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https://nzmaths.co.nz/nzc-glossary-mathematics-terms
Absolute value
For all real numbers a, |a| (pronounced ‘absolute value of a’), is the positive
magnitude of a.
An intuitive way of looking at absolute value is to consider that the absolute value of
a real number is its distance from zero on the number line. For example:
Addition of:
Fractions: Fractions may be added. If their denominators are the same then
we can simply add the numerators to obtain the sum. For example, 2/9 + 4/9
= 6/9. If their denominators are not the same then we must choose equivalent
fractions so that their denominators are the same. For example, to add 1/6
and 1/4 we must find equivalent fractions for 1/6 and 1/4 that have a
common denominator. We could multiply the two denominators, 6 and 4, and
that process would always give us a common denominator. However, we
might observe that the least common multiple of 6 and 4 is actually 12.
1/6 = 2/12, 1/4 = 3/12, so 1/6 + 1/4 = 5/12.
Additive strategies
Additive strategies are techniques used to solve addition problems from known
facts. For example, we can change 9+6 into 10+5, so 9+6=15. Similarly, since most
children learn the ‘doubles’ early on, 8+7 can be thought of as one more than 7+7.
More advanced additive strategies would be such as the following: To find 47+38;
shift 2 from the 47 to the 38 (i.e. partition 47 as 45+2). The problem then becomes
45+40, which can more easily be solved.
So the term ‘additive strategies’ involves the partitioning of numbers, that is the
understanding that numbers can be ‘broken up’ and recombined as in the
calculation of 47+38 above. It also involves methods of finding answers to
subtractions such as 63-29. One strategy would be to subtract 30 from 63 to obtain
33 and then to add 1 because we have subtracted 1 too much. Another strategy
would be to add 1 to each number and make the subtraction 64-30. That is
effectively shifting both numbers along the number line one position, and hence the
difference between them remains the same.
Angle
An angle is the figure formed by two rays (or line segments) meeting at a point. The
rays are the sides of the angle, while the point is its vertex. The size (or measure) of
the angle is usually measured in degrees and is determined by the amount of
rotation (or turn) about the vertex that would be required to move one side of the
angle onto the other side. The size of the angle is often loosely referred to as the
angle itself, e.g. "an angle of 60o."
Supplementary angles are two angles whose sum equals 180o. So, in the
diagram, 1 and 4 are supplementary angles as are 1 and 2, 2 and 3, and 3 and
4. We can see that adjacent angles are supplementary if their exterior sides lie
on the same straight line.
Complementary angles are two angles whose sum equals 90o. Adjacent
angles are complementary if their exterior sides are perpendicular to each
other.
a and b are adjacent with exterior sides perpendicular and are therefore
complementary.
In Euclidean geometry, parallel lines are lines that lie in the same plane and do not
intersect no matter how far they are extended. A transversal of two or more lines is
a line that cuts across those lines. In the above diagram we have a transversal
intersecting a pair of parallel lines. Properties and terminology of the angles created
are:
1,2,7, and 8 are exterior angles. They are the angles outside the two parallel
lines.
3,4,5 and 6 are interior angles. They are the angles between the two parallel
lines.
Corresponding angles are angles on the same side of the transversal and on
the same side of the parallel lines. So 1 and 5 are corresponding angles, 2 and
6 are corresponding angles, 3 and 7 are corresponding angles, and 4 and 8 are
corresponding angles. Corresponding angles are equal.
Alternate interior angles are interior angles that are on opposite sides of the
transversal. Thus 4 and 5 are alternate interior angles, and 3 and 6 are
alternate interior angles. Alternate interior angles are equal.
Alternate exterior angles are exterior angles that are on opposite sides of
the transversal. Thus 2 and 7 are alternate exterior angles, and 1 and 8 are
alternate exterior angles. Alternate exterior angles are equal.
Opposite angles (or vertically opposite angles) are equal. 1 and 4 are
opposite angles, 2 and 3 are opposite angles, 5 and 8 are opposite angles, and
6 and 7 are opposite angles.
4 Square 90 (360÷4)
Note: If students have difficulty with the names of the polygons they could refer to
them by their number of sides. For example, a pentagon could be referred to as a 5-
gon, a hexagon as a 6-gon etc.
i. The angles on the same arc (or chord) of a circle are equal.
Angle A equals angle B because they are supported by the same arc.
ii. The angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference.
Antidifferentiation
Area
Areas of polygons
Areas of polygons can be explored using squared paper. A good sequence is to start
with a square (diagram 1 below), then move to a rectangle (diagram 2 below),
observing that the areas of those are simply the product of two non-parallel sides.
The area of the non-rectangular parallelogram (diagram 3 below) is easily
discovered by cutting a triangle from one side and joining it to the opposite side to
create a rectangle. This shows that the area of a parallelogram is the product of the
base and the vertical height. Cutting a parallelogram on one diagonal creates two
congruent shapes and shows that the area of a triangle (diagram 4 below) is a half
of the area of the associated parallelogram, that is, a half of the product of the base
and the vertical height. Next, the area of a trapezium (diagram 5 below) can be
found by cutting the non-parallel sides through the midpoints and rotating them to
make a rectangle. This shows that the area of the trapezium is the product of the
average length of the two parallel sides and the distance between them.
Areas of other polygons might be found by seeing them as combinations of the
polygons mentioned above, or might require a trigonometric approach.
Arithmetic sequence
A counting sequence is an ordering of the counting numbers such that the difference
between any two successive numbers is constant. The basic backwards counting
sequence is …, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1. An example of a backwards skip counting sequence is …,
50, 40, 30, 20,10 , as is … 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 etc.
Our numeration system (the Hindu-Arabic system) is a code in which the value of a
digit is determined not only by its face value but also by its place value, or in other
words the position that it is in. The base of this number system is 10. That means
that the value of a digit in each place in a numeral is ten times greater than the value
the same digit would have were it in the place to the right of it. For example, in the
numeral 333, the left-hand 3 is worth 300, the middle 3 is worth 30, and the right
hand 3 is worth just 3. It is an additive numeration system so the whole numeral is
worth 300+30+3.
The basic facts of addition are those equations in which two single-digit numbers
are combined by addition to give a sum Hence they range from 0+0=0 to 9+9=18.
For each basic addition fact there is a related basic subtraction fact, for example, 18-
9=9. An understanding of the commutative property of addition halves the number
of facts that need to be learned since 3+7 = 7+3 etc.
Addition and subtraction facts can be grouped into ‘families’ of facts, e.g., 5+4=9 so
4+5=9, 9-5=4 and 9-4=5
Binomial distribution
If p is the probability that an event will happen in any single trial (called the
probability of a success) and q=1-p is the probability that it will fail to happen in any
single trial (called the probability of a failure) then the probability that the event
will happen exactly x times in n trials is given by P(x) = nCx pxqn-x where nCx =
n!/[x!(n-x)!]
Capacity
Cartesian plane
Category data
Category data is data that can be organized into distinct categories. For example, it
could be colours of cars, types of food preferred, brand of shoes etc. Category data
does not lend itself to the calculation of statistics such as mean and standard
deviation since it is not numeric. Category data might best be displayed by
pictograms or bar graphs, or for younger students, block graphs, where, for
example, a square of sticky paper could represent an element in a category.
Suppose we take a sample of size n from a population. The Central Limit Theorem
states that if n is large then the distribution of the means of the samples (called the
sampling distribution of the mean) can be approximated closely with a normal
distribution. In fact as n increases, the sampling distribution of the mean
asymptotically approaches a normal distribution with mean μ and standard
deviation ϑ / √n.
Chance
Charts
A chart is a table containing data. The ability to read charts is a social requirement.
Many charts, such as tide charts or weather charts, contain information that can be
transferred to other forms of representation such as a time series graph.
Circle
A circle of radius r units and centre P is the set of points in a plane whose distance
from P is r units. The length of the circumference of a circle is π x d, where d is the
diameter of the circle and π is the ratio of the circumference to the diameter. (See
Perimeters of circles) The area of a circle of radius r is πr2 (i.e. π x r x r) For example,
suppose a circle has a radius of 3 cm then its diameter is 6 cm, its area is 9π cm2 and
the length of its circumference is 6π cm. The area of a circle of radius r can be
approximated by cutting the circle into (say) 16 congruent sectors and rearranging
them to approximate a rectangle with sides of length πr and r, and hence area of πr2.
