AIRCONDITIONING

NARNAUL (HARYANA)
Summer Training Report

On
AIR-CONDITIONING
Submitted in Partial Fullfillment of the Requirment in
Electronics & Communication Engineering

(Session 2012-2016)
Submitted to :
Submitted by:
Mr. Sudhir Yadav
Ankur Goyal
H.O.D E.C.E Deptt.
ECE 5th Sem.
YADUVANSHI
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Department of Electronics & Commn. Engg.

Narnaul-Haryana 123001
CERTIFICATE
Certified that this is the bonafied report of Summer Internship entitled AIR
CONDITIONING done by Mr. Ankur Goyal of fifth Semester in ELECTRONICS
& COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING in the YADUVANSHI COLLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY during the academic year 2014-2015 and
submitted for practical examination conducted by M.D.U University Rohtak.
Submitted to:-
_________________
Mr. Sudhir Yadav
H.O.D E.C.E Deptt.
Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am thankful to the Company TVS Interconnect Systems Limited for

providing necessary facility to carry out my training successfully.
I take this opportunity to thank Mr. Pradeep Kumar, PRINCIPAL, YADUVANSHI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY for granting us the permission to
carry out the summer training.
I am extremely thankful to Mr. Sudhir Yadav H.O.D, Electronics and

Communication department, for her timely advices and all the facilities he
provided us, to carry out this report and finish it successfully.He has always
been a source of inspiration and have been guiding us constantly through all
our ups and downs of our endeavor in completing out this report, for which I
am greatly indebted to them.
Ankur Goyal
E.C.E 5th Sem.
PREFACE
Industrial training is one of the most important components in the fulfillment
of any engineering course conducted at any level at any college. Each and
every one of us would always have an added advantage if I have a chance to
come face to face with the equipments and the processes I am being taught in
my engineering course.
The main purpose of the training program is to expose the trainees to practical
experience of the actual industrial conditions in which they are required to
work in future.
I deem it a privilege to have undergone training in an organization, which has

