THIRD EDITION DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURES Pi Lope " aon = SD elman J Busby eresChapter 1 a,b, C8 ods N Zz U |A PA) AUB ANB A-B A A@B “a A GED(a, b) LCM(a, b) = 1 (mod a) Chapter 2 Al AVB AAB AOB List of Frequently Used Symbols elements of a set, p. 2 helongs to, p. 2 the set of all positive integers, p. 2 the set of all nonnegative egers, p.2 the set of all real numbers, p. 2 the empty set, p.2 is contained in, p. 3 the universal set, p. 3 the cardinality of A, p.4 the set of all subsets of Ap. 4 the union of sets A and B, p. 6 the intersection of sets A and Bup.6 the complement of B with respect to. A, p.7 the complement of A, p.7 the symmetric difference of sets A and B, p.9 the set of all finite sequences of elements of A, p. 19 the empty sequence or string, p. 19 the greatest common divisor of a and b, p. 24 the least commen multiple of @and b, p. 26 congruent to rmod @, p.27 the transpose of the matrix A. p. 34 the meet of A and B, p.35 the join of A and B, p. 35, the Boolean product of A and B, p. 36 not p, p. 47 panda, p48 porg, p.s8 for all, p. 50 there exists, p. 50 p implies q, p. 52 pis equivalent to g, p. 53 Chapter 3 HB) fe Chapter 4 AXB RQ) RA) My Re a] AIR SeR Chapter 5 ha Lal hd a... Oy ) P(a P(a2). . .PC@,) of) of) the number of permutations of n objects taken rat a time, p. 75 refactorial, p. 75 the number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time, p. 78 the probability of the event E,p.87 the frequency of occurrence of event £,p.88 the Cartesian product of Aand B, p. 102 the Relative set of x, p. 109 the R-relative set of A, p. 109 the matrix of R, p. 1 the connectivity relation of R, the transitivity closure of Rp.uy the reachability relation of Ry p. 121 the relation of equality, p. 124 the equivalence class of a, p. 134 a partition of set A deter: mined by the equivalence relation R on A, p. 1M the composition of Rand 5, p. 182 the identity function on A, p. 170 the inverse of the function SpIB the characteristic function of aset A, p. 177 the largest integer less than or equal tox, p. 178 the smallest integer ‘greater than or equal to Xp. 178 permutation of the set A= {a5 02504-44y], P18 the order of a function f, p. 190 the @-class of a funetion f, p. 192Chapter 6 GED x(G) Chapter 7 a\y 6, LUB(a, 6) ab, GLB(a, b) a =D = yy y Chapter 8 (Pv) TO) Chapter 9 sf SR zs te aH the graph with vertices in V and edges in E, p. 197 the discrete graph on n ver- tices, p. 200 the complete graph on n ver tices, p. 200 the linear graph on n ver- tices, p. 200 the subgraph obtained by omitting e from G, p. 202 the quotient graph with respect to R, p. 202 the chromatic number of G,p.218 the chromatic polynomial of G, p. 220 4 partial order relation, p. 226 the least upper bound of @ and b, p. 242 the greatest lower bound of a and b, p. 242 the complement of a, p. 254 and gate, p. 269 or gate, p. 269 inverter (NOT), p. 269 the tree with root vp, p. 287 the subtree of T with root ¥, p. 290 the set of all functions from Sto S, p.335 the quotient semigroup of a semigroup S, p. 343 the quotient set Z/ (mod n), p. 344 natural homomorphism of Soonto SIR, p. 345 alleft coset of H in G, p. 363 Chapter 10 VS, %49) = On L(G) (SL) te (S.1.F, 57) Chapter 11 MIR low) 9% y) A@B A*B x*H phrase structure grammar, p.370 direct derivabitity, p. 370 BNF specification of a grammar, p. 378 the language of G, p. 371 the set of transition func- tions of a finite-state machine, p. 391 a finite-state machine, p. 391 the transition function corre- sponding to input x, p. 391 Moore machine, p. 393 quotient machine of ‘machine M, p. 394 the length of a string m, p. 376 an ( 1n) encoding fune- tion, p. 422 the distance between the words x and y, p. 424 the mod 2 sum of A and B, p. 426 the mod 2 Boolean product of A. and B, p. 427 an (n, m) decoding fune- tion, p. 432 a coset leader, p. 436 the syndrome of x, p. 439DISCRETE MATHEMATICAL STRUCTURESTHIRD EDITION Bernard Kolman Drexel University Robert C. Busby Drexel University Sharon Ross DeKalb College Ee PRENTICE HALL, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Library of Congres Ctloingn-Pubicaton Daa Kolman, Bernard. Discrete mathematical structures / Bernard Kolman, Robert C. Busby, Sharon Ross.