s = *a; *a = *b; *b = s; }
/* */
void sort(void)
{ ...
}
/* */
void solve(void)
{ unsigned i = 0;
9 -
607
float T = 0, V = 0;;
while (T + m[i] <= M) {
/* , */
printf(" 100%% %.2f");
printf(" %.2f \n", c[i], m[i]);
T += m[i]; V += c[i];
i++;
}
printf(" %.2f%% %.2f %.2f \n",
((M - T) / m[i]) * 100, c[i], m[i]);
V += (M - T) * (c[i] / m[i]);
printf(" : %.2f\n", V);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) ratio[i] = c[i] / m[i];
sort();
solve();
return 0;
}
fracknap.c
:
100% 25.00 10.00
75.00% 16.00 8.00
: 37.00
: "" 0-1 ( NP-). , , 9.1.5.:

1 25 (
). :
2 3 - : 12 + 16 = 28.
:
1. , 0-1
.
2. ratio[] ?
solve(). : a/b c/d ad bc.
9.1.6.
.
n l1, l2, ... , ln .
, ,
, ( ) .
K1
l1
K2
l3
K3
K4
l2
l4
Kn
l n
9.1.6. (K1 = 1, K2 = 3, K3 = 2, ...).

( 9.1.6.), ( l2),
"" l1 l3.
9 -
608
p1, p2, ..., pn, 0 pi 1, 1 i n,

n
p
i 1
1 . , 0,5 , ,
, . K1, K2, , Kn
T,
, :
n
i
p Ki l K j
i 1
j 1
T
n
, T.
. , -
, - .
- , -
( "" -, ).
: ,
Ki, pKi/lKi .
: , Ki Kj . .
-
: n .
t1, t2, ..., tn. ,
, . .
n
T
i 1
i 1
t
j 1
Kj
( K1, K2, , Kn , ).
: , - (. . ti). ,
, (p1 = p2 = ... = pn = 1 ).
n
:
1. .
2. .
9.1.7.
n . , 1. i (1 i n)
: vi di. ,
, ( . deadline). ..
, - di- .
, .
9.1.7. 5 .
9.1.7.
i
vi
di
1
40
1
2
30
2
3
15
1
4
20
1
5
50
2
9 -
609
9.1.7. .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
40
30
15
20
50
(1,2) (1,5) (2,5) (3,2) (3,5) (4,2) (4,5) (5,2)

70
90
80
45
65
50
70
80
9.1.7. .
, (1,3), (2,4) .. , 3 4 1. , ( 90), (1,5).
, , :
i (1 i n) j (1 j n) , dj
i vj . , .
-, 1 5 50 (
). , , , dj
2, 2. 50 + 30 = 80, .
,
:
9.1. k ,
, .
, , , , .
A = {t1, t2, ..., tk1} . ,
, A tk :
, i- ( i = 1,2,...,n)
i ( ).
index[j] ( 0) ,
i
(j+1)- . i S index[ j ] S i+1,

j 0
tk .
, . , v[n] d[n], . -
. ,
, k (k = 1, 2, ..., n),
. ,
, -: index[]
k index[d[k]] .
taken[] ,
. (n2).
5,
1, 90, . :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 1000
const unsigned v[MAXN] = { 50, 40, 30, 20, 15 };
const unsigned d[MAXN] = { 2, 1, 2, 2, 1 };
const unsigned p[MAXN] = {5,1,2,4,3}; /* . */
9 -
610
unsigned index[MAXN], taken[MAXN], tn;

char feasible(unsigned k)
{ unsigned s = 0, i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
s += index[i];
if (i == d[k] - 1) s += 1;
if (s > i + 1) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
void solve(void)
{ unsigned k, i, income;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (feasible(k)) {
taken[tn++] = k;
index[d[k] - 1]++;
}
printf(" : ");
income = 0;
for (i = 0; i < tn; i++) {
printf("%u ", p[taken[i]]);
income += v[taken[i]];
}
printf("\n : %u\n", income);
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) index[i] = 0;
tn = 0;
solve();
return 0;
}
schedule.c
:
: 5 1
: 90
:
1. , -
.
2. , , , , .
, :
) ( for solve())
)
9.1.8. . .
6 ( 6.3.4.) :
nn , -
9 -
611
. ,
.
, . , n2 ( ):
1) (1, 1).
2) , (x', y')
, :
(x', y') (x, y).
(x',y') .
,
(x', y'), .
( 9.1.8.) ,
66, :
I)
(1,1) (2,3) (3,2)
(2,3).
II)
(1,5), (3,5), (4,4), (4,2) (3,1). .
: (1,5).
III)
(1,5) (3,4) (3,6): (3,6) ..
: (x,y) (, ), (1,1) . , ,
6.3.4., , (1,1) .
I.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 K
5
2
5
3
4
5
6
2
1
K
II
.
K
2
K
5
6
3
2
III
.
9.1.8. 66.
9 -
612
. countMoves(x,y)
, (x, y). ,
n21 : countMoves()
, (
, ).
.
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN
100
#define MAX_MOVES
8
const int moveX[MAX_MOVES] = { +1, -1, +1, -1, +2, +2, -2, -2 };
const int moveY[MAX_MOVES] = { +2, +2, -2, -2, +1, -1, +1, -1 };
int a[MAXN][MAXN], x, y, p;
int countMoves(int x, int y)
{ int i, number = 0;
if (x < 0 || y < 0 || x >= n || y >= n || a[x][y] != 0)
return MAX_MOVES + 1; /* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX_MOVES; i++) {
int nx = x + moveX[i], ny = y + moveY[i];
if (nx >= 0 && ny >= 0 && nx < n && ny < n && a[nx][ny] == 0)
number++;
}
return number;
}
void solve(void) {
unsigned i, j, n2;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
a[i][j] = 0;
x = 0;
y = 0;
a[0][0] = 1;
p = 1;
/* "" , */
n2 = n * n;
while (p < n2) {
int min = MAX_MOVES + 1, choose;
for (i = 0; i < MAX_MOVES; i++) {
int temp = countMoves(x + moveX[i], y + moveY[i]);
if (temp < min) {
min = temp;
choose = i;
}
}
x += moveX[choose];
y += moveY[choose];
a[x][y] = ++p;
}
/* */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
9 -
613
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) printf("%4d", a[i][j]);

printf("\n");
}
}
int main(void) {
solve();
return 0;
}
knightg.c
:
1
62
23
94
59
64
21
46
57
42
19
44
24 61 96
3
95
2 25 92
60 93 144 97
63 98 89 140
22 139 100 129
99 88 133 138
58 65 128 101
55 102 87 66
20 47 54 103
45 56 67 50
48 43 40 17
41 18 49 52
26
141
90
143
134
127
132
77
86
53
68
39
91
4
135
130
137
106
121
104
123
78
51
16
110
27
142
115
126
131
124
83
76
85
38
69
5
114
109
136
107
120
105
122
79
70
15
72
28 31 112
111
6 29
30 113 32
119 108
7
116 33 118
125
8 81
82 117 34
75 80
9
84 35 74
73 10 13
12 71 36
37 14 11
( ),
. , . , 6 , ,
NP- () .
, , ( 6.3.4.),
, .
, (
), ,
. n- , :
9.2. 2n ,
n - n, G n .
n- n = 1, 2, 3 4 9.1.8.
9 -
(0,0)
(1,0)
(0,1)
(1,1)
n=2
(0)
614
n=3
(1)
n=1
n=4
9.1.8. 1, 2, 3 4- .
n- . n = 1
(0) (1).
n = 2 (0,0), (0,1), (1,1) (1,0). n = 3
.. (.. n- ) n- , n- 0 1 , i j , n-
.
( ) n-
, , ,
- . [, , -1980].
:
n=1
0
1
n=2
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
n=3
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
i1, i2, ..., i n n = k.