allowed me to see the actual working of the Airconditioning industry at the
Production department.
I have been given the chance to be familiar with new technologies.
Ankur Goyal
E.C.E 5th Sem
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Sr.No
Description
Page. No.
Candidate declaration
Acknowledgement
Preface
Abstract
Table of Contents
Brief Overview of TVSICS
7-8
History of Optical and Fiber in Telecommunications
9-10
Introduction to Optical Fibers
11
10
Basic communication system:
11
11
General optical communication system
12
12
Fiber justification
12-13
13
The Physics behind Fiber Optics
13-14
14
The light spectrum used in fiber
15
15
Construction of Fiber
16
16
Classification of optical fibers
20
Fiber splices
21
Fusion splices
22
Equipment required for OFC joint
25
23
Electric-field with in fiber cladding
26
24
Repeaters and regenerators
27
25
Light sources
28
26
Detecting the Signal
28
32
Conclusion.
37
33
References.
38
17-19
24
24-25
Air Conditioning Filter:Air conditioning filter in the house or offices is used to remove solid contaminants
such as smoke, pollen, dust, grease and pollen to ensure better air quality for the
occupants. A study showed that indoor pollution is common these days due to the
chemicals that are used in household furnishings and various goods.
These filters are usually placed on the return air of the air conditioning system. The air
that contained the contaminants are trapped here. Clean air is then discharged into the
space together with the cool air.
Types of Air Conditioning Filter:-
Plastic mesh filters are commonly installed at the return air of most indoor unit
of room or window air conditioner. They trapped bigger particles of dust and
should be cleaned every two weeks and more frequent if the space being
conditioned is polluted.
If you look at the manual, they are easy to take out from the unit. Wash
thoroughly with water and household dish washing detergent to remove dirt that
stuck to it. Leave to dry and put back.
An air filter on display during one of the HVAC exhibition.
These simple steps of cleaning help to ensure the efficiency of the unit and hence
save electricity as well besides providing a cleaner air space for you.
Electrostatic air filters are commonly placed in the return air of the air
conditioner unit where the air is subjected to high voltage up to 12kV between
two plates. The ionized particles are then drawn to the grounded plates. The
electronic circuit used to generate the voltage is usually embedded on the
control printed circuit board or a separate module.
Carbon and Adhesive filters are other types used. Carbon type is made of
activated carbon that is effective in removing odour causing gases and bacteria.
Adhesive type is made of cotton and fiber glass material coated with adhesive oil
or liquid which trapped the particles.
Solid Contaminants:-
The sizes of contaminants that exists in our air ranges from 0.01 microns to 10,000
microns. Virus, oil smoke, fumes and suspended impurities have sizes ranges from 0.01 to
1 microns. Mold, pollen, fog, dust, mists and ashes ranges from 1 to 100 microns. Dust
emitted from heavy industry factories is about 100 to 10,000 microns.
Filter Rating:-
The ability of the filters to trap particles is measured by using the industry standard
known as MERV or Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value. The values ranges from 1 to 20
and can trap particles sizes from 0.3 microns to 10 microns. The higher the value, the
better it is able to trap smaller particles.
Residential applications usually ranges from 1 to 12 with MERV 12 able to trap particles
from 1 to 3 microns. Highly specialized applications such as clean room and surgery room
use MERV 16 to MERV 20.
Condensate Pump:What is a condensate pump? In HVAC or refrigeration process, the water that
condensate need to be channeled out from the building to proper drainage outside the
building. The condensation process usually occurred when the air passes though the cold
evaporator coil during the cooling process.
As a result, the moisture that accumulate on the coil then drip down into the drain pan
that is placed underneath the coils.
Systems that are able to use the gravitational force to flow the water that accumulate on
the drain pan does not require the use of the pump. However, there are many instances
when the air conditioning systems require to use of this pump to get the water out to
prevent the water from dripping into the space.
The condensate pump that is used in residential system is usually low
power(approximately 60W) and simple in function. However, regular inspection of this
unit is critical as you do not want to have to come back to your house with water dripping
all over your carpet, furnitures or electrical goods.
It is always a good idea to find out whether your air conditioner is using the pump in its
operation. Generally, the condensate pump has the following specifications and functions
that you should know:
Float Switch is an input that is used whether to energize the pump or otherwise.
When the water accumulate on the tank reaches the level set on the float switch, it
will trigger a signal to operate the pump until the water or liquid is reduced
substantially. Once this happens, the pump will stop operating.
Tanks of the pumps usually range from 0.5 to 1 gallon or 2 to 4 litres. Smaller pump
may not have any tank but is placed directly on the drain pan to pump the
condensate water out of the pan.
Choosing A Condensate Pump:Take note of the following before buying the pump for replacement.
Look for UL and CSA marking on the pump. These certification is important to
ensure that the pump is designed and produced for safety according to the industry
standards.
A Thermal Overload protection is an added feature that shuts down the pump
motor in the event of overheating, thus protecting the pump from damage or fire
hazard.
If a tank is required, look for one with high impact ABS tank material as well as leakproof and rustproof design.
Stainless Steel Shaft helps to prolong the life of the pump.
A removable Check Valve option to prevent the water from flowing back into the
tank in the event that the outlet line is at a higher level than the tank.
Power cord and plug that are long enough for your application.
A safety switch will be good as an output that can be connected to trigger an alarm
when overflows happen. This output can also be used to shut down the air
conditioning system to prevent further damage to the system.
In temperate countries, it is critical that the condensate water that goes out through the
piping is totally drain out especially during winter. This is important because the water
that is not drained out will freeze and may crack the piping or cause improper functioning
of the system.
Air Conditioner Pumps:Air conditioner pumps that are commonly used in HVAC industry are the centrifugal
pumps. It basically consists of a pump impeller which is connected to the shaft of a motor.
The centrifugal force created when the motor turns causes the liquid to be drawn
towards it and discharged to the opening of the volute.
The pump create a differential pressure between the water inlet and outlet of the pump.
This pressure differential enables the water to flow through the pipes.
The motor used can be single speed, dual speed or variable speed. The more complicated
variable speed motor which can vary its speed and connected to the building
management system is increasingly being used due to its better efficiency and control. By
varying the speed of the pump motor, the impeller speed can be optimized to the load of
the system.
The moving parts of the pumps are usually made of bronze or other non-ferrous material
to prevent corrosion. The body is made from cast-iron for stability and durability.
These pumps are used in:
Condenser water system where the hot water from the condenser is pumped to
the cooling tower which is located a distance away from the condenser. The hot
water is then cooled at the cooling tower before being circulated back to the
condenser. This process is done repeatedly.
Chilled water system where the chilled water from the chillers are being pumped
and circulated to the various sections of a building before being used to cooled the
space.
Hot water system where the hot water from the boiler is circulated to the heat
transfer units and back.
In-Line Pumps and the Closed Coupled Pump :There are two main design of the air conditioner pumps. They are the In-Line Pumps and
the Closed Coupled Pump.
The in-line type is smaller which is used for a lower head applications. It is also known as
booster pumps. The suction and discharge are connected in a straight line making it light
in weight and hence can be supported directly by the piping. It is also less costly and
simpler to install.
The closed coupled pump has its impeller mounted on and supported by the motor shaft.
It has mounting flange with base that supports the motor and pump. There is also an end
suction connection. It is available from small to medium capacities and is not too costly.
Blade Angle:The design of the blade has different effect on the Pump Head vs Discharge. If the design
is forward-curved where the outlet blade angle > 90, the positive slope is obtained. This
positive condition is not stable and cause the pump to surge. The pump surge is a
condition where it oscillates to find the proper operating point. Due to this, this design is
seldom used.
If the design is backward-curved where the outlet blade angle < 90, the negative slope is
obtained. This is the most stable pump characteristics and hence is the most preferred
design in centrifugal pumps.
In the design and installation consideration of air conditioner pumps, it is always a good
practice to provide for venting air from the system to prevent air from blocking the
proper operation of the fluid flow. Efficiency of the pump will be reduced with the
introduction of air in the piping system.
When selecting pump, choose one with 60-80% of the maximum flow as it is not advisable
to operate at its maximum capacity. This is to cater for the sudden increase in flow when
extra capacity is needed.
Condenser:Function of Condenser:In a cooling cycle of a refrigeration system, heat is absorbed by the vapor refrigerant in
the evaporator followed by the compression of the refrigerant by the compressor. The
high pressure and high temperature state of the vapor refrigerant is then converted to
liquid at the cond. It is designed to condense effectively the compressed refrigerant
vapor.
There are basically three types of condensing unit depending on how the heat is removed
by the condensing medium which is usually water, air or a combination of both.
Air-Cooled types are usually used in the residential and small offices applications.
They are used in small capacity systems below 20 tons. The advantages of using this
design include not having to do water piping, not necessary to have water disposal
system, saving in water costs and not much scaling problems caused by the mineral
content of the water. It is also easier to install and has lower initial cost. There isn't
much maintenance problems.The disadvantages are that it requires higher
power per ton of refrigeration, has shorter compressor life and on days when most
cooling is required, the least is available.
A condensing unit that contains finned coils, fan and compressor.
The circulation of air-cooled type can be by natural convection or by forced