Circumference
The perimeter (or boundary) of a circle or an ellipse is called its circumference. The
length of the circumference of a circle is πd where d is the diameter of the circle. See
also Perimeters of circles.
Combinations
Common factor
Common multiple
An integer a is a common multiple of two integers b and c if it is a multiple of both b
and c. For example, the multiples of 4 are 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, …The
multiples of 6 are 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, …The common multiples of 4
and 6 are therefore the numbers 12, 24, 36, 48, …Unlike a set of common factors,
this is an infinite set, the set of multiples of 12. The prime factorisations of 4 and 6
are 2 x 2 and 2 x 3 respectively. So the common multiples of 4 and 6 are multiples of
2 x 2 x 3, which equals 12.
So the least common multiple (often abbreviated to l.c.m.) of 4 and 6 is 12. The least
common multiple of any two integers can also be found as the product of the
numbers divided by their greatest common factor, that is, for integers a and b, l.c.m.
of a and b = (a x b)÷(g.c.f. of a and b) In the example above, the l.c.m. of 6 and 4 = (6 x
4)÷2 = 12.
Comparing
The process of determining relative size or number. For example, if sticks were
being compared by their length that could be done by measuring them against a
standard (such as a metre rule) and comparing the measurement obtained, or by
direct comparison by putting them alongside each other.
Compass directions
Directions on planet Earth can be given in terms of a compass (or magnetic
compass) bearing. The magnetised needle of a magnetic compass is attracted to
Earth’s so-called magnetic pole, a position of strong magnetic attraction in the
northern hemisphere. True north is the direction from any point on the Earth to the
North Pole. The North Pole is one of the two points of intersection of Earth’s surface
with its axis of rotation, the other point being the South Pole. Magnetic north differs
considerably from true north and changes every year as Earth’s magnetic pole
changes position. In New Zealand, the magnetic deviation in 2006 was
approximately 18o east of north at Kaitaia and 26o east of north at Stewart Island.
The variation is roughly proportional to these figures for the length of the country.
For example, the figure for Wellington is approximately 22o. So in Wellington the
needle of a magnetic compass would point to a true bearing of 22o. These figures are
increasing by approximately 0.5o every six years.
Complex Numbers
The solution of some equations, such as x2 + 1 = 0, cannot be found within the set of
real numbers since it requires that we find a number x such that x2 = -1 The equation
requires a value of x which, when multiplied by itself, is -1. No such number exists
within the set of real numbers for the product of any two real numbers that have the
same sign is always positive or zero. Hence a new number i is defined for which i2 = -
1.
The set of numbers of the form a + bi where a and b are real numbers and i2 = -1 is
called the set of complex numbers. If z = a + bi then we have the following
possibilities:
ii. a = 0 in which case z is a pure imaginary number, such as 6i, -5i etc
The set of complex numbers gives completeness to the number system since the
roots of all polynomials can be found within the set of complex numbers and the nth
root of any complex number is a complex number. This was obviously not true for
the set of real numbers since, as above, the square root of -1 cannot be found within
the set of real numbers.
Complex numbers can be represented graphically on the complex plane, a modified
Cartesian plane in which the horizontal axis is called the real axis and represents the
real part of the complex number, and the vertical axis is called the imaginary axis
and represents the imaginary part of the complex number. The complex plane is
also referred to as the Argand diagram.
Compounding
Cone
A circular cone is a solid whose base is a circle and whose lateral surface comes to a
point. A line from the vertex of the cone to the centre of its base is called the axis. In
a right cone the base is perpendicular to the axis. If the base is not perpendicular to
the axis it is an oblique cone. A cone is effectively a pyramid with an infinite number
of lateral faces and therefore it should not be surprising that, like a pyramid, its
volume is one -third of the product of the base area and the vertical height. So for a
cone whose base is a circle of radius r and whose vertical height is h, the volume (V)
is given by: V = 1/3 πr2h.
Confidence interval
Congruent
Two figures are congruent if they are related so that for very point on one there is a
corresponding point on the other and that the distance between any two points on
one is equal to the distance between the corresponding points on the other. So two
figures (shapes, lines, angles etc.) are congruent if they are identical in shape and
could be made to fit exactly on to each other. Fitting one figure on to the other may
require turning it over. (See Direct and indirect transformations)
Conic sections
The conic sections are so called because they can all be obtained as the outline of the
intersection of a plane with a cone. Their equations are described by the general
quadratic polynomial in two variables, x and y, which is of the form: f (x,y) = ax2
+bxy +cy2 +dx + ey +f.
The conic sections and their standard forms are:
i. The circle of radius r and centre (0,0), which has equation x2 + y2 = r2 A circle
is the locus of a point P (x, y) that is a fixed distance from a given point. The
fixed distance is the radius and the given point is the centre.
A circle may be obtained as the outline of the intersection of a right circular
cone with a plane that is parallel to the base of the cone.
ii. The ellipse with centre at (0, 0), which has equation x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1. An
ellipse is the locus of a point P (x, y), the sum of whose distances from two
fixed points (called the foci – plural of focus) is constant.
An ellipse may be obtained as the outline of the intersection of a right circular
cone with a plane that does not cut the base of the cone. In the case where the
plane is parallel to the base we obtain a circle.
iii. The hyperbola with centre (0, 0), which has equation x2/a2 - y2/b2 = 1.
An hyperbola is the locus of a point P (x, y), the absolute value of the
difference of whose distances from two fixed points (the foci) is constant. A
branch of the hyperbola may be obtained as the outline of the intersection of a
right circular cone with a plane that cuts the base of the cone but is not
parallel to a side (or generator) of the cone.
iv. The parabola with centre (0, 0) and focus on the x-axis, and whose directrix is
the y-axis, which has equation y2 = 4cx.
A parabola is the locus of a point P (x, y), whose distance from a fixed point
(the focus) is equal to its distance from a fixed line (the directrix).
The parabola may be obtained as the outline of the intersection of a right
circular cone with a plane that cuts the base of the cone and is parallel to a
side (or generator) of the cone.
Continuity of functions
i. f (a) is defined
ii.
iii.
lim
x→a
f(x) = f(a)
Distance The distance between two points in the plane is found by the use of
Pythagoras’ theorem. If the points are P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) then the
distance between them is:
|P1 P2| = √ [(x2-x1)2 + (y2-y1)2] So the distance between (2,3) and (5,7) is √
(32+42) = 5
Gradient The gradient (or slope) of a line containing two points P1 (x1, y1) and
P2 (x2, y2) is:
change in y/change in x = (y2-y1)/ (x2-x1)
So the slope of the line containing (-2,3) and (5, -1) is -1-3/5--2 = - 4/7
The equation of the line through two points P1 (x1, y1) and P2 (x2, y2) is: given
by: y-y1/ x-x1 = y2-y1/ x2-x1
So the line through (2,3) and (4,7) has equation y-3/x-2 = 7-3/4-2
This can be rearranged to: y = 2x -1
Coordinate systems
There are many different possible types of coordinate system. They are designed to
define the position of a point on the plane or in space. In the Cartesian coordinate
system, a point in the plane can be uniquely represented by an ordered pair of
numbers, each of which represents a distance along an axis, measured from the
origin. An illustration of the Cartesian coordinate system, in which the axes are
perpendicular, is shown below. The coordinates of point P are the ordered pair
(2,3).
A simple coordinate system for younger students could be a system in which the
spaces are labelled rather than points in the plane.
Cosine rule
Counting
The set of counting numbers is the same as the set of natural numbers, i.e. 1, 2, 3,
4,… (See Base ten numeration system)
Critical path
Cube root
See Roots.
Cuboid
A cuboid is a solid figure bounded by six rectangular faces. Hence it is like a box that
has all sides rectangular. A special case of the cuboid is the square cuboid, which has
two (or more) opposite faces squares. A special case of the square cuboid is the
cube, which has all faces as squares.
The square cuboid could also be classified as a right square prism.
The volume of a cuboid is the product of the length of three of its sides, none of
which are parallel to each other, expressed in appropriate units. (This can easily be
discovered by making cuboids with blocks). For example, if a cuboid has edge
lengths of 6cm, 8cm and 10cm then its volume is 480 cm3.