2
i1
i2
...
i2 n
9 -
615
n = k + 1 , n = k
0, n = k 1:
i1 0
i2 0
...
in0
2
i2 n 1
...
i2 1
i1 1
, :
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAXN 1000
/* , n- () */
char a[MAXN];
void print(void)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) printf("%d ", (int) a[i]);
printf("\n");
}
void forwgray(unsigned); /* prototype */
void backgray(unsigned k)
{ if (0 == k) { print(); return; }
a[k] = 1; forwgray(k - 1);
a[k] = 0; backgray(k - 1);
}
void forwgray(unsigned k)
{ if (0 == k) { print(); return; }
a[k] = 0; forwgray(k - 1);
a[k] = 1; backgray(k - 1);
}
int main(void) {
forwgray(n);
return 0;
}
hamgray.c
:
1. -
(m2.n2), m e ( -
2
MAX_MOVES): n , m countMoves(),
(m). , n2 ,
(n2)?
2. ,
, 6.3.4.? ?
9 -
616
3. .
9.2.
.
, "": ,
, ""
.
k (kN) ,
int random(k), 0 k
1.
random() (
[Knuth-2/1968]). , ,
<stdlib.h>, . ,
.
1: : m a[n].
(
4.3.), : a[i] (i = 1,2,...,n) m. (n),
- . .
:
1) a[i] : i = random(n).
1.1) a[i] == m, .
1.2) a[i] != m, 1.
, (n)
1/n. - ,
: ,
random() , , , "",
, . random() , ,
, .
. , taken[n], , number,
. i,
taken[i]==0 (.. ),
taken[i]==1 number 1. , number n, , , .
2: .

.
, .
, .
, - . ,
" ", .
, ,
:
3: NP- ( 6) , ,
. , -
9 -
617
( 6.3.), ,
.
9.2., D-D2-D6-D7,
D1 ( , ),
. ,
D1. , ,
:
, . ,
() .
D2, D1, e 0,5.
0,75, 0,875 (?) .., ..
, .
D
D1
D3
D4
D2
D5
D6
D7
9.2. .
, , , . ( ) ,
.
.
:
, .
9.2.1.
( ) ( , "" ).
"", .
, ( ,
, ,
- ). ,
, , ( ,
).
9 -
618
-

n . k p1, p2, ..., pk (2 pi n ) n
, n . :
1:
for (i = 1,...,k)
if (n % (random(sqrt(n))+2) == 0) {
return n__;
}
return n__;
, , - n , n.
k , n , .
p
, .. . ( 1.1.3.),
, , - n . q
n, -
[2,
n .
n ]. n q ,
n
: 1 q . k :
1 q ( ). ,
p = 1 1 q .
1p , , n .
p ,
(- p n).
, , p-, . . p.
1 . -
( -) .
:
. () n . an1 % n = 1 a = 1,2,...,n1.
: n
a (1 < a < n), an1 % n 1, , n :
2:
for (i = 1,2,...,k) { /* k */
a = random(n-1) + 1;
if ((an-1) % n != 1) {
return n__;
}
}
return n__;
9 -
619
p, , 2
p-. , , > 0
, 2 , , - [Brassard,Bratley1996].
, p-, ,
. -
. n , n > 4 ( n , ).
9.3. n, n > 4. 2st1,
s t , s > 0, n > 1, t . a, 1 < a < n1.
n a, at % n = 1,
i (0 i < s) , a 2 t % n = n1.
i
. a (1 < a < n1) n

, n . n , - 0,75.
3:
for (i = 1,2,...,k) { /* k */
a = random(n-3) + 2;
if (n_______a) {
return n__;
}
}
return n__;
, 0,75, . .
0,75-. , 3 k = 4 (. .
4 ) , n , n , - 99%.
, 1000 , - 10-100 [Brassard,Bratley1996].
3 n
a. :
1) s t ( 9.3.):
s = 1; t = n-1;
while (t % 2 != 1) { s++; t /= 2; }
2) at % n = 1:
x = power(a,t) % n;
if (1 == x) return (n___);
3) i (0 i < s), a 2 t % n = n1:

i
for (i = 1,2,...,s-1) {
if (n-1 == x) return (n___);
x = x*x % n;
}
return (n__);
, 2) x = at % n ,
: at
, x [0, n1]. , :
a.b % p = [(a % p).(b % p)] % p ,
9 -
620
, (,
.). at % n :
at % n = (at1.a) % n = [(at1 % n).(a % n)] % n
at1 % n (!),
a2 % n = a.a % n= [(a % n).(a % n)] % n
bigmod(a,t,n).
:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
const unsigned n = 127; /* n */
const unsigned k = 10; /* a */
/* power(a,t) mod n; */
unsigned long bigmod(unsigned long a, unsigned long t, unsigned long n)
{ return (1 == t) ? (a % n) : (bigmod(a, t - 1, n) * (a % n)) % n; }
char strongRandom(unsigned long n, unsigned long a)
{ unsigned long s = 1, t = n - 1, x, i;
/* */
if (n < 2) return 0;
if (2 == n) return 1;
/* 1) */
while (t % 2 != 1) {
s++;
t /= 2;
}
/* 2) x = power(a,t) mod n; */
x = bigmod(a, t, n);
if (1 == x) return 1;
/* 3 */
for (i = 0; i < s; i++) {
if (x == n - 1) return 1;
x = x * x % n;
}
return 0;
}
char isPrime(unsigned long n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 1; i <= k; i++) {
int a = rand() % (n - 3) + 2;
if (!strongRandom(n, a)) return 0;
}
return 1;
}
int main(void) {
printf(" %u e %s.\n", n, (isPrime(n)) ? "" : "");
return 0;
}
prime_mc.c
,
, (9.4.).
9 -
621
:
1. 1, 2 3.
2. 1 2.
3. , 3 0,75-.
9.2.2.
- .
,
"". ,
, , ,
, .
-
.
, , . ,
. , ,
, 1768 .
.
2r
9.2.2. r.
, S r S = r2.
r, 2r ( 9.2.2.).
r2/(2r)2 , p
,
r2/(2r)2. : t
, ( ,
- ). k,
t, p, -. ,
, :
4.k .r 2 4.k
k .r 2 , . .
2
t
t.r 2
t 2r
, ,
, t.
- , - t - r ( - r
-, t -
). , r , r2
long (
).
,
:
#include <stdio.h>
9 -
622
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <math.h>
int main(void)
{ long t = 1000000; /* */
long r = 200; /* */
long r2 = r / 2;
long k = 0, i;
for (i = 0; i < t; i++) {
long a = (rand() % r) - r2 + 1;
long b = (rand() % r) - r2 + 1;
if (sqrt(a * a + b * b) <= r2) k++;
}
printf(" p = %.2f\n", (4.0 * k) / t);
return 0;
}
pi.c
, 1 ,
100 [Brassard,Bratley1996].
, , [-1994].
( ),
.
:
1. , -
- .
2.
k- k = 2,3,4,5,6. , ,
1 ,
100 ?
9.2.3.
,
. ,
, .
- ,
-. -
- .
" -".
( 5.4.4.).
: G(V, E) (
) . .
NP-
( n ), n! , 6,
, ,
.
9 -
623
9.4. ,
, .
P = {H1, H2, ..., Hq} q .
- "". 1 n, ,
. H 9.2.3. 5 .
( ) 1-2-3-45 (25), 3-4-5-1-2 (49), 5-3-1-4-2 (35).
:
() ( -
)
(). ,
. , .
1
17
10
2
11
12
-12
3
12
-5
8 7
19
9.2.3. 5 .
, ,
P, - ,
Hi = (i1, i2,..., in)P Hj = (j1, j2,..., jn)P :
k r () : (i1, ..., ik-1, jk , ..., jr, ir+1, ...,
in) (j1, ..., jk-1, ik , ..., ir, jr+1, ..., jn).
, 2-3-1-4-5, 5-1-3-4-2 k = 2, r = 4,
2-1-3-4-5 5-3-1-4-2, 1-2-3-4-5, 1-3-5-4-2 k = 2, r = 3,
1-3-5-4-5 1-2-3-4-2.
, , , . , . - P,
, . . - . ,
, , .
. , ( - )
P . - ""
. .
- (
,
, ). ,
,
.
.
:
initGraph(), n (
, ).
randomCycle(), .
9 -
624
evaluate(), (
).
combine(), .
mutate(), , ,
.
reproduce() .
, , .
-, combine() (n )
PSIZE/2 (PSIZE , n).
, - PSIZE (
, (n.PSIZE)), -
. reproduce() (n2.PSIZE).
maxSteps reproduce(), ..
2
, . :
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAXN 100
/* , psize % 4 == 0 */
#define PSIZE 200
const unsigned long maxSteps = 1000;
/* */
char A[MAXN][MAXN];
/* */
int population[PSIZE][MAXN]; /* */
int result[PSIZE];
/* */
void initGraph(void)
{ unsigned i, j;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
for (j = 0; j < n; j++)
A[i][j] = (rand() % 100) + 1;
}
void randomCycle(int t)
{ char used[MAXN];
unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) used[i] = 0;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
int p = (rand() % (n - i)) + 1;
int j = 0;
while (p > 0) {
while (used[j]) j++;
p--; j++;
}
population[t][i] = j - 1;
used[j - 1] = 1;
}
}
int evaluate(int t)
{ unsigned i;
int res = 0;
9 -
for (i = 0; i < n - 1; i++)
res += A[population[t][i]][population[t][i + 1]];
return res + A[population[t][n - 1]][population[t][0]];
}
/* q1,q2 p1,p2 */
void combine(int p1, int p2, int q1, int q2)
{ int uq1[MAXN], uq2[MAXN];
unsigned i, j, k;
k = (rand() % (n - 1)) + 1; /* k */
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {
uq1[i] = 0;
uq2[i] = 0;
}
for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {
population[q1][i] = population[p1][i];
uq1[population[p1][i]]++;
}
for (i = k; i < n; i++) {
if (0 == uq1[population[p2][i]]) {
}
else {
for (j = 0; uq1[j] != 0; j++);
population[q1][i] = j;
uq1[j]++;
}
if (0 == uq2[population[p1][i]]) {
}
else {
for (j = 0; uq2[j] != 0; j++);
population[q2][i] = j;
uq2[j]++;
}
}
result[q1] = evaluate(q1);
result[q2] = evaluate(q2);
}
void mutate(void) {
unsigned i, k;
/* , "" */
for (i = 0; i < PSIZE - 1; i++) {
int flag = 0;
for (k = 0; k < n; k++)
if (population[i][k] != population[i + 1][k]) {
flag = 1;
break;
}
if (!flag) { /* i */
int p1 = rand() % n;
int p2 = rand() % n;
625
9 -
int swap = population[i][p1];
population[i][p1] = population[i][p2];
population[i][p2] = swap;
result[i] = evaluate(i);
}
}
}
void reproduce(unsigned s)
{ unsigned i, j, k, swap;
/* - ,
*
*/
for (i = 0; i < (PSIZE-1)/2; i += 2) {
/* randomCycle(i); */
combine(i, i+1, PSIZE-i-1, PSIZE-i-2);
}
/* */
for (i = 0; i < PSIZE - 1; i++) {
for (j = i + 1; j < PSIZE; j++) {
if (result[j] < result[i]) {
for (k = 0; k < n; k++) {
swap = population[i][k];
population[i][k] = population[j][k];
population[j][k] = swap;
}
swap = result[i];
result[i] = result[j];
result[j] = swap;
}
}
}
if (maxSteps 1 == s) return;
mutate();
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i, j, s;
int minRandom;
initGraph();
/* */
minRandom = n*101;
for (s = 0; s < maxSteps; s++) {
for (i = 0; i < PSIZE; i++) {
randomCycle(i);
}
for (j = 0; j < PSIZE; j++)
if (result[j] < minRandom)
minRandom = result[j];
}
printf(" %ld : %d\n",
PSIZE*maxSteps, minRandom);
/* */
626
9 -
627
for (s = 0; s < maxSteps; s++) reproduce(s);

printf("- , : \n");
for (i = 10; i > 0; i--) printf("%d, ", result[i]);
printf("%d\n", result[0]);
return 0;
}
tspgenet.c
:
200000 : 487
- , :
297, 292, 292, 292, 292, 292, 292, 292, 292, 289, 289
. ( 20 ) ,
:
:
1. , 6,
, ,
?
2. ( initGraph()). , .
3. - , , :
9.3.
- , . :
,
.
, ( ), , ( ).
9.5. n A, . , p(n),

max{ C , C' } p(n),
C' C
C' - , A, C .
, p(n) ( p),
n .
.
9 -
628
9.3.1.
9.6. G(V, E) -
D, : (i,j)E i
j D. D G.
, , ( , 5.7.3. ,
).
NP-
. -
- , . . p(n).
1
9.3.1. n .
1:
D - , . : D = . D
i . i,
. , .
9.3.1.
1 , 1
. , , 1,
2? n2 ,
, g = n1,
d = 1. , n ( ),
g. , p,
, , . .
max { g/d, d/g } p,

max { g/d, d/g } n1,
p(n) = n1, .. p(n) n.
1 ,
n1 ,
- . , , - 2 - .
2:
D , ( D = ).
(i, j) . i j D,
, i j. ,
.
9 -
629
9.3.1. 6 .
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#include <math.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#define MAX 100
const char *message="LLLLLLALABALANICAAAABABABBABABABABAAABABALLLLAABB";
/* LPC */
10 -
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void LPCencode(int *code, const char *msg)

{ double exp;
unsigned n;
if ('\0' == *msg) return; /* */
for (exp = *code = *msg++, n = 1; '\0' != *msg; n++, msg++) {
code[n] = (int) ceil(exp-*msg);
exp = (exp*n + (unsigned char)*msg)/(n+1);
}
}
/* LPC */
void LPCdecode(char *msg, const int *code, const unsigned n)
{ double exp;
unsigned i;
for (exp = *msg++ = *code, i = 1; i < n; i++, msg++) {
*msg = (char)ceil(exp - code[i]);
exp = (exp*i + (unsigned char) *msg) / (i+1);
}
*msg = '\0';
}
void print(const int *code, const unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%4d", code[i]);
}
int main(void) {
int coded[MAX];
/* */
char decoded[MAX]; /* */
printf(" :\n%s\n", message);
LPCencode(coded, message);
printf("\n :\n");
print(coded, strlen(message));
LPCdecode(decoded, coded, strlen(message));
printf("\n :\n%s", decoded);
return 0;
}
lpc.c
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n , ,
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.
- .
,
MSG.
.
, , ( -
initModel()). . - , -.
forest[].
:
.
, . - :
void huffman(void)
{ /* */
while (forest___2_) {
findMins(i,j);
/* 1. - */
forest[i] = createNew(forest[i],forest[j]);/* 2. */
free(forest[j]);
/* 3. j- */
}
}
10 -
662
(
printTree()), (
writeCodes()) . ( findMins() -
):
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX 256
#define MSG "afbabcdefacbabcdecde"
struct tree {
char sym;
/* () */
unsigned freq;
/* */
struct tree *left, *right; /* */
};
struct {
unsigned weight;
struct tree *root;
} forest[MAX];
/* */
/* */
/* : */
unsigned treeCnt;
/* */
char code[MAX];
/* */
void initModel(char *msg)

