Wind loading and structural response

Lecture 21 Dr. J.D. Holmes

Towers, chimneys and masts

Towers, chimneys and masts

Slender structures (height/width is high)

Mode shape in first mode - non linear

Higher resonant modes may be significant

Cross-wind response significant for circular cross-sections

critical velocity for vortex shedding 5n1b for circular sections
10 n1b for square sections
- more frequently occurring wind speeds than for square sections

Towers, chimneys and masts

Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections

Cd = 2.2

Cd = 1.2

Cd = 2.0

Towers, chimneys and masts

Drag coefficients for tower cross-sections

Cd = 1.5

Cd = 1.4

Cd 0.6 (smooth, high Re)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Drag coefficients for lattice tower sections
e.g. square cross section with flat-sided members (wind normal to face)
4.0

Drag
coefficient
CD (q=0O)

3.5

Australian
Standards

3.0

ASCE 7-02 (Fig. 6.22) :

2.5

CD= 42 5.9 + 4.0

2.0

1.5
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

Solidity Ratio

0.8

1.0

= solidity of one face = area of members total enclosed area

includes interference and shielding effects between members
( will be covered in Lecture 23 )

Towers, chimneys and masts

Along-wind response - gust response factor

Shear force : Qmax = Q. Gq

Bending moment : Mmax = M. Gm
Deflection : xmax = x. Gx
The gust response factors for base b.m. and tip deflection differ because of non-linear mode shape
The gust response factors for b.m. and shear depend on the height
of the load effect, z1 i.e. Gq(z1) and Gm(z1) increase with z1

Towers, chimneys and masts

Along-wind response - effective static loads
160

Height (m)

140

Resonant

Combined

120
100

Background

80

Mean

60
40
20
0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Effective pressure (kPa)

Separate effective static load distributions for mean, background

and resonant components (Lecture 13, Chapter 5)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Cross-wind response of slender towers

For lattice towers - only excitation mechanism is lateral turbulence

For solid cross-sections, excitation by vortex shedding is usually
dominant (depends on wind speed)
Two models : i) Sinusoidal excitation
ii) Random excitation
Sinusoidal excitation has generally been applied to steel chimneys where
large amplitudes and lock-in can occur - useful for diagnostic check of
peak amplitudes in codes and standards
Random excitation has generally been applied to R.C. chimneys where
amplitudes of vibration are lower. Accurate values are required for design
purposes. Method needs experimental data at high Reynolds Numbers.

Towers, chimneys and masts

Cross-wind response of slender towers

Sinusoidal excitation model :

Assumptions :
sinusoidal cross-wind force variation with time
full correlation of forces over the height
constant amplitude of fluctuating force coefficient
Deterministic model - not random

Sinusoidal excitation leads to sinusoidal response (deflection)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Cross-wind response of slender towers

Sinusoidal excitation model :

Equation of motion (jth mode):

G j a C j a K j a Q j (t )
Gj is the generalized or effective mass =

m(z) j (z) dz
2

j(z) is mode shape

Qj(t) is the generalized or effective force =

f(z, t) j (z) dz

Towers, chimneys and masts

Sinusoidal excitation model
Representing the applied force Qj(t) as a sinusoidal function of time, an
expression for the peak deflection at the top of the structure can be derived :
(see Section 11.5.1 in book)
h

C j (z) dz
y m ax(h) a C b 0 j (z) dz
0

h
2
b
16 2 G j jSt 2
4 Sc St 2 j (z) dz
2

where j is the critical damping ratio for the jth mode, equal to

n jb
nsb
St

U(ze ) U(ze )
Sc

4m j
a b

Cj
2 GjK j

Strouhal Number for vortex shedding

ze = effective height ( 2h/3)
(Scruton Number or mass-damping parameter)
m = average mass/unit height

Towers, chimneys and masts

Sinusoidal excitation model
This can be simplified to :

y max
k.C

b
4 .Sc.St2

where k is a parameter depending on mode shape

(z) dz

(z)
dz

0
h

The mode shape j(z) can be taken as (z/h)

For uniform or near-uniform cantilevers, can be taken as 1.5; then k = 1.6

Towers, chimneys and masts

Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu) (Section 11.5.2)
Assumes excitation due to vortex shedding is a random process
lock-in behaviour is reproduced by negative aerodynamic damping
Peak response is inversely proportional to the square root of the damping
In its simplest form, peak response can be written as :

y
A

b [(Sc / 4 ) K (1 y 2
ao

yL

)]1 / 2

A = a non dimensional parameter constant for a particular structure (forcing terms)

Kao = a non dimensional parameter associated with aerodynamic damping
yL= limiting amplitude of vibration