Curve fitting
Very often a relationship is found to exist between two or more variables. For
example, weight depends to some degree on height. We may wish to express this
relationship in mathematical form by determining an equation connecting the
variables. ‘The method of least squares’ is a method that finds a function which best
fits the data points.
Cylinder
A right circular cylinder (usually just called a cylinder) is a solid with three faces,
whose bases are parallel circles that are perpendicular to the third face. Further, its
cross-sections parallel to the bases are also circles. In common terms it is the shape
of a spaghetti tin. In similarity to the volume of a cuboid, or in fact any prism, the
volume of a cylinder is the product of the area of its circular base and its height. So if
a cylinder has base circles of radius r and a height h then its volume is πr2h. For
example, if a cylinder had a height of 9cm and a radius of 4cm then its volume would
be π x 16 x 9 which is 452cm3 (to 3 dp).
Data
A set of known facts, numbers, or information used as a basis for reasoning. Raw
data is data that has been collected but has not been organised.
Data displays
Data can be displayed in a variety of ways, but whatever way is chosen the key
intention of using some form of data display is to make the data more readily
accessible or more understandable to the viewer. Category data might best be
displayed by pictograms or bar graphs, or for younger students, block graphs,
where, for example, a square of sticky paper could represent an element in a
category. Whole number data can be displayed by block graphs, pictographs, tally
charts, bar graphs, pie graphs and stem and leaf graphs. Also possible are dot plots,
strip graphs and time series graphs. Measurement data can be displayed by
histograms.
Decimals
A number may have many numerals and one commonly used form of numeral is the
‘decimal’, or more correctly, ‘decimal fraction’. This is a system which extends the
base ten numeration system to have place values less than 1. For example, whereas
324 is a compact numeral which can be written in expanded form as (3x100) +
(2x10) + (4x1), we can extend this system to include fractional parts. For example,
324 15/100 could be written as 324.15 which means (3x100) + (2x10) + (4x1) +
(1x1/10) + (5x1/100). So decimals are another way of recording fractional parts
and are an extension of the base 10 numeration system. Obviously there is no
restriction on the length of the decimal part, the part to the right of the decimal
point. Other ways of recording parts of a whole are common fractions and
percentages.
The full benefit of having a positional notation numeration system such as the
system of decimal fractions is in having a system of units of measurement that is in
harmony with it. Hence we see the importance of the metric system to industry and
to society in general. (See SI measurement units)
See Rounding
Denominator
When a rational number is written as a fraction, that is in the form a/b then b is
called the denominator of the fraction.
Differentiation
lim f (x + h) - f(x)
f‘(x) = provided the limit exists.
hh → 0 0 h
It can be shown that if f(x) = axn then f‘(x) = naxn-1 and that (f (x) + g (x))‘ = f‘(x) +
g‘(x). These results enable the differentiation of polynomials.
Note: An alternative notation for the derivative of y with respect to x is dy/dx.
Approximate values of derivatives of functions may be found by using numerical
differentiation techniques and formulas such as
f‘(x) = [f (x+h) - f (x)]/h and f‘(x) = [f (x+h) - f (x - h)]/2h
Differential equations
Direct comparison
Direction
The direction between two points A and B is the description of the path an object (or
person) travelling from A to B would take. This could be in simple social terms such
as forwards or backwards, left or right; in terms of compass directions such as
north, south, south-east etc.; in terms of an angle of turn from an origin; or as a
direction vector.
Discontinuities of functions
Distance
The distance between any two points on a line, on a plane or in space is the length of
the straight line between them. This could be expressed in non-standard units such
as steps, handspans etc., or in standard units such as meters, kilometres etc. (See
length)
Distributions
Division of:
Integers: Integers may be divided in the following way: a÷-b = -(a÷b) e.g. 6÷-3
= -2
-a÷b = - (a÷b) e.g. -6÷3 = -2
Domain
See Function.
Drawings and models
Objects may be represented by drawings or models. The drawing or model and the
object it represents may be similar in that the drawing or model may be a scale
representation of the object. However drawings in particular can often be used to
good effect in mathematics to represent relationships between elements, and the
drawings might have no scale representation to the relationships they model.
Isometric plan views and nets may be used to effect. Drawing a picture is a useful
problem solving strategy and such a picture might be approximately to scale or
might have no scale relationship.
Elements of chance
See Chance.
Enlargement
An enlargement in the plane or in space is a mapping of a set of points such that for
each point the distance of its image from a fixed point (the centre of enlargement) is
a given multiple of the distance from the point to the centre of enlargement. For
example, if the fixed multiple were 2 then every point of the image of the
transformation would be twice the distance from the centre of the enlargement that
the original point was. If it were a figure being transformed then all the length
measurements of the figure would be doubled under that specific transformation. . If
the multiple were 3 then all the length measurements of the image would be three
times the length measurements of the original figure. The centre of enlargement is
the only invariant point under the transformation of enlargement. Enlargement is
not an isometric transformation since although the shape is similar it is not
preserved because the dimensions have been changed.
Equality
Equal-sharing
Equal sharing is a division concept based on the action of distributing the elements
of a set evenly amongst a given number of subsets. E.g. Grandma shares $24-00
evenly amongst her four grandchildren. How much will each grandchild receive?
Strategies for solving this problem will depend on a student’s level of numeracy
understanding and could include dealing (physically sharing out), finding four equal
addends, and inverse multiplication (i.e. what do I multiply by 4 to get 24?).
Decimals, percentages, and fractions are the three main numeral systems used to
represent parts of a whole. For example, the proportion that is one part out of two
parts can be represented as 1/2, or 0.5, or 50%. Children can use two- or three-
dimensional models such as 100s blocks and place value rods to explore the
relationships between these three numeral systems. Older students can use the
implied division operation of a fraction to convert fractions to decimals and
percentages.
Equivalent fractions
Two different fractions that represent the same number are referred to as
equivalent fractions. For example, 1/2, 2/4, 3/6, and 4/8 are equivalent fractions
because they represent the same number.
In the example given, 1/2 is said to be in irreducible form because the numerator
and denominator have no common factor. The others are all reducible.
Experiment
Exponent
See Powers.
Exponential equations
Extrapolation
Extrapolation is the process of finding estimates of function or data values that lie
outside the set of known values.
Factor
Factorial
At an early stage children can observe and identify features of simple data displays –
features such as greatest frequency, least frequency, how spread out the data is,
mode, ‘middle’, and unusual values such as outliers.
A counting sequence is an ordering of the counting numbers such that the difference
between any two successive numbers is constant. The basic forward counting
sequence is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…
An example of a forward skip counting sequence is 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, …, as is 2, 4, 6,
8, 10, … etc.
Fraction
A fraction is a numeral of the form a/b where a and b are both integers and b≠0. If
the fraction lies between –1 and 1 then the fraction is called a proper fraction. (e.g.
1/2, 3/5, -2/7 etc), otherwise it is called an improper fraction (e.g. 11/5, 257/17, -
3/2 etc). In the example 2/7, the two is called the numerator, and the 7 is called the
denominator. If the fraction has arisen from the part-whole concept then the whole
has been divided into seven equal parts and the 2 represents the number of the
parts. Fractions are useful for representing parts of a whole, that is, they are
numerals that can be used when whole numbers cannot describe a certain number.
Fractions, decimals and percentages can be used to represent numbers that are not
integers, that is, they include parts of a whole. Consequently for each number
written as a numeral in one of these three forms there is a corresponding numeral
written in each of the other two forms. Initially, connections between these
numerals should be made by exploration with equipment such as a linear model for
decimals and fractions, a closed abacus or a hundreds grid for percentages and sets
and regional models for fractions.
After the concepts of the conversions have been fully explored with equipment,
converting a fraction to a decimal may be done abstractly by using the division
property of a fraction, namely that a/b = a÷b. So, for example, 3/4 = 3÷4=0.75 etc.
Since a percentage represents a proportion out of 100, the decimal for 3/4 may be
multiplied by 100 to obtain the percentage for 3/4. (Students should have already
observed this from the use of equipment.) So 3/4 = 75% Converting decimals or
percentages to fractions involves using the definitions of the numerals. For example,
1/8 = 0.125, so converting 0.125 to a fraction simply involves writing the number as
125/1000. This can be reduced to 1/8 as they are equivalent fractions. Fractions
that should be commonly known as decimals and percentages include halves, thirds,
quarters, fifths, eighths, tenths, twentieths, twenty-fifths, and fiftieths.