{ char *c = msg;
unsigned freqs[MAX];
unsigned i;
/* */
/* */
/* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
freqs[i] = 0;
while (*c)
freqs[(unsigned char) *c++]++;
/* */
for (treeCnt = i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
if (freqs[i]) {
forest[treeCnt].weight = freqs[i];
forest[treeCnt].root = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
forest[treeCnt].root->left = NULL;
forest[treeCnt].root->right = NULL;
forest[treeCnt].root->freq = freqs[i];
forest[treeCnt++].root->sym = i;
}
}
void findMins(unsigned *min,
unsigned *secondMin) /* - */
{ unsigned i;
if (forest[0].weight <= forest[1].weight) {
*min = 0;
*secondMin = 1;
}
else {
*min = 1;
*secondMin = 0;
10 -
}
for (i = 2; i < treeCnt; i++)
if (forest[i].weight < forest[*min].weight) {
*secondMin = *min;
*min = i;
}
else if (forest[i].weight < forest[*secondMin].weight)
*secondMin = i;
}
void huffman(void)
{ unsigned i,j;
struct tree *t;
while (treeCnt > 1) {
findMins(&i,&j); /* - */
/* - - */
t = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(*t));
t->left = forest[i].root;
t->right = forest[j].root;
t->freq = forest[i].weight += forest[j].weight;
forest[i].root = t;
/* j- . . */
forest[j] = forest[--treeCnt];
}
}
void printTree(struct tree *t, unsigned h) /* */
{ unsigned i;
if (t) {
printTree(t->left,h+1);
for (i = 0; i < h; i++)
printf("
");
printf("%4d",t->freq);
if (NULL == t->left)
printf(" %c",t->sym);
printf("\n");
printTree(t->right,h+1); }
}
void writeCodes(struct tree *t, unsigned index) /* */
{ if (t) {
code[index] = '0';
writeCodes(t->left,index+1);
if (NULL == t->left) {/* 0 2 */
code[index] = '\0';
printf("%c = %s\n",t->sym,code);
}
code[index] = '1';
writeCodes(t->right,index+1);
}
}
int main(void) {
initModel(MSG);
huffman();
printf(" %s:\n",MSG);
663
10 -
664
printTree(forest[0].root,0);
writeCodes(forest[0].root,0);
return 0;
}
huffman1.c
, forest[] .
-
.
:
afbabcdefacbabcdecde:
4 b
8
4 c
20
2 f
5
3 d
12
3 e
7
4 a
b = 00
c = 01
f = 100
d = 101
e = 110
a = 111
, , . ,
(i,j) . , ,
-- .
, .
, (<)
findMins() (),
huffman(). ( /* <-- */ ):
void findMins(unsigned *min,
unsigned *secondMin) /* - */
{ unsigned i;
if (forest[0].weight <= forest[1].weight) {
*min = 0;
*secondMin = 1;
}
else {
*min = 1;
*secondMin = 0;
}
for (i = 2; i < treeCnt; i++)
if (forest[i].weight <= forest[*min].weight) {
/* <-- */
*secondMin = *min;
*min = i;
}
10 -
665
else if (forest[i].weight <= forest[*secondMin].weight) /* <-- */

*secondMin = i;
}
void huffman(void)
{ unsigned i,j;
struct tree *t;
findMins(&i,&j); /* - */
/* - - */
t = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(*t));
if (i < j) {
t->left = forest[i].root;
t->right = forest[j].root;
}
else {
t->right = forest[i].root;
t->left = forest[j].root;
}
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
/*
<-<-<-<-<-<-<-<--
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
*/
forest[i].weight += forest[j].weight;
forest[i].root = t;
/* j- . . */
forest[j] = forest[--treeCnt];
}
}
huffman2.c
,
t->freq. - ,
. printTree().
- huffman3.c.
:
afbabcdefacbabcdecde:
-- a
--- b
--- c
--- d
--- e
--- f
a
b
c
d
e
f
=
=
=
=
=
=
00
01
100
101
110
111
10 -
666
? - . (: 3.1.9.). , (log2 n). ,

(n) ,
(n.log2 n). , :
void huffman()
{ buildHeap();
/* */
/* 2 */
while (forest___2_) {
min1 = getMinAndRemoveFromHeap();/* 1. - */
min2 = getMinAndRemoveFromHeap();/* 2. - */
insert(createNew(min1,min2));/* 3. -> */
}
}
. ,
forest[] . /* <-- */.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#define MAX 256
#define MSG "afbabcdefacbabcdecde"
struct tree {
/* <-- */
char sym;
/* */
struct tree *left, *right; /* */
};
struct CForest {
/* <-- */
unsigned weight;
/* */
struct tree *root;
/* */
} forest[MAX];
/* : */
unsigned treeCnt;
/* */
char code[MAX];
/* */
/***********************************************************/
/************** ***************/
/***********************************************************/
/* "" */
void siftUp(unsigned k)
/* <-- */
{ struct CForest save = forest[k]; /* */
unsigned parent = k/2;
/* "" */
while (parent >= 1) {
/* */
if (save.weight < forest[parent].weight) {
forest[k] = forest[parent];
k = parent;
}
parent /= 2;
}
forest[k] = save; /* */
}
/* "" */
void siftDown(void)
{ unsigned parent = 1,
/* "" */
child = 2;
/* "" */
/* <-- */
10 -
667
struct CForest save = forest[1]; /* */