—[3rd ed] pom. Previous eds. published under title: Discrete mathematical structures for computer science. Includes index. ISBN 0-13-32091241 (alk. paper) 1. Computer science ~Mathematics. 1. Busby, Robert C. II. Ross, Sharon Cutler. IIL. Kolman, Bernard, Discrete ‘mathematical structures for computer science. IV. Title QAT6.9.M35K64 1996 S11.6—6e20 95-9049 cP Acquisition Editor: George Lobell Director of Production and Manufacturing: David W. Riccardi Editor-in-Chief: Jerome Grant Production Editor: Elaine Wetterau Creative Director: Paula Maylahn Art Director: Amy Rosen ‘Art Production: Marita Froimson Cover Design: Christine Gehring-Wolf Marketing Manager: Frank Nicolazzo Manufacturing Buyer: Alan Fischer Cover Art: Lator, by Vasarely, Copyrigat © 1995; ARS, NY/ADAGP, Paris Earlier editions: © 1987, 1984 by KTI end Robert C. Busby 1996 by Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon & Schuster/A Viacom Company Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any meci ‘without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America w987654321 ISBN 0-13-320912-1 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited, London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited. Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, S.A., Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Dethi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc, Tokyo ‘Simon & Schuster Asia Pte. Ltd. Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lida. Rio de JaneiroTo the memory of Lillie B.K. To my wife, Patricia, and our sons, Robert and Scott R.C.B. To Bill and bill S.C. R.CONTENTS Preface xiii 1 Fundamentals 1 1d 12 13 14 15 16 Sets and Subsets 1 Operations on Sets 5 Sequences 14 Division in the Integers 22 Matrices 30 Mathematical Structures 39 2 Logic 46 2A 22 23 24 Propositions and Logical Operations 46 Conditional Statements 52 Methods of Proof 58 Mathematical Induction 64viii Contents 3 Counting 72 3 32 33 34 35 Permutations 72 Combinations 78 ‘The Pigeonhole Principle 82 Elements of Probability 85 Recurrence Relations 95 4 Relations and Digraphs 101 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Product Sets and Partitions 101 Relations and Digraphs 106 Paths in Relations and Digraphs 116 Properties of Relations 124 Equivalence Relations 131 Computer Representation of Relations and Digraphs 136 Manipulation of Relations 146 Transitive Closure and Warshall’s Algorithm 157 5 Functions 167 5A 52 53 54 Functions 167 Functions for Computer Science 177 Permutation Functions 181 Growth of Functions 190 6 Topics in Graph Theory 197 64 62 63 64 Graphs 197 Euler Paths and Circuits 204 Hamiltonian Paths anc Circuits 213 Coloring Graphs 218 i, Order Relations and Structures 225 1A 12 73 14 18 16 Partially Ordered Sets 225 Extremal Elements of Partially Ordered Sets 239 Lattices 246 Finite Boolean Algebras 259 Functions on Boolean Algebras 266 Boolean Functions as Boolean Polynomials 271Contents ix 8 Trees 286 81 8.2 83 84 85 Trees 286 Labeled Trees 292 Tree Searching 299 Undirected Trees 310 Minimal Spanning Trees 321 9 Semigroups and Groups 329 94 92 93 94 95 Binary Operations Revisited 329 Semigroups 334 Products and Quotients of Semigroups 342 Groups 349 Products and Quotients of Groups 361 10 Languages and Finite-State Machines 368 10.1 10.2 103 10.4 105 10.6 Languages 368 Representations of Special Languages and Grammars 378 Finite-State Machines 391 Semigroups, Machines, and Languages 398 Machines and Regular Languages 404 Simplification of Machines 412 i Groups and Coding 420 WW 11.2 Coding of Binary Information and Error Detection 420 Decoding and Error Correction 432 Appendix A Algorithms and Pseudocode 444 Appendix B_ Experiments in Discrete Mathematics 458 Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 477 Index 513