convection (usually using blower or fan). Due to its limited capacity, natural
convection is used in smaller applications such as freezers and refrigerators. In
forced convection, air is circulated by using a fan or blower that pulls the
atmospheric air through the finned coils. Internally, the refrigerant circulates
through the coil and air flows across the outside of the tubes.
Water-Cooled There are 3 types commonly being used. They are shell and tube,
shell and coil, and double tube. The most commonly used is the shell and tube
type and are usually available from two tons up to couple of hundred tons. This
design has lower power requirements per ton of refrigeration and the compressors
can last longer compared to the air-cooled type. A water cooling tower is
frequently used for higher capacity application.
Evaporative type which is a combination of water and air-cooled.
Air-Cooled and Water-Cooled Comparison Summary:Air-cooled type operates at higher head pressure or condensing pressure, hence reducing
the capacity of the compressor and increases the power intake. In general, a 2 hp watercooled system will require the same refrigeration as a 3 hp air-cooled system.
The maintenance costs of water-cooled type is about three to four times the air-cooled
type. Air-cooled type maintenance is usually limited to regular lubrication of fan and
motor bearings. Water-cooled type requires cleaning from algae and bacteria. Scales on
the tubes are removed by using acid compound. Proper water treatment is also critical to
the operation of the cond.
Air Conditioner Compressor:Air conditioner compressor is used to remove the heat-laden vapor refrigerant from
the evaporator of the air conditioning systems. In layman term, the compressor
compresses or squeezes the vapor into a smaller volume at high temperature. The
external-drive compressor has a crankshaft that is driven by a pulley and belt system.
An electric motor can also be used to drive it directly. The hermetic compressor has a
motor which is sealed inside a housing with the compressor, hence a crankshaft seal is
not required. The motor rotor is located either at the top or bottom of the unit.
There are basically 5 types of air conditioner compressor that are commonly used in
the HVAC industry:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reciprocating
Scroll
Screw
Rotary
Centrifugal
Reciprocating Air Conditioner Compressor:The reciprocating compressor uses piston to compressor the refrigerant driven by a
crankshaft in a straight line back and forth motion. This rotary motion is achieved by the
use of an electric motor and the construction is quite similar to that of an automobile
engine.
The piston moves up and down inside a cylinder. Vapor from the suction line is moved
through the intake valve as the piston move downward. As the piston moves upward, it
compresses the vapor refrigerant which is then pushed through the exhaust valve into the
condenser.
The compressor may has more than one cylinder which is also known as multicylinder
compressor. The common ones are the two-cylinder, four-cylinder and eight-cylinder
compressors
Scroll:A scroll compressor has one fixed scroll which remains stationary and another moving
or orbiting scroll that rotates through the use of swing link. When this happens, the
pockets of refrigerant between the two scroll are slowly pushed to the center of the two
scrolls causing the reduction of the volume of the gas. It is then discharged though the
center port to the condenser.
The advantage of scroll compressor is that it has fewer moving parts and less torque
variation compared to the reciprocating compressor. This advantage is translated to a
smooth and quiet operation.
The scroll compressor is also known as scroll pump or scroll vacuum pump.
Screw
The screw compressor uses a pair of helical rotors where it traps and compresses the
gas as the rotors revolve in the cylinder. In HVAC, they are usually used in systems with 20
ton capacity and above. The male rotor and the female rotor are built inside the cylinder.
The low pressure refrigerant enters one end of the compressor and the resultant high
pressure refrigerant is discharged into the opposite end to the condenser.
Rotary
The rotary compressor can be divided into two types. One has blades or vanes that
rotate with the shaft. The other type has the blade which remains stationary and is part of
the compressor housing assembly. In both types, the vapor from the suction line is drawn
into the cylinder through the suction port.
As the blade rotates, trapped vapor in the space ahead of the blade is compressed into
high pressure gas after which it is discharged to the condenser through the exhaust port.
The number of blades can range from two to eight in a single system.
Centrifugal:Centrifugal compressor is usually used in large capacity refrigerating system. In this

compressor, the vapor is moved in a circular motion known as centrifugal force. An
impeller which is a disk with radial blades spins rapidly inside this housing causing the gas
to gain velocity.
A diffuser converts this energy into pressure energy and is then discharged into the
condenser. The pumping efficiency increases with speed, hence this type of compressors
are designed to operate at high speed.
The main advantage of centrifugal compressor is that there are no valves, pistons or
cylinders. The wearing parts that need attention are the main bearings.
Inverter Air Conditioning:The inverter air conditioning is the latest technology in the HVAC field that is becoming
more popular due to its environmental friendly and energy savings approach. Providing
comfort to the users is another big advantage of this kind of system.
Traditionally, the compressor that is used in an air conditioning system is an ON or OFF
type in that it either works at the maximum capacity or none at all. It ON when the room
thermostat calls for cooling and OFF when the desired temperature has been achieved.
This cycle is repeated with the change of load in the room.
Electronic Controls for control of Inverter Air Conditioning DC Inverter Compressor.
The advancement in power electronics has enabled the inverter technology to thrive by
the use of microcontroller and IGBT modules to drive the compressor DC or AC motor.
The speed of the compressor motor can be varied by using the variable frequency drive.
This is done by converting the incoming AC supply to DC voltage and then modulate it
by changing the voltage, current and frequency of the power to the compressor. Changing
the frequency changes the speed of the compressor by using a more complicated
electronics control circuitry.
Advantages of Using Inverter Technology:-
Keeping abreast with the latest technology has more advantages than remaining
status quo. Here are some of the reasons why you should consider buying an inverter air
conditioning system.
Energy Savings is one of the most important factors to consider when buying an
equipment. In the long run, the benefit outweighs the initial cost. The inverter
technology uses less energy compared to the traditional system.
ON/OFF type of compressor has large starting current, sometimes 6 times more
than the running current. This causes flicker to lights and the energy consumed is
greater. Typically, there is a 20% to 30% savings in power consumption.
Comfort to the users is another advantage of this system. During start-up, the
compressor can run full speed to provide quick cooling to the room. After the
desired room temperature has been achieved, the speed of the compressor is
regulated using the variable frequency drive based on the required cooling load of
the room.
The fluctuation of temperature is minimum compared to the ON/OFF type of
compressor. This provides a comfortable environment for the occupants at all
times.
Ozone Friendly refrigerant such as R410a is used in most inverter system. This
refrigerant contains only HFC compared to R22 which contains HCFC, an additional
chlorine component that destroys the ozone layer of the earth.
Always enquire the kind of refrigerant which is in used as some installers prefer to
continue using R22 as it is cheaper compared to R410a and hence lower their cost.
Quiet Operation is another feature that inverter technology offers. The outdoor
unit which contains the inverter compressor is much more quieter compared to the
non-inverter compressor. Hence, you do not have to worry about noise when you
sleep.
Disadvantages of Using Inverter Technology