while (child <= treeCnt) {
if (child+1 <= treeCnt) /* - */
if (forest[child+1].weight < forest[child].weight)
child++;
if (save.weight > forest[child].weight) {
/* */
forest[parent] = forest[child];
parent = child;
child *= 2;
}
else
break;
}
forest[parent] = save; /* */
}
void removeMin(void) /* */
{ forest[1] = forest[treeCnt--];
siftDown();
}
/* <-- */
/*********************************************/
/************* **************/
/*********************************************/
void initModel(char *msg) /* */
{ char *c = msg;
unsigned freqs[MAX]; /* */
unsigned i;
/* */
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
freqs[i] = 0;
while (*c)
freqs[(unsigned char) *c++]++;
/* */
treeCnt = 0;
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
if (freqs[i]) {
forest[++treeCnt].weight = freqs[i];
/* <-- */
forest[treeCnt].root = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
forest[treeCnt].root->left = NULL;
forest[treeCnt].root->right = NULL;
forest[treeCnt].root->sym = i;
siftUp(treeCnt);
/* <-- */
}
}
void huffman(void)
/* <-- */
{ struct CForest min1, min2;
/* - */
min1 = forest[1];
removeMin();
min2 = forest[1];
removeMin();
/* - - */
forest[++treeCnt].root = (struct tree *) malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
10 -
668
forest[treeCnt].root->left = min1.root;
forest[treeCnt].root->right = min2.root;
forest[treeCnt].weight = min1.weight + min2.weight;
/* */
siftUp(treeCnt);
}
}
void printTree(struct tree *t, unsigned h)
/* , */
{ unsigned i;
if (NULL != t) {
printTree(t->left,h+1);
for (i = 0; i < h; i++)
printf("
");
printf(" -- ");
/* <-- */
if (NULL == t->left)
printf(" %c", t->sym);
printf("\n");
printTree(t->right,h+1);
}
}
void writeCodes(struct tree *t, unsigned index) /* */
{ if (NULL != t) {
code[index] = '0';
writeCodes(t->left,index+1);
if (NULL == t->left) { /* 0 2 */
code[index] = '\0';
printf("%c = %s\n",t->sym,code);
}
code[index] = '1';
writeCodes(t->right,index+1);
}
}
int main(void) {
initModel(MSG);
huffman();
printf(" %s:\n",MSG);
printTree(forest[1].root,0);
writeCodes(forest[1].root,0);
return 0;
}
/* <-- */
/* <-- */
huffman3.c
, ,
256,
ASCII. , n
(n2) (n.log2n). , .
, 256,
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(- ) .
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10 -
669
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, - (while,
for, if .), - . , , - . , , ,
. , ,
.
:
. . ( [TopTeam1997]). :
void writeTree(tree *t) { /* */
{
if (t != NULL)
/* t ? */
if (isLeaf(t)) {
/* t */
writeBit(0);
/* 0 */
writeSym(t->sym);
/* 8 ASCII */
}
else {
/* t */
writeBit(1);
/* 1 */
writeTree(t->left);
/* */
writeTree(t->right);
/* */
}
}
:
struct tree *readTree() { /* */
{ struct tree *l, *r, *p;
bit b;
if (1 == (b = readBit())) {
/* */
l = readTree();
/* */
r = readTree();
/* */
p = newNode(l,r); /* p l r */
return p;
/* p */
}
else {
/* */
sym = getSym();
/* 8 */
p = emptyNode(sym); /* , sym */
return p;
/* p */
}
}
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):
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, 1,8 . 2,6 . , .
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10 -
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a
0,20
b
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c
0,20
0
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0,15
e
0,15
f
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0,35
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(d:0,15), (e:0,15), (f:0,10).
k- ? , . k- -
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,
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(d: 0,15) (e: 0,05). 3 . , , : (a = 11), (b = 10), (c = 01), (d =
001), (e = 000). :
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10 -
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001, 0001 .. ,
- . -
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0,149703040
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0,149704000
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0,149703072
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[0,1492; 0,1500). T
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10 -
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.
:
l = 0.0; r = 1.0;
while (getSymbol(ch)) {
range = r - l;
l = l + range * low_range(ch);
r = l + range * high_range(ch);
}
output(l);
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. . , .
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), .
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10.4.5. .
:
for (i = 0; i < messageLen; i++) {
symbol = getSymbol(msg);
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}
10 -
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:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
#define SHOW_MORE
#define MESSAGE ""
#define MAX 256
struct {
double low, high;
} sym[MAX];
unsigned freq[MAX];
void getStatistics(char *mesg) /* */
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
freq[i] = 0;
10 -
while ('\0' != *mesg)
freq[(unsigned char) *mesg++]++;
}
void buildModel(char *mesg) /* */
{ unsigned i, cnt, n;
for (n = strlen(mesg), cnt = i = 0; i < MAX; i++) {
sym[i].low = (double) cnt/n;
cnt += freq[i];
sym[i].high = (double) cnt/n;
}
}
void printModel(void)
{ unsigned i;
printf("\n
");
printf("\n
");
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
if (freq[i])
printf("\n%4c
%1.4f %1.4f", i,sym[i].low,sym[i].high);
}
double arithmeticEncode(char *mesg) /* */
{ double range, low, high;
low = 0.0, high = 1.0;
while ('\0' != *mesg) {
range = high - low;
high = low + range * sym[(unsigned char) *mesg].high;
low = low + range * sym[(unsigned char) *mesg].low;
#ifdef SHOW_MORE
printf("\n%c
%1.9f %1.9f",*mesg,low,high);
#endif
*mesg++;
}
return low;
}
char getSymbol(double encMsg)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
if (sym[i].low <= encMsg && sym[i].high > encMsg)
break;
return (char) i;
}
void arithmeticDecode(double msg, unsigned msgLen) /* */
{ double range;
unsigned char ch, i;
for (i = 0; i < msgLen; i++) {
ch = (unsigned char) getSymbol(msg);
#ifdef SHOW_MORE
printf("\n%c
%1.9f",ch,msg);
#else
putc(ch,stdout);
#endif
range = sym[ch].high - sym[ch].low;
msg -= sym[ch].low;
msg /= range;
}
}
677
10 -
678
int main(void) {
double code;
printf("\n\n : %s",MESSAGE);
getStatistics(MESSAGE);
buildModel(MESSAGE);
#ifdef SHOW_MORE
printModel();
printf("\n <<ENTER>>"); getchar();
#endif
code = arithmeticEncode(MESSAGE);
printf("\n : %1.8f",code);
printf("\n: ");
arithmeticDecode(code,strlen(MESSAGE));
return 0;
}
arithmet.c
:
:
0.0000 0.2000
0.2000 0.3000
0.3000 0.5000
0.5000 0.6000
0.6000 0.7000
0.7000 0.8000
0.8000 1.0000
<<ENTER>>
0.000000000 0.200000000
0.140000000 0.160000000
0.146000000 0.150000000
0.149200000 0.150000000
0.149680000 0.149760000
0.149696000 0.149704000
0.149702400 0.149704000
0.149702880 0.149703200
0.149703040 0.149703072
0.149703040 0.149703046
: 0.14970304
:
0.149703040
0.748515200
0.485152000
0.925760000
0.628800000
0.288000000
0.880000000
0.400000000
0.500000000
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sym = getSymbol(input);
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char symbol;
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unsigned char cnt;
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3
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6
7
8
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10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
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0000
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23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
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10.5.3. MNP-5. .
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#include <stdio.h>
#include <math.h>
#define log2(x) log(x)/log(2)
#define MAX 100
const double p[MAX] = {0.2, 0.2, 0.15, 0.15, 0.10, 0.10, 0.05, 0.05};
/* */
double calcEntropy(const double *p, const unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
double sum;
for (sum = i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum -= p[i]*log2(p[i]);
return sum;
}
/* */
double calcValue(const double *p, const unsigned *l, const unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
double sum;
for (sum = i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum += p[i]*l[i];
return sum;
}
/* */
void calcLengths(unsigned *l, const double *p, const unsigned n)
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
l[i] = (unsigned) ceil(log2(1.0 / p[i]));
}
int main(void) {
unsigned i;
double entr;
unsigned l[MAX];
printf("\n\n, : ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
10 -
695
printf("%2.2lf ",p[i]);
entr = calcEntropy(p,n);
printf("\n : %8.5lf",entr);
printf("\n : %8.5lf",entr + 1);
calcLengths(l,p,n);
printf("\n : ");
for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
printf("%u ",l[i]);
printf("\n : %2.2lf",calcValue(p,l,n));
return 0;
}
entropy.c
:
, : 0.20 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.05
: 2.84644
: 3.84644
: 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 5
: 3.40
. , ,
L2 = 1,29 /. , S2. Lmin(S2) = 0,654 . , Lmin(S3) = 0,533.
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str = ch;
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else
10 -
701
str = str + ch;

}
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10.6.8. LZW: abracadabragabramabracadabragabra.

. ,
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initTable();
getCode(oldCode);
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getCode(input,code);
if (!inTable(code)) {
str = getStr(dictionary,oldCode);
str = str + str[0];
}
else
str = getStr(dictionary,code);
writeOut(output,str);
add2Dictionary(oldCode,str[0]); /* , . */
oldCode = code;
}
LZW :
#include
#include
#include
#include
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
#define
<stdio.h>
<string.h>
<stdlib.h>
<process.h>
MAX_S 10
CHAR_CNT 256
DICT_SIZE 4096
ENCODED_SIZE 1000
MAX_MSG_LEN 1000
NOT_FOUND (unsigned)(-1)
const char *msg =

"abracadabragabramabracadabragabraLALALALALALALALALALALALALALALA";
char dictionary[DICT_SIZE][MAX_S];
unsigned dictIndex;
unsigned encoded[ENCODED_SIZE];
unsigned encIndex;
/*
/*
/*
/*
*/
*/
*/
*/
void initTable(void) /* */
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < CHAR_CNT; i++) {
dictionary[i][0] = i;
dictionary[i][1] = '\0';
}
dictIndex = CHAR_CNT;
}
unsigned findIndex(char *s) /* */
{ unsigned i;
for (i = 0; i < dictIndex; i++)
if (0 == strcmp(s,dictionary[i]))
return i;
return NOT_FOUND;
}
10 -
void add2Dictionary(char *s) /* */