Towers, chimneys and masts

Random excitation model (Vickery/Basu)

Three response regimes :

Maximum tip 0.10
deflection /
diameter
Lock-in
Regime
0.01
Transition
Regime

0.001
2

10

Scruton Number

Lock in region - response driven by aerodynamic damping

Forced
vibration
Regime
20

Towers, chimneys and masts

Scruton Number

The Scruton Number (or mass-damping parameter) appears in peak response

calculated by both the sinusoidal and random excitation models

Sc

4m
a b2

Sometimes a mass-damping parameter is used = Sc /4 = Ka =

Clearly the lower the Sc, the higher the value of ymax / b

m
a b2

(either model)

Sc (or Ka) are often used to indicate the propensity to vortexinduced vibration

Towers, chimneys and masts

Scruton Number and steel stacks

Sc (or Ka) is often used to indicate the propensity to vortex-induced

vibration
e.g. for a circular cylinder, Sc > 10 (or Ka > 0.8), usually indicates low
amplitudes of vibration induced by vortex shedding for circular cylinders
American National Standard on Steel Stacks (ASME STS-1-1992) provides
criteria for checking for vortex-induced vibrations, based on Ka
Mitigation methods are also discussed : helical strakes, shrouds, additional
damping (mass dampers, fabric pads, hanging chains)
A method based on the random excitation model is also provided in ASME
STS-1-1992 (Appendix 5.C) for calculation of displacements for design
purposes.

Towers, chimneys and masts

Helical strakes

For mitigation of vortex-shedding induced vibration :

h/3
0.1b

Eliminates cross-wind vibration, but increases drag coefficient and along-wind

vibration

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Concrete tower 248 metres (814 feet) high
Tapered cylindrical section up to 200 m (656 feet) :
16 m diameter (0 m) to 12 m diameter (200 m)
Pod with restaurant and observation decks
between 200 m and 238m
Steel communications tower 248 to 338 metres (814 to 1109 feet)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
aeroelastic
model
(1/150)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower

Combination of wind tunnel and theoretical

modelling of tower response used

Effective static load distributions

distributions of mean, background and resonant wind loads
derived (Lecture 13)

Wind-tunnel test results used to calibrate

computer model

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower

Wind tunnel model scaling :

Length ratio Lr = 1/150

Density ratio r = 1

Velocity ratio Vr = 1/3

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower

Derived ratios to design model :

Bending stiffness ratio EIr = r Vr2 Lr4
Axial stiffness ratio EAr = r Vr2 Lr2

Use stepped aluminium alloy spine to model

stiffness of main shaft and legs

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Wind-tunnel
AS1170.2
Macau Building Code

Full-scale Height (m)

Mean velocity
profile :
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0

0.5

1.0

Vm /V240

1.5

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower

350
300

Full-scale
Height (m)

Turbulence
intensity
profile :

Wind-tunnel
MACAU TOWER
- Turbulence
AS1170.2
Macau Building
Intensity
ProfileCode

250
200
150
100
50
0
0.0

0.1

Iu

0.2

0.3

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Wind tunnel test results - along-wind b.m. (MN.m) at 85.5 m (280 ft.)
R.m.s.
MACAU
TOWER Mean
Maximum
0.5% damping Minimum
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0

20

40

60

80

100

Full scale mean wind speed at 250m (m/s)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Wind tunnel test results - cross-wind b.m.(MN.m) at 85.5 m (280 ft.)
R.m.s.
MACAU

TOWER Mean
Maximum
0.5% damping Minimum
2000
1500
1000
500
0
-500 0
-1000
-1500
-2000

20

40

60

80

100

Full scale mean wind speed at 250m (m/s)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Along-wind response was dominant
Cross-wind vortex shedding excitation not strong because
of complex pod geometry near the top
Along- and cross-wind have similar fluctuating components
about equal, but total along-wind response includes mean
component

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Along wind response :
At each level on the structure define equivalent wind loads
for :
mean wind pressure
background (quasi-static) fluctuating wind pressure
resonant (inertial) loads
These components all have different distributions
Combine three components of load distributions for
bending moments at various levels on tower
Computer model calibrated against wind-tunnel results

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Design graphs

cracked concrete 5% damping

Mean
Along-wind
bending
moment
at 200
metres
(MN.m)

Maximum

500
400
300
200
100
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Full scale mean wind speed at 250m (m/s)

Towers, chimneys and masts

Case study : Macau Tower
Design graphs
Macau Tower Effective static loads
(s=0 m)

Height (m)

U m ean = 59 7m/s; 5% damping

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Mean
Background
Resonant
Combined

100
Load (kN/m)

200

End of Lecture 21
John Holmes
225-405-3789 JHolmes@lsu.edu