Typically, the disadvantages of using inverter air conditioning driven system is due to
cost. Here are a few reasons why the cost is higher compared to the non-inverter system.
Electronics Control circuitry is more complicated compared to the non-inverter
type. Electronic components such as electrolytic capacitors, diodes, opto-couplers
and IGBT power modules are rated at a higher ratings due to the design
requirements of the system. Hence, the cost is higher.
Electromagnetic noise is generated as a result of chopping the voltage. This noise
can create electrical disturbances to other home appliances in the house hence
there are regulations that state the amount of noise that it is allowed to generate.
Filtering components such as capacitors and inductors are used to filter out the
high frquency electrical noise. This add the cost to the overall system.
R410a or other more ozone friendly refrigerants usually cost higher compared to
R22. The compressor used is also different but as the demand for them increase,
there will be more economy of scaled and the price will come down in the near
future.
As of this point of time, installers usually charge twice the amount for topping up R410a
compared to R22.
DC Inverter Air Conditioner:DC inverter air conditioner is becoming more popular compared to the conventional air
conditioner due to its many advantages. As the compressor takes the most power in any
air conditioning system, the change in the compressor technology has enabled better and
more efficient air conditioner or heatpump to be deployed.
AC Induction Motor: In a 3-phase AC induction motor, the stator of the motor has windings that are
designed in such as way that a rotating magnetic field is produced when a 3-phase
AC voltages are applied to the windings.
The rotor usually has windings that is embedded within iron laminates. As power is
supplied to the windings, the magnetic field is produced in the rotor that causes it
react with the magnetic field in the stator.
The rotating magnetic field of the stator pulls the rotor around with the rotor trying
to keep up with the rotating field. The falling behind or slips is about a few percent.
This design is one of the conventional ways of driving a 3-phase motor in a
compressor.
DC Brushless Motor:-
In a DC brushless motor used in the DC inverter air conditioner or heatpump, the

rotor of the motor is constructed using permanent magnets with windings on the
stator.
There are no brushes and commutator compared to typical DC motor hence
eliminating concerns such as sparks, brush life, brush residue and electrical noise.
The windings of the motor are connected to the power electronics control that
determine the speed of the motor by the use of micro controller.
Various protection and monitoring circuits are built into the electronic controls to
ensure efficiency and reliability. This type of motor is being used in more design
due to its better reliability and energy efficiency.
Hence, the main advantages of a DC brushless motor compressor is its quiet
operation, compact, longer life time, energy saving and better capacity control
which translates to a more comfortable environment for the peoples using the
equipment. Its usage is no longer confined to air conditioner equipment but also in
refrigerators, washing machines, pumps and fans.
In many ductless split DC inverter design, the indoor fan used is DC fan instead of
AC fan. Similarly, the outdoor fan used is DC fan instead of the conventional AC fan.
When purchasing your unit, check with the personnel whether the compressor and
fans used are DC type before making a decision of buying the air conditioner or
heatpump.
DC Inverter Control Circuitry:-
The electronics control is the most complicated part of a DC inverter system hence
making it one of the most costly component of the air conditioner, the other part being
the compressor.
Let us look at the control circuity for the DC compressor that takes its supply from a
single phase power supply. There are many variation of design and we will look at a
design that uses power factor correction that gives better power factor.
The first section consists of a DC converter:-
The DC converter converts the incoming power supply from AC to DC using four diodes
connected like a bridge. Inductors and capacitors are connected before the converter to
reduce the electrical noise being introduced into the power supply due to the switching of
the transistors.
In the simplified diagram below, the single phase power supply is used. If 3-phase supply
is used, six diodes will be needed to convert the AC power to DC power.
The second section being PFC or power factor correction:-
Being an active power converter means that the power factor correction for this design
is able to correct the power factor of the equipment to more than 98% compared to the
other solution based on LC (inductor and capacitor) filter.
It also helps to reduce the harmonic current emission to a low level which is acceptable to
the standards being imposed by the Electromagnetic Compatibility technical committee.
The only setback with this method is the higher cost needed for its implementation.
The third section is the INVERTER consisting of IGBT transistors:-
This section generates 3 phase voltage supply to the DC compressor motor. In the
initial design, the designers used six discrete IGBT transistors which are controlled
by the microcomputer.
The software is written in such a way that proper signals are being used to power
ON or OFF each transistors at a correct timing depending on the feedback such as
the position of the rotors in relation to the stator motor and the voltage levels
detected.
The brushless DC motor of the compressor will receive close to a 3 phase sinusoidal
voltage that turns the motor ON. The speed of the motor can be controlled from
low to high by varying the power supplied to the motor through the switching of
the transistors. In this way, capacity controlled HVAC can be achieved. When
cooling or heating is needed immediately, the motor will turn at the highest speed.
When the temperature of the room has stabilized, the motor will turn at a lower
speed.
Newer design makes use of power modules known as IPM or Intelligent Power
Modules where the 6 IGBT transistors, detection circuit, overload conditions and
other parameters are being built in an encapsulated casing. It looks like an
integrated circuit except that it is very much bigger in size.
Compressor Oil Or Lubricant:Compressor oil is a necessary component in any air conditioning system that uses
compressor in its compression system. There are three main purposes of the oil. They are
used for lubrication, removal of heat and for sealing. Lubrication cooling is needed in
reciprocating compressor as the piston compresses the refrigerant gas. The sealing of the
piston in the cylinder needs to be cooled as well.
Similarly, rotary compressor needs lubrication for the contact between the cylinder
and the rotor of the motor. Screw compressor superheat has to be removed by the
lubricant during its operation.
Compressor Oil Properties:Viscosity:-
Viscosity is a measurement of the thickness of the oil which tells us its ability to resist
shearing stress. One of the units of measurement of viscosity is SSU or Saybolt Seconds
Universal. This is done by placing the oil sample on the standard equipment at a fixed
temperature with a standardized orifice and letting it flow. The time taken for it to flow is
recorded. The higher the viscosity number, the thicker is the oil and the slower it flows.
The metric unit for viscosity is poise. Most of the oil measured is less than 1 poise hence
the smaller scale called centi-poise or 1/100 poise is commonly used.
In general, bigger compressor with bigger gaps and parts needs thicker oil for effective
functioning of the equipment.
Chemical Stability:-
When using the oil, always follow the compressor manufacturers recommended oil as
some oil may react with the refrigerant used in the system. If chemical reaction happens,
sludge, carbon and acids may be formed which will affect the performance and lifetime of
the compressor.
Dielectric Strength & Moisture:-
As the oil used in a hermetic compressor is usually in contact with the coil of the
motor, it is critical that it has good dielectric strength. The higher the dielectric strength,
the better the electrical insulating quality of the oil.
Most oils will dissolve a certain amount of moisture and water making them
undesirable. When water is presence in the refrigerant, ice will form when the
temperature goes below 0 C and caused problem to the expansion valve.
Copper plating may occurred with the presence of refrigerant, oil and moisture in the
system. Moisture in the oil also caused the dielectric strength of the oil to be reduced
significantly as water is a reasonably good conductor. Hence, as far as possible, try to
reduce the amount of moisture in contact with the oil.
Typical Compressor Oil & Refrigerants:-
The two categories of oils commonly used in the compressors are mineral orsynthetic oils.
One type of mineral oil (MO) called Naphthenic are commonly used.
Synthetic oils such as glycols, esters and alkylbenzenes (AB) have been used in the
refrigeration applications for some time without any problem.
CFC refrigerants such as R12, R13, R113, R114 and R115 are using mineral oil or
alkylbenze as their lubricants. Similarly, HCFC refrigerants such as R22, R123, R401A and
R409A are also using these lubricants in their design.
In recent years CFC and HCFC refrigerants usage began to dwindle due to their ozoneunfriendly properties. Usage of new HFC refrigerants such as R23, R32, R134a, R407A,
R407C and R410A have been increasing in HVAC equipment. These new refrigerants use
Polyol esters or POE as lubricant.
One setback of POE is that it absorbs moisture many times more compared to mineral
based oils. Hence proper procedures must be used when handling this oil to reduce the
contact of this oil with the atmosphere. Metal containers are used instead of plastic
containers to prevent moisture from entering the containers.
Caution:-
When servicing the compressor, always consult the manufacturers of the compressor to
find out the type and amount of oil that can be used for that particular refrigerant.
Evaporator:Evaporator is an important component together with other major components in a