Function
1. A set of elements called the domain, and another set of elements called the
range.
2. A rule for associating each element of the domain with exactly one element of
the range.
The domain is often called the set of values of the independent variable, and the
range is the set of values of the dependent variable. A typical value in the domain is
usually denoted x, and is called the independent variable; and a typical value in the
range is denoted y and is called the dependent variable.
Generalising
Geometric properties
Geometric properties by which children can sort geometric shapes and objects
include number of vertices, number of edges, number of faces, types of face,
symmetry, curvature, thickness, dimension, size of vertex angle etc.
Geometric sequences
A geometric sequence is a sequence of the form: a, ar, ar2, ar3, ar4, … arn-1, …
For example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, … is a geometric sequence in which r, the common
ratio, is 2, and a, the first term, is 1.
The sum (Sn) of the finite geometric series a+ar+ar2+ar3+ar4+ …+ arn-1 consisting
of n terms is:
S n = [a(1-rn)]/(1-r) where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.
If |r| < 1 then the sum to infinity of the geometric series a+ar+ar2+ar3+ar4+ …+ arn-1
+ … is S=a/(1-r) where |r| is the absolute value of r.
For example 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 + … is a geometric series with a=1/2 and r=1/2.
So S = 1/2 ÷ 1/2 = 1
Glide
A glide (also called a glide reflection) is a transformation in the plane that is the
composition of a reflection in a mirror line followed by a translation parallel to the
mirror line. It is a necessary addition to the isometries if we wish to explain all
isometric symmetry movements in terms of one isometry.
Gradient
For example, the diagram above shows a tiling pattern of concrete slabs laid around
central grassed areas. The number of slabs needed is given by the sequence 8, 12,
16,…
This could be shown by way of a table:
Side length of grass square 1 2 3 4 5 6 …
No. of slabs 8 12 16 20 24 28
Or a graph:
Or a rule:
The number of slabs needed is four times the number of the term plus 4. This could
be expressed algebraically as s=4n+4.
As shown above for linear relationships, graphs, tables and rules can be developed
for simple quadratic equations. Consider the pattern of balls set up in the triangular
arrangements shown below:
We could draw up the following table for the number of balls in each term:
n 1234 5 …n
Term n: T(n) 1 3 6 10 15
Looking at the table, students will see that to get the nth term, you add n to the (n-
1)th term. So T(n) = T(n-1)+n.
That is helpful if you already know the (n-1)th term. Closer observation should lead
to the discovery that the number of balls in each term is half the product of the term
number and the next term number. This leads to the relation:
T(n) = n(n+1)/2
= 1/2 n2 + 1/2 n
This is a polynomial equation of degree two since the highest power to which the
variable n is raised is two. Its graph will be a part of a parabola. Polynomial
equations of degree two are also referred to as quadratic equations.
Grid references
(See also Coordinate systems). Grid references on a map are similar to coordinates
in the Cartesian plane. For the major New Zealand topographical map series (NZMS
260) the grid references are given as a six-digit number, the first three digits being
the distance east (in kilometres to one decimal place) and the second three digits
being the distance north (in kilometres to one decimal place) from a starting origin.
Simple grid systems can be added to maps for children by labelling (with letters or
numbers) the bottom horizontal border of the map and the left-hand vertical
border. Children can then read the coordinates of the map by reading the horizontal
reference first followed by the vertical reference, thus simulating the coordinate
system of the Cartesian plane. Activities can then include things such as a coordinate
journey through the map describing the view according to the features shown on
the map.
Grouping
Putting sets of objects into groups, usually according to some attribute e.g. colour,
size, shape etc.
Half turn
Hectare
Inferences
Integers
The set of integers is an extension of the set of whole numbers to include the
negatives of the whole numbers. Thus it is {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …} The integers give
us answers to questions such as :"What can I add to 5 to get 3?".
Integration
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation. The task with integration of a
function f (x) is to find a function F(x) such that the derivative of F(x) is f(x) for all x
in the domain of f. That is, F(x) is the integral of f(x) if and only if F’ (x) = f (x) for all
x in the domain of f. Then we write F(x) = ∫f (x) dx which reads as F (x) is the
integral of f (x) with respect to x. For example,
If f (x) = 3x2+2x+5 then F (x) = ∫f (x) dx = x 3+x2+5x +C, where C is an arbitrary
constant.
Such an integral is known as an
indefinite integral, or an antiderivative. Differentiation of F(x) gives f(x).
An integral F(x) which is defined between certain limit values a and b of x is a
definite integral.
Geometrically, a definite integral can be thought of as the area contained between
the graph of a function and the x-axis and between the lines x=a and x=b. Areas
located above the x-axis count as positive in integration, areas below the x-axis as
negative.
If the indefinite integral cannot be found it may still be possible to find the
numerical value of the definite integral using numerical integration methods such
as the use of the trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule. This is also referred to as
approximate integration.
Interpolation
Interpolation is the process of finding estimates of function or data values that lie
between two known values.
Invariant
Unaltered or unchanged.
Inverse of a function
Irrational numbers
Real numbers that have no fractional form (that is, cannot be written in the form a/b
where a and b are integers) are called irrational numbers. For example, √2 is an
irrational number and therefore, like all irrational numbers:
To 50 decimal places:
√2 = 1.41421356237309504880168872420969807856967187537694
Isometric transformation
Length
Length is the concept of distance in a straight line between two points on a line, in a
plane, or in space. It is a measure of one dimension, measuring the size of a line. The
basic SI unit of measurement of length is the metre, with millimetre, centimetre and
kilometre also being commonly used units. (See SI measurement units)
Limit of a function
Consider the function f(x) = x2. As x tends towards 2, x2 tends towards 4. It is a case
of closeness of x to 2 forces closeness of x2 to 4. So the limit of f(x) as x tends to 2 is
4. This is written as:
lim f(x) = 4
x→a
As x tends to 2 from the left, (that is, x is approaching 2 and is less than 2), f (x)
tends to 4, and as x tends to 2 from the right, (that is, x is approaching 2 and is
greater than 2), f(x) tends to 4. The limit as x tends to a of f(x) exists if and only if the
limit as x tends to a from the left exists and the limit as x tends to a from the right
exists and both of these limits are equal.
The explanation of the limit as implying closeness is illustrated by the function f(x) =
(x2-1)/(x-1) x ≠ 1 So f(x) = x+1 for all values of x other than x=1 and its graph is the
graph of f(x) = x+1 with a hole at x = 1. Although f (x) is undefined at x=1 we can still
say that the limit of f(x) as x tends to 1 is 2 since closeness of x to 1 forces closeness
of f(x) to 2. Put another way, f (x) can be made as close to 2 as we wish simply by
choosing a value of x sufficiently close to 1.
Linear equations
The simplest linear equation is one which expresses a direct linear relationship
between two variables. For example, if sticky bars cost $3-00 each then the cost (c)
in dollars of buying n of them is given by the equation c=3n. This is called a first
degree or linear equation. If the associated values of c and n are graphed on a
coordinate plane the points that satisfy this equation will lie on a straight line.
Suppose there is a packaging fee of $2-00. Then c=3n+2. We could now ask
questions such as:" If the cost was $23-00, how many sticky bars did we buy?" Note
that in a linear equation the variables (such as c and n above) are not raised to
higher powers such as squares or cubes.
So a linear equation is an equation of the form y=ax+b where a and b are real
numbers. The solution, or root, of the equation ax+b=0 is x= -b/a.
Linear inequalities
A linear inequality is an expression of the form
ax + b > c The relations >,<, ≥, and ≤ give rise to inequalities.
2x + 3 > 5 is a linear inequality because x is raised only to the power of 1. To solve
this inequality we can use the rules of algebra, with a little caution.
2x + 3 > 5 Adding -3 to both sides we obtain
2x > 2 Dividing both sides by 2 we obtain
x > 1 So the solution is the set of all real numbers greater than 1.
Caution has to be exercised in handling inequalities. Two things in particular are
worth mentioning:
i. Changing the unknown to the other side of the inequality changes the sign. For
example: If 22
ii. Multiplying both sides of the inequality by a negative number also changes the
sign. For example: If -x>3 then x<-3.
