Transmission Lines

Complex Numbers, Phasors and Circuits

Complex numbers are defined by points or vectors in the complex
plane, and can be represented in Cartesian coordinates

z = a + jb

j = 1

or in polar (exponential) form

z = A exp( j) = A cos ( ) + jA sin ( )

a = A cos ( ) real part
b = A sin ( ) imaginary part
where

A= a + b

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= tan

1 b

a
1

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Im

Note :

Re

z = A exp( j) = A exp( j j 2 n)

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Every complex number has a complex conjugate

z* = ( a + jb ) * = a jb
so that

z z* = ( a + jb) ( a jb)
2

=a +b = z

= A2

In polar form we have

z* = ( A exp( j) ) * = A exp( j)
= A exp ( j 2 j )
= A cos ( ) jA sin ( )

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The polar form is more useful in some cases. For instance, when
raising a complex number to a power, the Cartesian form

z n = ( a + jb) ( a + jb) ( a + jb)

is cumbersome, and impractical for noninteger exponents.
polar form, instead, the result is immediate

In

z = [ A exp( j)] = An exp ( jn )

n

In the case of roots, one should remember to consider + 2k as

argument of the exponential, with k = integer, otherwise possible
roots are skipped:

n z = n A exp j + j 2 k = n A exp j + j 2 k
(
)

n
n
The results corresponding to angles up to 2 are solutions of the
root operation.
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In electromagnetic problems it is often convenient to keep in mind

the following simple identities

j = exp j
2

j = exp j
2

It is also useful to remember the following expressions for

trigonometric functions

exp( jz) + exp( jz)

exp( jz) exp( jz)
cos ( z ) =
; sin ( z ) =
2
2j
resulting from Eulers identity

exp( jz) = cos( z) j sin( z)

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Complex representation is very useful for time-harmonic functions

of the form

A cos ( t + ) = Re [ A exp ( j t + j )]

= Re [ A exp ( j ) exp ( j t )]
= Re [ A exp ( j t )]
The complex quantity

A = A exp ( j )
contains all the information about amplitude and phase of the
signal and is called the phasor of

A cos ( t + )
If it is known that the signal is time-harmonic with frequency
phasor completely characterizes its behavior.
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, the
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Often, a time-harmonic signal may be of the form:

A sin ( t + )

and we have the following complex representation

A sin ( t + ) = Re jA ( cos ( t + ) + j sin ( t + ) )

= Re [ jA exp ( j t + j )]

= Re [ A exp ( j / 2 ) exp ( j ) exp ( j t )]

= Re A exp ( j ( / 2 ) ) exp ( j t )
= Re [ A exp ( j t )]
with phasor

A = A exp ( j ( / 2 ) )

This result is not surprising, since

cos( t + / 2) = sin( t + )
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Time differentiation can be greatly simplified by the use of phasors.

Consider for instance the signal

V ( t ) = V0 cos ( t + )

with phasor

V = V0 exp ( j )

The time derivative can be expressed as

V ( t)
= V0 sin ( t + )
t
= Re { jV0 exp ( j ) exp ( j t )}

jV0 exp ( j ) = j V

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is the phasor of

V ( t)
t
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With phasors, time-differential equations for time harmonic signals

can be transformed into algebraic equations. Consider the simple
circuit below, realized with lumped elements

i (t)

v (t)

This circuit is described by the integro-differential equation

d i(t)
1 t
v( t ) = L
+ R i + i( t ) dt
dt
C
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Upon time-differentiation we can eliminate the integral as

d2 i( t)
d v( t )
di 1
=L
+ R + i( t )
dt
dt C
dt 2
If we assume a time-harmonic excitation, we know that voltage and
current should have the form

v( t ) = V0 cos( t + V )

phasor V = V0 exp( jV )

i( t ) = I0 cos( t + I )

phasor

If

I = I0 exp( j I )

V0 and V are given,

I0 and I are the unknowns of the problem.

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The differential equation can be rewritten using phasors

L Re 2 I exp ( j t ) + R Re { j I exp ( j t )}
1
+ Re { I exp ( j t )} = Re { jV exp ( j t )}
C
Finally, the transform phasor equation is obtained as

V = R + j L j
I=ZI

where

Impedance
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R
Resistance

j L

Reactance
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The result for the phasor current is simply obtained as

V
V
I= =
= I0 exp ( j I )
1
Z
R + j L j C

which readily yields the unknowns I0 and I .

The time dependent current is then obtained from

i( t ) = Re { I0 exp ( j I ) exp ( j t )}
= I0 cos ( t + I )

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The phasor formalism provides a convenient way to solve timeharmonic problems in steady state, without having to solve directly
a differential equation. The key to the success of phasors is that
with the exponential representation one can immediately separate
frequency and phase information. Direct solution of the timedependent differential equation is only necessary for transients.
Integro-differential
equations

Transform

Algebraic equations
based on phasors

I=?

i(t)=?
Direct Solution
( Transients )

i(t)

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Solution

AntiTransform

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The phasor representation of the circuit example above has

introduced the concept of impedance. Note that the resistance is
not explicitly a function of frequency. The reactance components
are instead linear functions of frequency:
Inductive component

proportional to

Capacitive component inversely proportional to

Because of this frequency dependence, for specified values of L
and C , one can always find a frequency at which the magnitudes of
the inductive and capacitive terms are equal

r L =

1
r C

r =

1
LC

This is a resonance condition. The reactance cancels out and the

impedance becomes purely resistive.
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The peak value of the current phasor is maximum at resonance

I0 =
| I0|

V0
1

R + L

IM

r
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Consider now the circuit below where an inductor and a capacitor

are in parallel

R
C

The input impedance of the circuit is

Zin = R +
+ j C
j L

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= R+

j L
1 2 LC
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When

=0

Zin = R

1
=
LC

Zin
Zin = R

At the resonance condition

r =

1
LC

the part of the circuit containing the reactance components

behaves like an open circuit, and no current can flow. The voltage
at the terminals of the parallel circuit is the same as the input
voltage V.
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