refrigeration system such as compressor, condenser and expansion device. The reason for
refrigeration is to remove heat from air, water or other substance. It is here that the
liquid refrigerant is expanded and evaporated. It acts as a heat exchanger that transfers
heat from the substance being cooled to a boiling temperature.
There are two types of evap.:
Forced Convection Type uses a fan or pump to force the liquid being cooled over
the evap.
Natural Convection Type has the liquid being cooled flows naturally to the evap.
due to the density differences of the chilled and warm liquid.
Construction Types:There are three types of evap. construction that are commonly being used today:
Bare-Tube and Plate Surface construction have the entire surface in contact with
the evaporating refrigerant inside.
Finned construction are bare-tube coils upon which fins(metal plates usually
Aluminium) are being installed. A more detailed discussion on this type of design
will be provided here.
An indoor unit that contains finned evap.
Finned Evap.:Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana
The fins are added to the bare-tube to increase the heat transfer capability. They act as
heat collector that pick up heat from the surrounding air and conduct it to the refrigerant
inside the tube hence improving the efficiency in cooling the air of the surrounding. They
are best used in the air-cooling space where the temperature is around 34F.
Having fins mean the surface area for heat transfer has been extended. This means that
the finned coils can have more compact in design compared to the bare-tube type of
similar capacity.
In summary, finned coils help to reduce coil cost, size and weight.
Thermal Contact and Fin Spacing:Good thermal contact between the fins and tubes is a must to ensure efficient heat
transfer. They can be soldered together. The other more practical method is to expand
the fins by pressure such that they bite into the tube surface hence a good thermal
contact is established.The spacing of the fin depend on the operating temperature of the
coil. Low temperature application uses only 1 fin.
In air conditioning application, 14-16 fins per inch may be used as long it is designed in
such a way that frost does not accumulates in the coils.Excessive finning may reduce the
capacity of the evap. by restricting the flow of air over the coil hence the design engineers
must do a proper system calculation and simulation at design stage.
Evaporator Design Factors:There are 3 main factors to consider in designing an evap.
Pressure Drop The evap. must have sufficient space for the circulation of the
refrigerant without too much pressure drop between the outlet and the inlet.
Temperature The evap. must have enough surface to absorb the required heat load
in order to ensure the temperature difference between the substance being cooled
and the refrigerant is not excessive.
Liquid and Refrigerant Vapor The evap. must have enough space for the liquid
refrigerant and the vapor to separate from the liquid.
Expansion Valves:Expansion valves are devices used to control the refrigerant flow in a refrigeration
system. They help to facilitate the change of higher pressure of liquid refrigerant in the
condensing unit to lower pressure gas refrigerant in the evaporator.
The term "low side" is used to indicate the part of the system that operates under low
pressure, in this case the evaporator. The "high side" is used to indicate the part of the
system that operates under high pressure, in this case the condenser.
Types of Expansion Valves:There are basically four types of valves that are in used. These valves are also refer to as
metering devices.
Automatic Exp. Valves
Thermostatic Exp. Valves
Capillary Tubes
Float Valves
Automatic Expansion Valve regulates the flow of refrigerant from the liquid line to the
evaporator by using a pressure-actuated diaphragm. It maintains a constant pressure in
the evaporator.
The setback is that it is not efficient if the load fluctuates hence this type is not suitable
for use in air conditioning as the load fluctuates a lot during its operation.
Thermostatic Expansion Valve uses a valve mechanism to control the flow of liquid
refrigerant into the evaporator coil. The flow is controlled by the pressure in the
evaporator.
This type of metering device is able to operate well when the load fluctuates and hence is
suitable for use in air conditioning system. When the evaporator warms, the valve
provides a higher flow rate amd when it cools, it reduces the flow rate.
It is also commonly refer to as TXV, TEV or TX valve. There is a sensing bulb which detects
the temperature of the coil and is usually located at a higher temperature within the
evaporator.
The bulb must be clamped firmly to the coil to ensure proper sensing. When the
temperature of the evaporator increases due to the demand for cooling, the pressure in
the bulb will also increase hence pushing the spring to open the valve.
Similarly, when the temperature of the evaporator reduces due to a lack of demand for
cooling, the pressure in the bulb will drop hence causing the spring to close the valve.
Capillary Tube is a tube with small internal diameter and could be coiled for part of its
length. It is installed to the suction line. A filter-drier is sometimes fitted before the tube
to remove dirt or moisture from the refrigerant.
This device is simple, does not have any moving part and lasts longer. In order to use this
device, the amount of refrigerant in the system must be properly calibrated at factory
level.
Due to its lower cost compared to TXV, this metering device is used in units that are
produced in large quantity such as room or window air conditioners.
Depending on the capacity design of the system, the capillary tube internal diameter that
is commonly used range from 0.031" to 0.065" and the outer diameter from 0.083" to
0.130".
Float Valve is actuated by a float that is immersed in the liquid refrigerant. Both low-side
float and high side-float are used to control the flow of liquid refrigerant.
The low-side float helps to maintain a constant level of liquid refrigerant in the
evaporator. It opens when there is no liquid in the evap. and closes when there is liquid in
the evap.
The high-side float is located at the high pressure side of the system and maintain a
constant level of refrigerant in the condenser. When the compressor operates, the
condensed refrigerant flows to the float chamber and opens the valve.
This causes the refrigerant to flow into the evaporator where it is stored. As the liquid
level falls in the float chamber, the valve opening will close hence preventing the liquid
from flowing to the evap.
Thermal Insulation:Thermal insulation in air conditioning system is primarily used to reduce heat gain or heat
loss from piping. Other factors include preventing the icing of water vapor and
condensation on cold surface.
Water vapor from the air or surrounding area must be kept from entering the cold side of
the pipe to prevent condensation of moisture from the air on the outside of the cold
piping.
Condensation can cause damage to surrounding areas such as carpet or other furnishing.
Hence, the insulation must also acts as a vapor barrier.
Insulation material for HVAC applicaitons.
It also helps to reduce the noise level, absorb the vibration generated by the system,