Linear programming
Linear scales
Drawings, maps and models are scale representations and that scale is a linear
(adjective of line) scale if the linear dimensions of the scale representation are in
direct proportion to the linear measurements of the region being represented.
For example, a map of a playground might be drawn to a scale of one centimetre to
one metre (that is, 1cm on the map represents 1m on the ground). As a ratio, this is
a scale of 1:100, so every distance on the map is one one-hundredth of the distance
it represents on the ground.
Linear proportion
Any situation that can be modelled using the equation a/b = c/d involves a linear
proportion. Reasoning with linear proportions involves part-whole relationships
(equivalent fractions), operating on fractions, measurement, rates and ratios, and
division with remainders. It also involves competence with connecting fractions,
decimals and percentages and using graphs to solve problems. Linear proportions
apply in a wide range of contexts including trigonometry, probability, metric
measurement conversions, calculating best deals, and physical rates such as speed.
(See also rate and ratio)
Very often in practice a relationship is found to exist between two variables (for
example, height and weight). It is often desirable to express this relationship in
mathematical form by finding an equation connecting the variables. If the data
appears to be approximated well by a straight line we say that a linear relationship
exists between the variables. This is called a regression line.
Location
The logarithm function is the inverse of the exponential function. The logarithm
function is defined, when b is positive and b ≠ 1, as y = logbx. y is called the logarithm
of x to the base b. If y is the logarithm of x to the base b, then by = x. For example:
102 = 100, so log10 100 = 2
103 = 1,000, so log10 1,000 = 3
105 = 100,000 so log10 100,000 = 5
From this we can see that the two fundamental properties of the logarithm can be
derived from the corresponding laws of exponents (See Powers). They are: (i) The
logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the factors.
So logb xy = logb x + logb y (ii) The logarithm of a quotient is equal to the logarithm of
the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator.
So logb x/y = logb x - logb y From (i) above it follows that the logarithm of the power
of a number is equal to the power times the logarithm of the number. That is:
logb xp = p logb x
The logarithm of 1 is 0 since b0 = 1
There is a number e called the base of the natural logarithm. Equations involving
growth and decay are best written in terms of e, and logarithms to the base e are
called natural logarithms. e is an irrational number, its decimal expansion to 10
places of decimals being 2.7182818285.
It can be seen how this number occurs naturally in situations of growth and decay.
For example, the formula for compounding interest is An= P (1 + r)n. Suppose we set
interest at 100%. Then r = 1. After one year, A1 = P (1+1) = 2P
If we decide to modify the system of accumulation to 50% paid twice a year we have
A1 = P (1+1/2)2
If we decide to modify the system of accumulation to 25% paid four times a year we
have A1 = P (1+1/4 )4
Continuing in this way we can see that as we move towards continuous growth, that
is as n tends to infinity with r = 1/n, the formula for the amount after one year
becomes:
lim
A1 = P (1+1/n)n
n→∞
Log modelling
Maps
Margins of error
Mass
Measurement data
Statistical data falls into two main classes. Things that can be counted (for example,
the number of children in a family) give rise to whole number data and things that
can be measured (for example, the heights of a group of people) give rise to
measurement data. A third class is category data, which is data of things that fall into
categories such as colour, brand, model etc. So height, weight, distance, volume, time
etc. give rise to measurement data.
Measurement data is considered to be continuous since (in theory) a measurement
can take any value in a given interval. Whole number data is discrete since it can
take only whole number values.
Measures of spread
Measures of spread measure the degree of variability in a set of data. They are used
as an indicator of the dispersion of a set of data. Some measures of spread are the
range (the difference between the largest and smallest numbers in the set), the
mean deviation (or mean absolute deviation), the semi-interquartile range, the
standard deviation, and the variance.
Metric System
See SI.
Multiple
Multiple transformations
The term multiple transformations refers to the composition of two or more
transformations. Suppose R is a transformation of rotation in the plane about the
origin through 90o (anticlockwise); and M represents a reflection in the plane in the
x-axis. What is the effect of the multiple transformation R followed by M? The
of M R by considering its effect on the two points (1,0) and (0,1). That is because
those two points ‘represent’ the x-axis and the y-axis respectively and so every point
in the plane can be written as a combination of those two points. M R maps (1,0)
to (0, -1) and (0,1) to (-1, 0). So M R is the same as a reflection in the line y = - x.
same as R M.
It is helpful in considering the effect of multiple transformations to classify
transformations as direct or indirect. The direct isometries are rotation and
translation. They are called direct because they do not flip (or turn over) the shape
being transformed. Reflection and glide reflection are indirect isometries because
they do flip the shape being transformed. So, for example, the product of two
reflections is a direct isometry and is therefore either a rotation or a translation. In
fact the Fundamental Isometry Theorem assures us that every isometry in the plane
can be expressed as a product of at most three reflections.
Multiplication of:
-2 x -3 = 6
-3 x -3 = 9 etc.
From this, and other similar examples, it is apparent that the product of two
negative numbers is a positive number.
The properties of multiplication outlined for whole number also apply to the
multiplication of fractions, decimals, percentages and integers.
Multiplicative strategies
Multivariate data
Data that consists of measurements of three or more attributes or variables for each
individual or object in a sample (for example age, height and gender). This contrasts
with univariate data where measurements are made of only one attribute, and
bivariate data where measurements are made of two attributes.
Natural numbers
The set of natural numbers is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …} They are often also referred to as the
Counting numbers.
Nets
A net consists of a set of connected polygons that can be folded to form a polyhedron
Network
In graph theory a graph consists of a set of points, called vertices, along with edges
connecting the vertices. The edges express a relationship between the vertices. A
graph may have no edges (the null graph), one or more edges, an edge connecting
every vertex to every other vertex (the complete graph) or more than one edge
between two vertices (a multigraph). A graph may have numerical values attached
to each edge (a network), an arrowed direction on each edge (a directed graph, or
digraph) or both numerical values and direction arrows (a directed network). In
directed graphs the edges are called directed edges or arcs.
The positioning of the vertices in the plane is not usually significant as it is the edges
that define the relationship between the vertices.
The following directed network shows the cost (in $m) of stormwater piping in
Watersville.
Non-linear function
A linear function is a function of the kind f(x)=ax b, where a and b are real numbers.
The graph of such a function on the Cartesian plane is a straight line. Other
functions, such as polynomials of higher degree, are non-linear functions. Their
graphs are not straight lines. For the example, a quadratic function equation is of the
form f(x)=ax2+bx+c where a, b, and c are real numbers. The graph of a quadratic
function is a parabola.
Normal distribution
Numeral
Numeration system
Numerator
When a rational number is written as a fraction, that is in the form a/b, then a is
called the numerator of the fraction. (See also Fraction)
Operations
Students who are not at the stage of using calculus techniques to find maxima and
minima may still be able to solve simple practical problems using graphs, charts,
estimation techniques etc. For example, to find the maximum area of a rectangle that
has a perimeter of length 20 metres, students could set up a table as follows to find
the answer. They could then draw a graph of that.
Height (m) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Width (m) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Area (m2) 0 9 16 21 24 25 24 21 16 9 0
Ordering
Arranging according to some chosen attribute. Ordering involves the relations ‘less
than’ and ‘greater than’ as defined on numbers. For example, objects could be
ordered by area where the measures of the areas, given as numbers, are used to
order the areas.
Ordering fractions
To order two fractions, we can write them in equivalent fraction forms so that they
have the same denominator and then compare the numerators. For example, to
order the fractions 2/3 and 5/8 we could write them in equivalent fraction forms
with the same denominator. The least common multiple of 3 and 8 is 24. 2/3 =
16/24 and 5/8 = 15/24. So 5/8 < 2/3.
We can use mental strategies to order some pairs of fractions. For example, 7/12 >
1/2 because we know that 1/2 = 6/12 and 7>6. However, this apparently intuitive
approach to ordering fractions is underpinned by mentally considering equivalent
fraction forms.
Parallelogram
Partitioning
Measures of, for example, length can be added or subtracted providing they are in
the same units. So a length of 31 metres can be broken into lengths of 8 metres and
5 metres.
Path
Pattern
A pattern can be described as any regularity that the mind can perceive. (See
Sequential pattern and Repeating pattern.)