{ strcpy(dictionary[dictIndex++],s); }
void LZWencode(const char *msg) /* LZW */
{ unsigned dictIndex, len;
char ch, str[MAX_S], strch[MAX_S];
initTable();
encIndex = 0;
*str = ch = *msg++; *(str+1) = '\0';
while ('\0' != *msg) {
ch = *msg++;
strcpy(strch,str);
strch[len = strlen(strch)] = ch; strch[len+1] = '\0';
dictIndex = findIndex(strch);
if (NOT_FOUND == dictIndex) {
encoded[encIndex++] = findIndex(str);
add2Dictionary(strch);
*str = ch; *(str+1) = '\0';
}
else {
str[len = strlen(str)] = ch; str[len+1] = '\0';
}
}
encoded[encIndex++] = findIndex(str);
}
void LZWdecode(char *decodedMsg) /* LZW */
{ unsigned code, oldCode, ind, len;
char str[MAX_S], str2[MAX_S];
initTable(); ind = 0;
oldCode = encoded[ind++];
strcpy(decodedMsg,dictionary[oldCode]);
while(ind < encIndex) {
code = encoded[ind++];
if (code >= dictIndex) {
strcpy(str,dictionary[oldCode]);
str[len = strlen(str)] = *str; str[len+1] = '\0';
}
else
strcpy(str,dictionary[code]);
strcat(decodedMsg,str);
strcpy(str2,dictionary[oldCode]);
str2[len = strlen(str2)] = *str; str2[len+1] = '\0';
add2Dictionary(str2);
oldCode = code;
}
}
void printEncodedMsg(const unsigned *encoded, const unsigned encIndex)
{ unsigned ind;
printf("\n\n :\n");
for (ind = 0; ind < encIndex; ind++)
printf("%u ", encoded[ind]);
printf("\n");
704
10 -
705
}
int main(void) {
char decodedMsg[MAX_MSG_LEN];
printf("\n\n :\n%s",msg);
LZWencode(msg);
printEncodedMsg(encoded, encIndex);
LZWdecode(decodedMsg);
printf("\n :\n%s", decodedMsg);
return 0;
}
lzw.c
:
:
abracadabragabramabracadabragabraLALALALALALALALALALALALALALALA
:
97 98 114 97 99 97 100 256 258 103 263 97 109 266 260 262 257 97 265 272
76 65 276 278 277 280 279 282 281 284
:
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10.5.
10.65.
( 10.5.)
( 10.4.2.). ?
10.66.
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?
10.67.
10.5.1.
10.68.
10.5. , 10.5.1. -
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722
10.69.
escape ( 10.5.1.).
10.70.
10.5.2.
10.71.
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( 10.5.2.)?
10.72.

- ( ), 10.5.2.
10.73.
- ( 10.5.2.).
10.74.
MNP-5 ( 10.5.3.).
?
10.75.
10.5.3. ?
10.76.

( 10.6.).
10.77.

( ) ( 10.6.).
10.78.
( 10.6.)
( 10.4.2.) ( 10.4.5.)?
10.79.
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10.80.
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10.81.
1 2 10.6.1., .
10.82.
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10.83.
LZ77 ( 10.6.5.).
10.84.
LZ77 ( 10.6.5.) c, .. (p,l,c),
(p,l)?
10 -
723
10.85.
(0,0,c) LZ77 ( 10.6.5.)
, . -
.
10.86.
LZSS ( 10.6.6.) LZ77 ( 10.6.5.).
10.87.
LZSS ( 10.6.6.)?
10.88.
FLZ ( 10.6.7.) LZ77 ( 10.6.5.).
10.89.
FLZ ( 10.6.7.) -:
?
10.90.
FLZ ( 10.6.7.).
10.91.
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? ?
10.92.
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10.93.
10.6.8. ,
.
10.94.
, 10.6.8. ,
LZW , .
10.95.
LZW? 10.6.8. ?
10.96.
LZW ( 10.6.8.) LZ77 ( 10.6.5.).
10.97.
LZW ( 10.6.8.).
10.98.
LZW ( 10.6.8.) (
10.4.2.).
10.99.
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10.100.
GIF ( 10.6.9.) LZW ( 10.6.8.).
10.101.
FLZ ( 10.6.7.) 10.6.10. ?.
10 -
724
10.102.

( 10.6.10.)?
10.103.
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"", "" "". ?
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10.105.
,
( 10.6.11.).
10.106.
- LZW ( 10.6.12.).
10.107.
LZW - (
10.6.12.).
10.108.
LZW - LZ77 ( 10.6.12.)?
10.109.
( 10.7.1.) - .
10.110.
GIF ( 10.6.9.) JPEG ( 10.7.2.). ?
10.111.
JPEG ( 10.7.2.).
10.112.
JPEG ( 10.7.2.) MPEG ( 10.7.3.).
10.113.
FLZ ( 10.6.7.) ( 10.5.2.)
MPEG ( 10.7.3.)?
10.114.
( 10.7.4.) JPEG (
10.7.2.) MPEG ( 10.7.3.).
10.115.
( 10.7.4.) (
10.7.5.).
10.116.
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10.7.5.)?
10 -
725
10.8.2.
10.117.
(WinZip,
ARJ, AIN, RAR .)
.
10.118.
:
( 10.3.1.);
( 10.3.2.);
( 10.3.3.);
( 10.3.5.);
( 10.3.6.);
( 10.3.7.);
( 10.3.9.), escape
Z;
10.119.
, .
10.120. -
10.118. -
.
10.121.
, 10.3.4., 10.5.3., 10.7.2. 10.7.3.
10.122.
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10.4.) ( 10.5.) .
10.123.
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(500)}. .
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727
[-1992] ., , ,
, 1992.
[-1993] ., , . , 1/1993, , 1993.
[-1996] ., , .
PC&MAC World, 4/1996, , 1996.
[,-1980] ., . ,
, , , 1980.
[-1989] ., , , , 1989.
[-1984] ., , , , 1984.
[, -1973] , . , , I , ,
,1973.
[,-1990] ., . ,
, . , 4/1990, , 1990.
[-1979] ., . , , , , 1979.
[-1993] ., , . +, 1/1993,
, 1993.
[-1994] E., , . +,
3/1994, , 1994.
[-1998] ., , . Computer,
10/1998, , 1998.
[-5/1998] ., , 5/1998,
. Computer, 1998.
[-2000] ., , , , 2000.
[, -1977] ., . , , , , 1977.
[-1980] ., , , , 1980.
[-1989] . , 1, , , 1989.
[-1996] ., ,
, , 1996.
[-1998] ., , TopTeam Co, ,
1998.
[-1998a] ., , . Computer, 8/1998, ,
1998.
[-1998b] ., , .
Computer, 1/1998, , 1998.
[-1998c] ., , . PC Magazine/, 12/1998,
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[-1998e] ., , . Computer, 8/1998, ,
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, . Byte/, 7-8/1998, , 1998.
[-1998g] ., "
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[-1999a] ., , . PC Magazine/, 11/1999,
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728
[-1999b] ., - , . PC Magazine/,
10/1999, , 1999.
[-1999c] ., , .
Byte/,
9-10/1999, , 1999.
[-1999d] ., , . Byte/, 9-10/1999,
, 1999.
[-1999f] ., k- , . PC
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[-1999g] ., , PC Magazine/, 1/1999, , 1999.
[-1999h] ., , .
Computer 1/1999, , 1999.
[-1999i] ., , , .
Byte/, 1/1999, , 1999.
[-1999j] ., , . Computer,
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[-1999k] ., , . PC Magazine/, 1/1999, ,
1999.
[-1999l] ., k- , . PC
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[-1999k] ., . , .
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[-2000a] ., - , . Byte/, 3/2000,
, 2000.
[-2000b] ., , . PC Magazine/, 2/2000, ,
2000.
[-2001a] ., , .
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[, , -1995] ., . , . , ,
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[, , -1980] ., . , . ,
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732
733