prevent the spread of fire and adding structural strength to the walls or ceilings.
Well chosen material can also protects the piping being insulated from harsh
environmental conditions such as UV light, salt, water, dusts, chemicals and oil. Other
characteristics may include the ability to inhibit the growth or viruses, bacteria and fungi.
Insulation Characteristics:
Low thermal conductivity.
Reasonable strength
Non-combustible.
Resistance to Fungi such as one that is based on ASTM G21 standard.
Excellent resistance to ozone
Excellent resistance to UV.
Does not deteriorate or rot over time.
Pipe insulation materials can be manufactured from rubber, wool, glass fibers or
cork. The polyurethane or P.U. is a synthetic material that is commonly used these
days due to its low thermal conductivity and other good properties.
Air conditioning insulation material.
Location of Insulation In Cooling System:
Cold Line is insulated to prevent any air leakage into the insulation that can cause
condensation of moisture in the pipe.
Suction Line is insulated to prevent the loss of capacity or sweating due to heat
gain. Heat gain causes extra load to the condenser hence reducing the overall
capacity of the air conditioning system.
Liquid Line does not require any insulation as it is at a higher temperature than the
surrounding air. Heat loss to the surrounding air is desirable as it improves the
system capacity.
Discharge Line does not require insulation because loss of heat removes load from
the condenser. This helps to improve the performance of the compressor.
Air Conditioner Motors:Air conditioner motors are some of the crucial components that are required in the
operation of the air conditioning in your house. We will discuss the various types of
single-phase motors that are used in your equipment at home. Here are four types of
electric motors that are commonly being used.
Split-Phase Air Conditioner Motor:This is the simplest design where the RUN winding and START winding are connected in
parallel and 90 electrically apart. It is usually used in small pumps, fans and blowers
where the capacity is below 1 horsepower. It has a low starting torque but high starting
current. Since the torque is low, the ability to start the motor is only practical for low load
condition.
The RUN winding is make from bigger diameter wire and shorter turn for lower resistance
and high inductance properties. The START winding is make from smaller diameter wire
for higher resistance and low inductance properties.
When power is connected to the motor, both the windings will be energized with the
current in the RUN winding lags the current in the START winding by about 30
electrically. This out-of-phase effect on the stator produces a starting torque and causes
the rotor to start rotating.
Typically the speed of the motor is 1800 rpm or 3600 rpm when running without any load.
When the load is connected, the speed can go down to 1725 rpm and 3450 rpm
respectively.
The no-load speed of the motor is given by:
Speed(rpm) = (Frequency of AC power X 120)/number of poles
For example, if your supply is 60 Hz and the motor is using two-pole, the synchronous speed
= (60X120)/2
= 3600 rpm
There is a switch known as centrifugal switch which is connected in series with the START
winding. This mechanical switch will open when the motor speed reaches 75% of the rated
speed typically within 2 seconds. Once the switch opened, the START winding in circuit is
disconnected.
This is to protect the START winding from overheating. When the motor is powered off,
the switch will close the circuit to get ready for the next starting of the motor.
These days, electronic relay is also being widely used to disconnect the START winding.
Capacitor-Start Air Conditioner Motor:This motor is similar to the split-phase motor except that there is an external capacitor
that is connected in series with the START winding. This capacitor will cause the current in
the START winding to lead the voltage.
The current in the RUN winding lags the voltage. When this happens, the phase difference
between the two windings is 90 electrically hence a true two-phase starting is achieved.
The starting torque of this motor is very high making it suitable to drive small compressor
which needs to start under full load. The capacity of this motor can go up to 1
horsepower.
Once the motor has reached 75% of the rated speed, the capacitor and the START
winding will be automatically disconnected from the circuit by using the centrifugal swith,
potential or current relay.
After the capacitor and START winding have been removed from the circuit, the magnetic
field being generated continuously will cause the motor to continue running. This type of
motor is also known as CSIR motor or Capacitor-Start-Induction-Run motor.
Capacitor-Start, Capacitor-Run Air Conditioner Motor:This motor design is similar to the capacitor-start design except that there is a second
capacitor known as the RUN capacitor which is connected in parallel with the START
capacitor and the switch.
These capacitors are effectively connected in series with the START winding. During the
starting of the motor, both the capacitors are connected in the circuit. The START winding
and the RUN winding will remain connected to the circuit at all times
Usually the capacitance of the RUN capacitor is lower than the START capacitor. During
starting, the effective capacitance is the combination of both capacitors causing a greater
phase angle shift between the windings.
This provides a higher starting torque and can be used to drive the compressor as well as
in belt-driven motors.
As the rotor speed reaches 75% of the rated speed, the switch will be automatically open
to disconnect the START capacitor from the circuit. The START winding remains in the
circuit.
The RUN capacitor helps to correct the power factor of the circuit making it more
efficient. The capacity of this type of motor can go up to 10 horsepower and is one of the
most efficient motors used in the HVAC industry.
.
Permanent Split Capacitor(PSC) Air Conditioner Motor:This motor has similar design to the phase-split motor except that there is a RUN
capacitor connected to the START and RUN windings. This motor does not have any
switch and the START winding, RUN winding and the RUN capacitor are active whenever
the motor is ON.
This type of motor has low starting torque and is suitable to be used in small fan motors
such as the fan coil unit of a split air conditioning system.
Multi-speed PSC is achieved by changing the winding resistance. If high speed is required,
the terminal is connected to the least winding resistance. If low speed is required, the
terminal is connected to the highest winding resistance.
By utilizing relays to choose the terminal to be connected to the line voltage, different
speed of fan motor can be achieved.
In the diagram above, there are 4 motor speed that can be selected. Super High(SH),
High(H), Medium(M) and Low(L). The selection can be done by using electronic relays to
connect L2 to one of the four terminals depending on the speed required.
Programmable Thermostat:Programmable thermostat is used extensively in medium to high end HVAC systems. The
common thermostat that is used in the air conditioning control system before the
advancement of microchip and electronic is a simple mechanical bi-metallic thermostat