With time series data, patterns and trends may be observable both within a time
series data set and between two or more time series data sets. For example, there
might be a clear relationship between average monthly temperature and monthly
power consumption.
Percentage
Perimeter
The boundary of a figure in a plane is called the perimeter The length of the
perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of its sides.
Perimeters of circles
The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference. The length of the perimeter of a
circle is π x d, where d is the length of the diameter of the circle and π is an irrational
number whose value is a little less than 3 1/7. Because π is an irrational number it
has no exact representation as a fraction or decimal fraction. To five decimal places,
π = 3.14159.
Students may discover this relationship between the length of the diameter of a
circle and the length of its circumference by winding string around circles with a
variety of diameters and thereby measuring the lengths of the circumferences. This
is most easily gone using jars, tins, saucepans, etc. Dividing the length of the
circumference by the length of the diameter shows that the ratio of circumference to
diameter is constant and is independent of the size of the diameter.
Permutation
A permutation of n different objects is an arrangement of the objects with attention
given to the order of the arrangement. So, for example, the letters a, b, and c have six
permutations. They are abc, acb, bac, bca, cab, and cba. The number of permutations
of n objects taken n at a time is n factorial, which is written n! and is defined as
follows:
n! = 1 x 2 x 3 x …x (n - 2)(n - 1)n
So 3! = 1 x 2 x 3 = 6
Perpendicular
Two lines are perpendicular if the angle between them is 90o, that is, they meet at
right angles. Two planes, P1 and P2 are perpendicular if a line in P1 perpendicular to
the line of intersection of the planes P1 and P2 is perpendicular to every line in P2.
Plane
A shape that can lie wholly in a plane. A plane shape is therefore a flat, two-
dimensional shape and is imagined as having no volume.
Point estimate
Poisson distribution
The discrete probability distribution p(x) = (λ x e-λ )/ x! is called the Poisson
distribution. The values of p(x) are computed from tables. Both the mean and the
distribution of this distribution have the value of λ. As λ increases indefinitely the
Poisson distribution approaches a normal distribution.
Polygon
Polyhedron
A polyhedron (plural polyhedra) is a solid whose faces are all plane polygons. The
faces need not be regular polygons. (A regular polygon is a polygon whose edges are
all congruent and whose angles are all equal) If the faces of a polyhedron are all
identical regular polygons then the polyhedron is referred to as a regular
polyhedron, or a Platonic solid.
If the faces of a polyhedron are all regular polygons but are not identical, then the
polyhedron is referred to as a semi-regular polyhedron, or an Archimedean solid.
Polyhedron nets
See Nets.
Polynomial
Population
The source of the observations of a sample is called a population. It is the ‘whole’ of
which a sample is a part, and consists of all the possible elements of the set from
which the sample is taken.
Population parameters
Descriptions of populations (such as their mean and standard deviation) are called
parameters. This compares with descriptions of samples, which are called statistics.
We use statistics to reach decisions about parameters.
Position
Position may be described relative to many things. For example, latitude gives
position relative to the equator. At Level One children might give their position
relative to a nearby person or object using terms such as ‘behind’, ‘in front of’, ‘to the
left of’, ‘to the right of’, ‘five steps away’ etc. At a more advanced level position could
be described by coordinates on a map or on the Cartesian plane, or by latitude and
longitude.
Possible outcomes
Powers
See Roots.
Prime numbers
A prime number is a natural number that has exactly two positive divisors, namely 1
and the number itself. So 2 is a prime because its only divisors are 1 and 2; 3 and 5
are primes for the same reason, that their only divisors are 1 and themselves. But 4
is not a prime because 1, 2, and 4 are all divisors of 4, so 4 has three divisors and is
therefore not a prime. The first nine primes are 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, and 23.
There are infinitely many primes, that is, there is no ‘last’ prime number. Note that
zero is not a prime number since every natural number divides zero, and one is not
a prime number since it has only one divisor, namely itself.
The simplest means of sifting out the positive primes numbers from the natural
numbers is to use the sieve of Eratosthenes.
Integers that are not 0, ±1, or prime, are called composite.
Prism
A prism is a polyhedron with two congruent and parallel faces (called the bases)
whose remaining faces (called the lateral faces) are parallelograms. So a prism is a
portion of space enclosed by polygons, with specific properties. Prisms are named
after the shape of their base faces. For example, if the bases are pentagons then the
prism is a pentagonal prism.
If the lateral faces are all perpendicular to the base then the prism is called a right
prism. Hence a cuboid is a right rectangular prism, since the base faces are both
rectangular. The volume of a prism is the product of the area of a base polygon and
the altitude (or vertical height) of the prism.
Product
The product of two numbers is the result obtained when the numbers are multiplied
together. For example, the product of 4 and 5 is 20 because 4 x 5 = 20.
Probability of an event
Probability is the study of random events – events in which the outcome is not fixed.
For example, if an experiment is to toss a fair coin twice and count the number of
heads obtained, then an event could be that two heads occur. We can then ask,
"What is the probability of that event occurring"? The probability of any event is a
number between 0 and 1 inclusive. If the probability of an event is zero then the
event is impossible and if the probability of an event is one then the event is certain.
Hence the probability of an event can be described as a number that tells us how
likely it is that the event will occur.
Some properties are:
c. If A and B are independent events, that is P(A|B) = P(A), then the above rule
becomes P(A∩B) = P(A). P(B) and is referred to as the special multiplication
rule.
Probability activity
Proportionality
Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron whose base is a polygon and whose other faces are
triangles with a common vertex. Pyramids are described in terms of the base
polygon, for example, a triangular pyramid, hexagonal pyramid etc. A regular
pyramid is a pyramid that has a regular polygon for a base and whose altitude meets
the base at its centre. The volume of a pyramid is one third of the product of the
base area and the vertical height. So for a pyramid, V = 1/3 x b x h where V is the
volume, b is the area of the base and h is the vertical height.
Pythagoras’ Theorem
The Theorem of Pythagoras states that in a right triangle, the square of the length of
the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the two other
sides.
Hence we can state the theorem as:
In a right triangle, the area of the square constructed on the hypotenuse is equal to
the total area of the squares constructed on each of the other two sides.
This suggests a discovery approach to Pythagoras’ Theorem by drawing a right
triangle and constructing squares on the sides of the triangle. The two smaller
squares may then be cut out and shown to cover the area of the largest square.
There are many different proofs of Pythagoras Theorem. One of the simplest is
Bhaskara’s proof.
Quadratic equations
Quadratic equations are equations of the form y=ax2+bx+c where a, b and c are real
numbers. This is a polynomial equation of the second degree, because the greatest
exponent of its powers is two. ax2 is the quadratic term, bx the linear term and c the
constant term. When graphed on the Cartesian plane its graph forms a parabola. The
simplest quadratic equations are the pure quadratic equations such as x2-4=0.
If x2-4=0 then x2=4 so x ∈ {2, -2}
Quadratic equations arise in many situations in the real world, such as in the
following measurement problem:
A carpet is 6 metres longer than it is wide and has an area of 27 square metres.
What are the dimensions of the carpet?
If the length of the carpet is x metres then the width is x-6 metres and we have the
quadratic equation x(x-6)=27, which rearranges to x2-6x-27=0. There are three
ways to solve this equation:
1. By factorising it:
x2-6x-27 = 0
So (x-9)(x+3) = 0 If the product of two numbers is zero then at least one of
them is zero. So x-9 = 0 or x+3 = 0. So x = 9 or x = -3.
The carpet is 9 metres long by three metres wide.
Quadrilateral
Quarter turn
A rotation through 90o. A quarter of a complete rotation.
Random sample
A statistical sample is random if each element of the population has an equal chance
of being selected.
Range
See Function.
Rate
The gradient of a straight-line graph is a measure of the slope of the line. Usually
given the letter m, it is found by taking any two points on the line and putting
The gradient of a curve at a point P is the gradient of the tangent to the curve at P.
The gradient at a point P is a measure of the rate of change of the variable on the
vertical axis (usually the y-axis) with respect to the variable on the horizontal axis
(usually the x-axis). For example, if the gradient is 3 then the vertical variable is
increasing by 3 units for every 1 unit that the horizontal variable increases.
Ratio
5 3 5(x-2) 3(x+1)
+ = +
x+1 x-2 (x+1)(x-2) (x+1)(x-2)
8x-7
=
x2-x-2
Care is needed to ensure that the denominator is not zero, since if it is zero the
expression becomes meaningless.