0
0-1 , 462, 577, 600
2
2-3-4 , 166
3
3-COL, 394
3- , 394
4
4- , 585
A
ASCII, 170, 172, 611, 624, 630, 637, 640, 653
AVL, 165
B
bidirectional predictive-coded picture, 680
bit mapping, 611
bitmap, 623
B-picture, 680, 681
B-, 166
C
coarser sampling, 677
comma code, 641
D
DCT, 678, 679
deadline, 29, 403, 580
Deep Blue, 353, 389
diatomic encoding, 616
Discrete Cosine Transform, 678
DivX, 607
DoubleSpace, 675
E
EBCDIC, 613
escape , 623
escape , 623, 653, 686
exp-space, 352
F
FLZ, 666, 674, 681, 689
G
GIF, 607, 663, 673, 680, 690, 695
H
halfbyte packing, 613
I
IEEE, 34, 506, 646, 663, 695
intra-coded picture, 680
I-picture, 680
J
Java, 23, 26, 617, 685
Javascript, 28
JPEG, 607, 678, 690
K
k- , 166
k-, 399
k-, 317, 344
L
LPC, 620, 621
LZ77, 609, 663
LZ78, 609, 663
LZSS, 666, 689
LZW, 609, 663, 695
M
memoization, 69, 79, 105, 461, 462, 477, 504,
510, 512, 517, 522, 528, 539, 571
MP3, 607
MPEG, 607, 680, 691
N
non-deterministic polynomial time, 351
NP-, 351, 352, 355
NP-complete, 355
NP- , 355
NP-, 356
null suppression, 609
n- , 584
P
Perl, 28
PHP, 28
PKZIP, 607
PostScript, 663

P-picture, 680, 681
predictive-coded picture, 680
P-space, 352
P-, 351
p-, 332
p-, 332, 345
Q
quantization, 677
R
run-length encoding, 622
r-, 337, 362
S
shift in, 610
shift out, 610
SI, 610, 623, 684
smart , 500, 558
SO, 610, 623, 684
Stacker, 607, 675
T
TIFF, 607, 663
t-, 254
U
Unicode, 637
, 137
, 520
, 522, 560
, 651, 665
, 654
, , 163
, 436, 454
, 172
, 395, 472, 557
, 519
, 591, 598
, 188, 276, 566
, 67, 127
, 318, 566
, , 299
, 322, 566
, 280, 303, 343, 566
, 272, 341, 566
-, 271, 566
, 456, 639
-, 456
, 438
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734
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, 388
- , 386
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, 567
, 112
, 645, 676
, 94
, 100
, 329
, 347
, 164, 185, 247, 485, 666
, 683
, 520
, 460, 683
, 617, 685, 694
, 518
- , 518
, 90
, 272
, 244, 695
- , 387
, 228
, 223, 397, 401
, 52, 507
, 611, 615, 622, 684
, 227
, 412
, 518
, 56
, 239, 249
, 434
, 23, 204, 211, 219, 234, 455
, 441, 455
, 40, 436, 439,
454, 694
, 82
, 31
, 567, 593
, 381
, 438, 454
, 73
, 189
, 188
, 629
, 598
, 22, 593

, 57, 197
, 43, 116
, 598
, 251
, 582, 586, 602
, 450
, 585, 613, 625, 661

, 585
, 153, 178, 188
, 156, 160,
164, 189, 485, 486
, 427
, 24, 151, 195, 242, 255, 352,
427, 456, 496, 587
, 336, 399
, 234
, 176
, 691
, 336, 372, 399, 575, 601
, 403
, 145, 187
, 314
, 23, 271, 341, 347, 352
, 140, 145, 151, 183, 672, 691
, 32
, 254, 349
, 402
, 359, 399
, 148, 184
, 459
, 158
, 158
, 327
-, 552, 553, 563
, 226, 271, 576
, 309
, 177
, 414
, 310
, 577
, 17
, 439, 455, 507, 559
, 153, 278, 279, 349, 404
, 163, 247
, 379
, 404
, 208
, 162
, 25, 42, 67, 119
735
, 393, 436, 454, 605
, 568
, 613, 684
, 145, 151, 184
, 519, 560
, 351
, 270
, 101
, 234
, 658, 665, 689
, 25, 44, 116
, 579
, 369
, 460, 471, 577, 579
, 379, 394, 462, 694
, 286, 394
, 354
, 351
, 357, 390
, 235
, 691
, 605
, 175
, 551, 562
, 663, 675
, 68, 119, 170
, 175, 185
, 302, 343
, 382
, 166, 189, 208,
247, 485
, 175
, 156
, 148
, 348
, 378, 677
, 404
, 227
V' , 253
, 401
, 212, 222
, 456
, 661
, 683
, 13, 27, 63, 198, 219, 265, 319, 438,
443, 518
, 519
, 297
-, 170
, 22
, 480, 557, 694
, 176
, 242, 249
, 677
, 679
, 160
, 439
, 346
, 351
, 353
-, 170
, 351
, 160, 189
, 254, 324
, 402
, 170, 191, 197, 696
, 585
, 641, 687
, 611, 624,
666, 679, 686, 691
, 621
, 613
, 609
, 627, 640
, 174, 180
, 85
, 225
, 257, 311
, 312
, 607
, 684, 691
, 608, 677
, 522, 560
, 503, 518
, 522, 560
, 566
, 358
, 152, 255, 605
, 252
, 254
, 42, 625
, 318, 352, 576, 577, 601
, 395
, 398
, 355
, 502
, 339
, 449
, 289
736
, 570, 600
, 588, 605
, 132, 405
, 160, 189, 315
, 438
, 13, 22
, 50, 117
, 302, 343, 663
, 480, 532, 557
, 139, 145, 148, 151, 183, 187,
189, 425
, 19, 682
, 211, 225, 233, 417
, 175
, 152
, 358
, 160, 189
, 104
, 50, 117
, 438
, 131, 404
, 414, 453, 454
, 397
, 293, 296
, 399
, 270, 281
, 325, 345
, 336
, 570, 604
, 506
, 653
, 226
, 620
, 257, 280, 298, 302,
303, 343
, 257
, 256, 258, 265, 291
, 256, 258
, 39
, 204, 232, 413, 424, 453
, 413,453, 456
, 694
, 50
, 49, 117
, 519
, 220
, 349
, 199, 434, 454
, 194
, 378

, 199, 231
, 199, 231
k- , 401
k , 347
, 286, 342, 566
r-, 362
, 598
, 363, 573, 604
, 318, 403, 605
, 31
, 654, 677, 690
, 588, 604
, 608, 609
, 376, 377
, 318, 322, 324
, 253, 280, 310, 342
, 170
, 275
- , 70
- , 398
- , 489, 500, 558
- , 283, 355, 364, 391
- , 281, 341
- , 264, 340, 400
- , 264, 340
- , 396
- , 72
, 544
, 268, 340
, 276, 294, 336, 345
, 544
, 519
, 518
, 324
, 347, 493, 544
, 383
, 354
, 56
, 271
, 352
, 518
, 153
, 70, 119, 176
, 72, 119
, 32
, 275
, 603
, 272
CRC, 173
737
, 566
, 160, 184, 188, 693
, 604
, 351
, 262, 313
, 259, 261
, 388
--, 160
, 259, 262, 284, 290, 306,
311, 340, 352, 382
, 160, 587
, 146
, 489, 497, 694
, 194, 231, 237, 403, 425
, 51, 289, 291, 342, 693
, 290
, 289, 349
, 140
, 140, 537
, 43, 116
, 628, 686
, 460, 476, 487, 503,
530, 567
, 379
, 576
, 264
, 381
,
486, 557
, 398
, 403
, 251, 303
, 299
, 251, 300
, 605
, 47, 112
,
170
, 177
, 618, 680, 691
, 270, 340
, 45, 209
, 337, 362
, 575
, 395
, 399
, 224, 396
, 28, 91, 122, 191, 507, 511, 559, 617,
618, 685, 693
, 381
, 438