that contact before a set temperature is achieved and disconnect after a set temperature
is achieved.
A dead band of few degrees known also as hysteresis is set to prevent chattering of
contact that can cause damage to the load that is being controlled. This simple
thermostat has greater tolerance and is not accurate. The tolerance can be as high as +/5C.
The advancement and the reduction of microchip price have enabled the HVAC industry
to use better electronic control that is more accurate, more user friendly and efficient.
Products that incorporate Liquid crystal Display, 7 segment LED display, LED,
keypad/touch screen and better industrial design have been developed.
The programmable thermostats that have been certified by the government have many
features that allow you to save energy. When used properly, it can save your utility bills
and provide better comfort to you. If you are looking for one, make sure that the
thermostat has the ENERGY STAR mark on it.
Features Of Programmable Thermostat:
7-Day Programmable Schedule feature will enable you to program the ON/OFF
time, temperature setting, mode of operation and other important features. This
will enable the proper use of the air conditioner capacity. For instance, when there
is no one at home, the set temperature will be set higher during that duration to
reduce the electricity consumed.
Night Setback feature will increase the set temperature (if in cooling mode) after
certain hours gradually as one will not need that much cooling capacity once you
are sleeping. This feature is sometimes incorporated into the programmable
schedule.
Thermostat accuracy of +/- 2C or better to ensure the comfort of the occupants in