Rational numbers
The rational numbers, often given the label Q, are the numbers that can be written
as fractions, that is in the form a/b where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0. (b cannot
be equal to zero because division by zero is meaningless). The decimal form of all
rational numbers is a repeating or a terminating decimal and all repeating or
terminating decimals are rational numbers and can be written in the form a/b.
Real numbers
The set of real numbers is the union of the set of rational numbers and the set of
irrational numbers. Hence it is all the numbers on the number line.
Reciprocal
The reciprocal of a number a is its multiplicative inverse, that is, the number which
when multiplied by a gives 1 as the answer. (1 is the multiplicative identity element
because multiplication of any number by 1 leaves the number unchanged.) So the
reciprocal of 2 is 1/2, since 2 x 1/2 = 1
The reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2 since 2/3 x 3/2 = 1
Rectangle
A rectangle is a four-sided polygon with opposite sides equal in length and all
interior angles right angles (that is 90o). The area of a rectangle is the product of two
adjacent sides. For example, if the sides of a rectangle are 8 cm and 6 cm then the
area is 48 cm2. The area of a rectangle can be effectively explored using grid paper.
Reflection
A reflection in the plane has the effect of transforming an object in the plane onto its
mirror image. Thus under reflection in the plane a figure in the plane is effectively
flipped over a fixed line in the plane. The points on this line (called the mirror line or
line of reflection) are the only fixed (invariant) points of the transformation. A
reflection in space has a plane of reflection, that is, a plane of points that are
invariant under the transformation of reflection. A reflection is a shape-preserving
(isometric) transformation.
Using a table and looking at the differences between successive terms can be an
effective way of finding a rule that will generate all the terms of a sequential pattern.
Example: Consider the pattern: 1, 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19,…
n 1234 5 6 7
nth term 1 4 7 10 13 16 19
Differences 333 3 3 3
Compare the pattern with the multiples of three: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, …
It is apparent form the table that the nth term, Tn, is given by the expression:
Tn = (3xn)-2
Similarly, a graph might also display the relationship.
Repeating pattern
A repeating pattern is a pattern that consists of a core that is repeated. The core is
the shortest string of elements that repeats. E.g. 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, … (The core is
1, 2, 3 ) or a,b,a,b,a,b,a,b,…(The core is ab).
In statistics, risk is often mapped to the probability of some event which is seen as
undesirable. The risk function is defined as the expectation value of the loss
function.
Relative risk is the risk of an event relative to exposure. It is a ratio of the
probability of the event occurring in the set exposed to the risk to the probability of
the event occurring in the population.
A relative risk of 1 means that there is n difference beteween the two groups. A
relative risk <1 means that the event is less likely to occur in the exposed group.
A relative risk >1 means that the event is more likely to occur in the exposed group.
Roots
secondary roots.
3√ -8 = -2 because -2 x -2 x -2 = -8. -2 is called the principal root of -8 because there are
Rotation
A rotation in the plane is a movement in a circular motion (a turn) through some
angle that leaves shape unchanged and in which exactly one point (the centre of
rotation) does not move i.e. a rotation in the plane has one invariant point. A
rotation of a three-dimensional figure in space has a line of invariant points called
the axis of rotation.
Rotation, like translation and reflection, is called an isometric transformation since
it does not change the shape of the figure being rotated.
Rounding
Rounding of a number means replacing the numeral by another numeral that has
fewer significant figures. The decision whether to round up or down depends on the
value of the leading digit being rounded off. The convention is that 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4
are effectively just chopped off (truncated) while 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are truncated but
the first digit not truncated is increased by a value of one.
Suppose that, measuring to the nearest millimetre we recorded some measurements
as (in metres) 52.365, 12.764, 4.986, 2.031, and 5.699. If we decided to change them
to measurements to the nearest centimet
re (that is, to two decimal places (2dp)) we could record them as 52.37, 12.76, 4.99,
2.03, and 5.70.
Using a metre ruler graduated in millimetres can help with an understanding of
these roundings. The numbers 52.365 etc. above are expressed to three decimal
places (3dp) while the numbers 52.37 etc above are expressed to two decimal
places (2dp).
Sample
Sample variation
If two samples are selected from the same population they are unlikely to be the
same or to have the same mean and standard deviation. Students need to be aware
that a sample is not necessarily an exact representation of the population.
Scales
Sequence
A sequence is an ordered set (usually of numbers) arranged in such a way that the
next element (or term) of the sequence is completely specified. E.g. 4, 7, 10, 13, …
(The nth term (or general term) is given by the rule (3xn)+1 For example, the 5th
term is (3x5)+1).
A finite sequence has a first and last term e.g. 2, 4, 6 , 8, …, 20
An infinite sequence continues indefinitely, e.g. 2, 4, 6, 8, …
Sequential pattern
A series is the sum of the terms of a sequence. For example, suppose we have the
sequence 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16...
1/2 + 1/4 + 1/8 + 1/16 …is a series since it is the sum of the above sequence.
This is an infinite series since it continues indefinitely, but it is also a convergent
series since it has a finite sum. The sum of this series is 1, which can be easily seen
by observing the difference between 1 and the sum after one term, two terms, three
terms etc.
Set
SI
SI measurement units
Most of the commonly used metric units and their abbreviations are as follows:
Length: metre (m), kilometre (km) (1000 metres), centimetre (cm) (1/100
metre), millimetre (mm) (1/1000 metre)
Area: : The basic unit of area is the square metre (m2). Other units in use are
the square millimetre (mm2), the square centimetre (cm2), and the hectare
(10,000 m2). So a hectare is the area of a square of sides 100 m.
Significant figures
Similarity
Similar polygons are polygons whose corresponding angles are equal and whose
corresponding sides are in proportion. For example, the two triangles below are
similar because their corresponding angles are equal but they are not congruent.
Since the two triangles are similar their sides are in proportion and, since the
vertical side of the triangle on the right is twice the length of the corresponding side
of the triangle on the left, it follows that a = 6cm and b = 10 cm.
Simultaneous equations
ii. The system may have an infinite solution. This occurs when one equation is a
multiple of the other, or in the case of three equations in three unknowns, one
equation is a combination of the other two. For example:
2x+y=6
4x+2y=12 The solution is {(t, -2t +6), t any real number}
This is an infinite solution.
iii. The system may have no solution. The system is contradictory and is said to
be inconsistent. The solution is the empty set ∅. For example:
2x+y=6
2x+y=8
Note that we cannot get two or three solutions. The possibilities are none, one or
infinitely many solutions.
One equation non-linear A system of simultaneous equations may consist of only
one linear equation and one other equation such as a quadratic equation. For
example:
2x-y=1 and 3x2-xy+2y2=24
The linear equation can be used to express y in terms of x (or x in terms of y) and
the resulting solutions back substituted into the linear equation.
Sine rule
In any acute triangle ABC the sine of an angle is proportional to the length of the
side opposite the angle.
So a/sinA = b/sinB = c/sinC where a is the length of the side opposite angle A, b is
the length of the side opposite angle B and c is the length of the side opposite angle
C.
Care has to be taken when dealing with an obtuse triangle, because although the
same relationship still holds, it is possible to become confused since, for example,
sin 20o = sin 160o
(See also Trigonometric ratios)
A counting sequence is an ordering of the counting numbers such that the difference
between any two successive numbers is constant. We refer to a sequence in which
the difference between any two successive numbers is greater than 1 as skip
counting. An example of a backwards counting sequence is …, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10 , as
is … 10, 8, 6, 4, 2 etc. An example of a forward counting sequence is 1,3,5,7,9,… etc.
Sorting
Putting objects into sets according to some chosen attribute, for example, the red
ones, the square ones etc.
Spatial features
Sphere
A sphere with centre P is a solid such that every point on its surface is at an equal
distance from P. A sphere may be considered as a solid that is generated by a circle
that revolves about its diameter. A sphere has only one surface. The volume (V) of a
sphere of radius r is given by V = 4/3 πr3 The surface area of a sphere is 4πr2
Square
See rectangle.
Square root
See Roots.