, 404
, 76, 81
, 230, 234
, 130, 188, 208, 209, 210, 233, 234,
279, 410, 456, 634, 637, 639, 687
, 188, 207, 210
/1, 618
, 338, 339, 348
, 449
, 302, 343
, 217, 220, 456
, 641, 649, 656
, 376
, 279, 341

, 279
, 171
, 519
, 152
, 395
, 603
, 352
, 270
, 613, 691
, 253, 330, 348, 403
, 290, 348, 403
, 238, 245, 249
,
238, 249
,
240, 249
, 310
, 293
, 292
, 264, 336
, 160
, 197, 412
, 611, 619, 622, 684, 691
, 50, 678
, 626
, 502
, 270
, 322, 344, 352, 576, 577, 601
, 386
, 140, 151, 188, 456, 634,
694
, 170
, 460, 477
, 267, 340
, 518
, 255
, 42, 127
, 44, 116
738
, 580
, 254
, 460
, 307
- , 276
- , 276
, 625, 630, 640, 656, 659

, 173, 248
, 332
, 397
, 515
, 87
, 626, 686
, 407
, 400
, 314
, 47
, 33, 114
, 372
, 548, 562
, 366
, 337
, 251
, 65
, 549
, 38
, 704
, 664, 692
, 44
, 412
, 61
, 154
, 164
, 172
, 320, 321
, 145, 148, 161, 177, 189, 195,
238, 428
, 171
, 33, 114
, 188
, 188, 519
, 519
, 427
, 228, 229
, 25, 93, 101, 123
, 351
, 352, 496

, 620
, 222
, 217, 410, 414, 453
, 114, 193, 204, 230,
454
, 199, 205, 231
, 212, 233
, 211, 416, 433, 454
, 191, 210, 234
, 212, 222
, 228
, 256
, 177
, 255
, 175, 183, 187
, 501, 558
, 410
, 620
, 151, 219, 257, 427
, 438
, 139
, 646, 655, 695
, 91, 122, 129, 211
-, 425
, 590
, 13, 27, 63, 137, 191
, 603
, 297
, 225
, 50
, 257
, 223
, 412, 424
, 339, 346
, 250
, 500
, 383
, 210, 233
, 639
, 298, 305
, 302
, 298
, 299
, 230
, 480, 489, 558
, 482, 489,
558
, 554
, 100, 225
, 52
, 639
739
, 605
, 530
, 156
, 351
, 587
, 240
, 294, 342
, 355
, 682
, 663, 675
, 43, 116
, 188, 207
, 28, 145, 160, 166, 188, 191, 195, 204,
239, 243, 433, 485, 519, 695
, 279, 436, 454, 460,
475, 557, 604, 694
, 293
, 198,
203, 229, 433
-, 174
, 174
, 280, 298, 303, 341
, 216, 233
, 38, 64
, 52
, 354, 589
, 65, 91, 105, 119, 128, 162, 185,
189, 246, 459, 504, 538, 559
, 245, 456
, 598, 606
, 271, 332, 341, 352, 412
-, 20
, 271, 279, 293, 297, 340
-, 271, 340
, 518
, 518
, 60
, 617, 685
, 279, 293, 298, 341
, 284
, 192, 212
, 678
, 682
, 367, 391, 394, 582
, 286, 342, 378, 390, 586,
593, 597, 603
, 107

, 522
, 168
, 173
, 173
-, 180
- , 171
- , 170
-, 168, 174, 180
- , 174
, 25
, 582, 585
, 584
, 42
, 499, 558
, 367, 582, 602
, 198, 204, 219, 231, 410, 456
, 439
, 60
, 337
, 438
, 609, 619, 629, 644, 649, 651, 663,
673, 686, 692
, 414
, 460
, 35
, 628, 661
, 332
, 264, 284, 357
740
, 187
() , 356
, 324
- , 164
- , 229
- , 229
, 33, 90, 105, 128, 480, 504, 516, 693
, 90
, 65
, 591
, 327
, 325
, 529
, 347
, 519, 523, 560
, 195, 205, 232

-, 609, 625, 639, 686
, 607, 625
, 40, 436, 475, 694
, 399

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,

1.1.1. (), (), () () .

128, ..., 127

1.1.1a. Borland C DOS.

3,4.1038 , ..., 3,4.1038

a1 .b1 a1 .b2 a1 .bm a n .b1 ... a n .bm

a1 .(b1 ... bm ) a 2 .(b1 ... bm ) a n .(b1 .. bm ) (a1 ... a n ).(b1 ... bm )

log b ( xy ) log b x log b y

for (i = 2; i <= n; i++) r *= i;

for (j = 0; j < n; j++)

cij aik .bkj , i = 1,2,...,m j = 1,2,...,p.

const unsigned n = 200;

P = 2i 1.. n .5i 1.. n .c , (c ), a

for (i = 0; i < k; i++) {

unsigned long result = 1;

Pn(x) = a 0xn+a1xn-1+...+a n-1x+an

100(C) 200(CC) 300(CCC) 400(CD) 500(D) 600(DC) 700(DCC) 800(DCCC) 900(CM)

const char *saveRoman = roman;

a > b, 4), 2).

permute() : , "" . i- , , (i+1)- . used[], : , used[k] == 1, used[k] == 0, (..

(p1, p2,, pk ), k (1 k < n) .

unsigned long codePerm(unsigned n, const unsigned perm[])

for (an = 1; an <= k; an++)

void print(unsigned length)

T.e. (F) f(n), f(n) c.F(n) n > n0. (F)

5. f(n) g(n), lim f n .

: f (g), g (h) f (h)

) 4n3 + 5n2 +5 (n4)

) lim f (n) R f (n) O( g (n)), g (n) O( f (n))

p, s1 s2 O(P), O(F1), O(F2),

h 1,2,4,...,2k ,... n. sum++ log2 n

fn 2n, n 1 ( .). , T(n) -

for (i = 0; i < n; i++)

11. (...) trib():

12. (...) streep():

a0xn + a1xn1 + ... + ak xnk = 0

(4) x , , i (1 i k) (3), (2). T(n) = xn, ,

c1, c2, ..., cn ,

T(n) = c1,1.1n + c1,2.n.1n + c2,1.2n

c1,1, c1,2, c2,1 n = 0, 1 2.

float P(unsigned i, unsigned j)

. T(0) = 0, , T(n) (n2n)

) T(1) = 0 T(2n+1) = T(2n) = T(n) + log2 n, n 2.

f(n) g(n), lim f n .

) T(1) = 2, T(n) = 4T(n/3) + n 3 , n 2.

front rear MAX, 0.

: ( keyType key). info .

struct list *temp;

3(82) 2(30) 1(46) 0(42)

2.2. -K. [-II].

log 2 (n 1) h 1,4404. log 2 (n 2) 0,3277

(. . ) 2-, 3-, 4-.

void put(key, data);

( m = 1031000, n = 1031) 2.4.1., 2 n

2.4.1. 2 - , n = 1031, m = 1031000.

return result & (size - 1);

const unsigned long tab[])

struct list* search(struct list *L, keyType key)

unsigned long count;

for (ind = 0; ind < n; ind++)

... there are many best methods, depending on what is to

3.1.1. {a, b, c}.

. 3.1.1. {a, b, c}.

{ struct CElem p, q, *r;