the house.
24 Hour Clock is a must with liquid crystal display, keypad/touch screen,

backlighting that enables you to operate it in the dark.
Holiday feature option need to be there. During holidays, the set temperature will
be set higher(in cooling mode) or cycling mode to reduce the capacity and hence
the consumption of electricity.
Actual Outdoor or Indoor temperature display option is another good feature to

have.
Diagnostics feature that enables you to find out the reason the air conditioner is
not working properly. It could be a missing sensor, high pressure tripping, low
refrigerant, etc.
Air Filter Change indicator after a certain time of operation. This reminder is a good
feature to alert you that it is time to change or clean your filter.
Installation:When installing the thermostat, remember to install the sensor in a location where the air
circulation is good. Usually the sensor is located at the panel itself. Do not install it under
direct sunlight, doorways or windows as this will cause inaccurate reading of the room
temperature.
Air Conditioner Refrigerant:How does air conditioner refrigerant affect our environment? All of us have probably
heard about the ozone layer which is located 35 miles above the ground. This upper layer
of our earth's atmosphere protects the earth from the sun's ultraviolet rays by reflecting
them back to space. UV rays are harmful to the plant, marine life and human beings on
the earth.
How does air conditioner relate to the ozone layer? It was discovered in the mid 1980s
that the commonly used air conditioner refrigerant has a damaging impact on the ozone
layer. At that time, the refrigerants that used then were known as
CFC(chlorofluorocarbons) and HCFCs(hydrochlorofluorocarbons). CFCs are a family of
chemicals that contain chlorine, fluorine and carbon. The chlorine content in these
compounds cause the depletion of the ozone layer.
This discovery prompted the signing of Montreal Protocol of 1987, an agreement signed
by 180 nations that target to phase out the production of CFCs by 1995 and HCFCs by
2030. New refrigerants that are being used to replace these CFCs are
HFCs(hydrofluorocarbons) and refrigerant blends(Azeotropic, Zeotropic). In summary, the
4 commonly used refrigerants that you can find today are:
CFCs
HCFCs
HFCs
Refrigerant blends
The future commonly used refrigerants will be in the last two categories. Among the
currently widely used ones are R-134a, R407C and R410A.
CFC Refrigerants:Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana
These refrigerants were developed more than 70 years ago and are harmful to our
respiratory systems and the ozone layer. Their production was stopped since 1995 but are
still being used widely in existing residential air conditioning units as many equipments
have a lifetime of up to 30 years. Today's refrigerants used are from reclaimed units that
are no longer in operation. The common ones still used are:
R-11
CCl3F
R-12
CCl2F2
R-113 CCl2FCClF2
R-114 CClF2CClF2
R-115 CClF2CF3
HCFC Refrigerants:These air conditioner refrigerant is considered partially halogenated as they consists of
methane or ethane in combination with chlorine and fluorine. They are shorter lifespan
and are less destructive to the ozone layer compared to CFCs.
They are an interim solution to a totally "free from chlorine" refrigerant that are being
developed. Their production are scheduled to be phased out totally in 2030. The common
ones used are:
R-22
CHClF2
R-123 CHCl2CF3
R-22 is used extensively in residential, commercial and industrial applications. The

schedule of phaseout :
2015 - Production freeze and use limitations
2020 - Prohibited for new air conditioning and refrigeration use
2030 - Total phaseout
HFC Refrigerants:These air conditioner refrigerant contain no chlorine atom and is not destructive to the
ozone layer though they have a slight effect on global warming. R-134a is used in new
systems that are specially designed for its use. The common HFCs are:
R-134a CH2FCF3
R-125
CHF2CF3
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol puts R-134a as one of the 6 greenhouse gases that must be
reduced. There is no phaseout date for this refrigerant and it is expected to be highly used
in the HVAC industry.
Refrigerant Blends:These air conditioner refrigerant are also known as "azeotropic" and"zeotropic". Their use
is increasing as they are environmental friendly. The setback is that the total air
conditioning systems production cost is higher.
However, as more manufacturers switch to this type of refrigerants, the cost/unit will
drop eventually. The common refrigerant blends used in the air conditioning industry are:
R-410A CH2F2/CHF2-CF3
R-407c
R-410A are used as a replacement refrigerant for residential air conditioning applications.
R-407C are used as R-22 replacement.
Recovery, Recycling and Reclaiming of Refrigerants:Laws have been passed to prevent the release of CFC refrigerants into the atmosphere.
The steps taken are:
Recovery
The act of removing the refrigerant from a system and store it in an external container.
No testing or processing is needed in any way.
Recycling
Refrigerant is cleaned for reuse by oil separation and passes though devices such as core
filter-driers. This procedure reduce the moisture, matter and acidity of the refrigerant for
reuse. It is usually done for jobs on the field or service shops.
Reclaiming
Reprocess the refrigerant to new product specifications which may include distillation
process. This can only be done by manufacturing plants where chemical analysis is
required. Highly equipped local service shops may have this facility as well.
Consumer Role
How can consumer like you play your part in the effect to keep our earth green? You can
do that by purchasing air conditioning systems that uses new refrigerant such as R-134a,
R-407C or R-410A.
Most equipment are labelled with stickers that indicate the type of refrigerant used.
Examples are "ozone friendly" sticker, "R-410A" sticker,..
Do your part to preserve mother nature...

AIRCONDITIONING

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NARNAUL (HARYANA)

Summer Training Report

Electronics & Communication Engineering

Mr. Sudhir Yadav

H.O.D E.C.E Deptt.

ECE 5th Sem.

Department of Electronics & Commn. Engg.

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

I am thankful to the Company TVS Interconnect Systems Limited for

I take this opportunity to thank Mr. Pradeep Kumar, PRINCIPAL, YADUVANSHI

I am extremely thankful to Mr. Sudhir Yadav H.O.D, Electronics and

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

I deem it a privilege to have undergone training in an organization, which has

I have been given the chance to be familiar with new technologies.

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Brief Overview of TVSICS

History of Optical and Fiber in Telecommunications

Introduction to Optical Fibers

Basic communication system:

General optical communication system

The Physics behind Fiber Optics

The light spectrum used in fiber

Classification of optical fibers

Equipment required for OFC joint

Electric-field with in fiber cladding

Repeaters and regenerators

Detecting the Signal

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Types of Air Conditioning Filter:-

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

The circulation of air-cooled type can be by natural convection or by forced

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Centrifugal:Centrifugal compressor is usually used in large capacity refrigerating system. In this

Electronic Controls for control of Inverter Air Conditioning DC Inverter Compressor.

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Advantages of Using Inverter Technology:-

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Disadvantages of Using Inverter Technology

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

In a DC brushless motor used in the DC inverter air conditioner or heatpump, the

DC Inverter Control Circuitry:-

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

The first section consists of a DC converter:-

The second section being PFC or power factor correction:-

The third section is the INVERTER consisting of IGBT transistors:-

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Compressor Oil Properties:Viscosity:-

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Dielectric Strength & Moisture:-

Typical Compressor Oil & Refrigerants:-

Evaporator:Evaporator is an important component together with other major components in a

An indoor unit that contains finned evap.

Finned Evap.:Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Evaporator Design Factors:There are 3 main factors to consider in designing an evap.

Automatic Exp. Valves

Thermostatic Exp. Valves

Yaduvanshi College of Engineering & Technology, Narnaul,Haryana

Insulation material for HVAC applicaitons.

Low thermal conductivity.

Resistance to Fungi such as one that is based on ASTM G21 standard.