Standard form
A number in decimal form may be written as the product of a number greater than 1
and less than 10, and a power of 10. A number written that way is said to be in
standard form Standard form is also referred to as scientific notation. So, for
example,
Statistical distributions
When summarising large masses of raw data it is often useful to distribute the data
into classes, or categories, and to determine the number of data points belonging to
each class, called the class frequency. A tabular arrangement of data by classes
together with the corresponding class frequencies is called a frequency distribution
or frequency table.
This refers to the sequence of actions that should occur during a statistical enquiry,
namely, posing a question that invites statistical investigation; determining and
gathering relevant data; sorting and organizing the data; displaying and interpreting
the data with reference to the question posed; and discussing the results.
Statistical inference
Statistical experiment
Subtraction of:
Symbols
Mathematics has developed from its early rhetorical phase where all words relating
to operations were written, to its present symbolic phase, where various marks
have meanings describing number, operations and relations. Some common
symbols are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, +, -, x, ÷, <, >, =, π, etc.
Symmetric Patterns
The essential feature of a symmetric geometric pattern is that it can be divided into
two or more identical parts, and furthermore that these parts are systematically
disposed to one another. In addition, some patterns, such as frieze patterns, will
have repetitive elements.
Symmetry means that the parts of a figure are not only congruent but related by an
isometry in such a way that the whole figure is self-coincident under that isometry.
That is, the whole figure maps onto itself under that isometry. Symmetry of
reflection and rotation can be found in many objects and patterns. Kowhaiwhai are
an excellent example of frieze patterns and all seven different types of frieze pattern
are found in them. They can be analysed in terms of a fundamental region (the
smallest region that can generate the pattern) and the isometric transformations
acting on the fundamental region to generate the whole pattern. All four isometries
are found in the Kowhaiwhai.
Temperature
Three-dimensional
Time
Time is a fundamental property of physics and can be described only in terms of its
measurement. It is defined in terms of the length of a mean solar day, i.e. the average
duration of one rotation of Earth with respect to the sun. The basic unit of time is
the second, which is defined as 1/86,400 of a day. Other units in common use are
the minute (60 seconds) and the hour (60 minutes).
Timetables
Timetables are tables of data that involve time as one of the data measures.
Timetables can contain much mathematical information. Tables such as bus
timetables usually contain patterns that can be explored as a part of mathematics
study. Interpretation of the timetable and its patterns develops the ability to read
such tables.
Time series
When data is recorded at regularly spaced intervals of time (for example, every
month or every year) it is referred to as time series data. Examples could be
monthly rainfall, annual sales of consumer goods etc. Transformation
A transformation of the plane or of space is a function (or mapping) that maps the
points of the plane or of space to points of the plane or of space. Common
transformations are translation, reflection and rotation. See also Multiple
transformations.
Translation
The movement of a figure in the plane (or in space) such that every point moves the
same distance and in the same direction. Hence a translation is a shape-preserving
(isometric) transformation that involves no rotation (turning) or reflection.
Trapezium
Treediagram
A tree diagram can be an effective way to show a schematic representation of the
possible outcomes of an experiment. Each branch of the tree displays an outcome.
Probabilities of that outcome can be written against the branch. For example,
suppose an experiment is to toss a coin twice and observe each toss as a head (H) or
a tail (T). The following tree diagram displays the possible outcomes and their
associated probabilities.
From this we can see that there are four possible outcomes, each of whose
probability is printed at the bottom of the branch. These probabilities are obtained
by multiplying the probabilities on each branch of the path leading to the outcome.
Triangle
A triangle is a polygon with three sides, that is, a portion of the plane bounded by
three straight lines. The interior angles of a triangle add to 180o a fact that can be
easily shown by drawing a triangle on paper, cutting the triangle out, tearing off the
corners and putting the vertex angles together. A vertex of a triangle is the point
where two of the sides meet.
Triangles can be classified by their sides as follows:
Scalene triangle – no sides are equal
Isosceles triangle – at least two sides are equal
Equilateral triangle – all three sides are equal. The equilateral triangle is therefore a
special case of the isosceles triangle.
They can also be classified according to the kind of angles they have:
Right triangle – one angle a right angle
Obtuse triangle – has an obtuse angle, that is, an angle greater than 90o but less than
180o.
Acute triangle – a triangle with three acute angles, that is, angles that are less than
90o.
The area of a triangle is half of the length of the base multiplied by the vertical
height. This can be discovered by finding the area of a parallelogram as described
(See parallelogram) and realising that every triangle can be obtained by bisecting a
parallelogram. Hence the area of a triangle is half the area of the associated
parallelogram.
Trigonometric equations
Trigonometric ratios
If two triangles have equal angles then the lengths of corresponding sides will be in
proportion. Triangles that have equal angles are called similar triangles. The lengths
of any two corresponding sides in two similar triangles will be in proportion even
though they may not be equal. So if one side in the larger triangle is double the
length of the corresponding side in the smaller triangle then the other two sides in
the larger triangle will also be double the length of the corresponding sides in the
smaller triangle. This property is used in defining the fundamental trigonometric
functions of angles. The two right triangles above are similar triangles. AC and DF
are the two hypotenuses. CB is the side opposite angle A and FE is the side opposite
angle D. AB is the side adjacent to angle A and DE is the side adjacent to angle D. The
fundamental trigonometric functions are defined as follows:
The sine of A: sin A = length of CB divided by length of AC = sin D
The cosine of A: cos A = length of AB divided by length of AC = cos D
The tangent of A: tan A = length of CB divided by length of AB = tan D
The cosecant of A: cosec A = length of AC divided by length of CB
The secant of A: sec A = length of AC divided by length of AB
The cotangent of A cot A = length of AB divided by length of CB
The numerical value of these trigonometric functions depends only on the size of the
acute angles in the right triangle and not on the ‘size’ of the triangle.
So cosec = 1/sin
sec = 1/cos
cot = 1/tan
Turn
See rotation.
Two-dimensional
A shape is two dimensional if it can be made to lie wholly in a plane. Hence a two
dimensional shape has area but no volume. It is called two-dimensional because any
point in a plane can be described by distances from a fixed point in two independent
directions, such as in the Cartesian plane (See Coordinate systems).
Two-way tables
Two-way tables, often called contingency tables, are two-dimensional grids in which
frequencies observed in a survey can be displayed. A table with r rows and k
columns is referred to as an r x k table. For example, suppose three teachers, A, B,
and C, looked at the pass rate of their students. This could be set out in a 2 x 3 table
as follows.
A B C Total
Passed 50 83 72 205
Failed 10 5 8 23
Total 60 88 80 228
Uncertainty
A unit of measurement is an item or quantity that has the attribute being measured
and which can be compared with the object being measured. For example, the
length of a desk could be measured in handspans or in centimetres. Both have the
attribute of length; the handspan is a nonstandard unit of measurement, the
centimetre a standard unit of measurement. (For a list of the commonly used SI
units see SI measurement units)
Variables
The basic concept of a variable is of a quantity that can take several (perhaps even
infinitely many) values. In an equation it will often be represented by a letter such
as an x or a y. Suppose, for example, that chocolate bars bought on the Internet cost
$2-00 each plus $3-00 for postage. Then the cost (in dollars) of buying x bars will be
2x+3. We could write c=2x+3. c and x are both variables. Once we have chosen a
value for x (say 10) then c will be automatically determined. So x is called the
independent variable and c the dependent variable. (See also Appropriate statistical
variables)
Children can be asked questions regarding a map such as: "If you were standing at
the corner of Smith and Jones Streets looking towards the water tower, what would
you see on your left?" For more advanced learners, questions such as: "If you started
at position (3,5) and you travelled northeast for 6 km what would you find?" etc.
Volume
Weight
The measure of the heaviness of an object. It is the force that results from the action
of gravity on matter. The term ‘weight’ is often used when strictly speaking ‘mass’ is
meant. The distinction between mass and weight is unimportant for most practical
purposes and we commonly use units of mass (kilogram, gram, tonne etc.) as units
of weight. (See SI measurement units)
Whole Numbers
{0,1,2,3,…} is the set of whole numbers. Hence the whole numbers are all the natural
numbers as well as the number zero. (See Base ten numeration system)
Statistical data falls into two main classes. Things that can be counted (for example,
the number of children in a family) give rise to whole number data and things that
can be measured (for example, the heights of a group of people) give rise to
measurement data. A third class is category data, which is data of things that fall into
categories such as colour,