Need for the advent of Calculus in India:

A Journey into the 15th Century

K. Ramasubramanian
Cell for Indian Science and Technology in Sanskrit
Department of HSS, IIT Bombay

August 30, 2008

BMS Engineering College, Bangalore

Organized by: Sri Tirunarayana Trust

Introduction
What is Calculus ?

Calculus is basically study of how things change.

Fundamental idea : Study the change by studying the

instantaneous change. (Position of Sun/Moon after one hour)

A typical course in calculus includes:

How to find the instantaneous change ? (Differentiation !)

How to use derivatives to solve problems ?
How to get back the function from the derivative of the
function ? (Integration !)
Expressing functions in terms of Infinite series
Study of the convergence of series, and so on....

These involve the notion of infinitesmal and infinity.

Unlike Greece, India never had a fear of the infinite or
of the void. Indeed it embraced them.1

Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, p.20.

Outline

Introduction

Zero and Infinity

Nlakan.t.has discussion of irrationality of

Sum of an infinite geometric series

. karas discussion of the binomial series expansion
San

Estimation of sums of powers of integers 1 to n for large n

Derivation of the Madhava

series for

Derivation of end-correction terms (Antya-sam

ara)
. sk

Madhavas
series for Rsine and Rversine

Instantaneous velocity and derivatives

Concluding Remarks

Introduction
Broad classification of Knowledge Mun.d.aka-upanis.ad
Veda
Body of knowledge

Para

Who am I ?

Fudamental
and eternal
questions ?

Apara

Rgveda

Why did I come

into existence ?

Yajurveda

Why do I think
the way I think ?

Samaveda
Atharvaveda
Siksha
Kalpa
Vyakarana
Nirukta
Chanda
Jyotisham

Introduction
Celestial Sphere

Great thinkers of all the civilizations Hindu, Greek,

Arabic2 , Chinese, etc. wondered how to interpret the
celestial phenomena.

Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Ibn al-Shatir, . . .

Introduction
Zero and Infinity: ZUa:nya and A:na:nta

E SSENCE

OF CALCULUS

Use of infinitesmals/limits3

Greeks could not do this neat little mathematical trick. They didnt
have the concept of a limit because they didnt believe in zero. The
terms in the infinite series didnt have a limit or a destination; they
seemed to get smaller and smaller without any particular end in sight.
As a result the Greeks couldnt handle the infinite. They pondered the
concept of void but rejected zero as a number, and they toyed with
the concept of infinite but refused to allow infinity numbers that are
inifinitely small and infinitely large anywhere near the realm of
numbers. This is the biggest failure in the Greek Mathematics, and it
is the only thing that kept them from discovering calculus. 4
3

One of the passages to limit is by summing an infinite series.

Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, Viking, 2000;
Rupa & Co. 2008.
4

Fear of zero!

To the ancients,5 zeros mathematical properties were

inexplicable . . . because zero is different from other numbers
. . . zero always misbehaves. At the very least it does not behave
the way the other numbers do.

Add any number to itself, and it changes. (1 + 1 = 2)

Zero refuses to get bigger. (0 + 0 = 0 ?)6
It also refuses to make any other number bigger.7

Normally multiplication by a number stretches a number line. But

multiplication by zero collapes it.

Dividing by zero destroys the entire framework of mathematics.

. . . it would clash with the fundamental philosophy of the west.8

particularly Greeks.
This violates the basic principle of numbers called the Axiom of
Archimedes, which says that if you add something to itself enought times, it
will exceed any other number in magnitude.
7
Charles Seife, Zero:The Biography of a Dangerous Idea, p.20.
8
Ibid. p.23.
6

Introduction
The Infinitesmal and Infinity

This being the scenario in the Greek tradition, it is interesting to

contrast it with the Indian tradition.

the dexterity with which the Hindus could comprehend such

concepts is evident from the sa
nti-mantra of the Isa
v
asyopanis.ad
that runs as follows:
:pUa:NRa:ma:dH :pUa:NRa:a.ma:dM :pUa:Na.Ra:t,a :pUa:NRa:mua:d:. ya:tea
:pUa:NRa:~ya :pUa:NRa:ma.a:d.a:ya :pUa:NRa:mea:va.a:va:a.Za:Sya:tea

. . . when p
urn.a is taken out of p
urn.a what remains is
also p
urn.a.

The notion of su
nya appears Chandass
utra (c.300 BC).9

Brahmagupta taking about the mathematics of zero observes:

;Da:nRa:NRa:ya.ea:DRa:nMa +Na:mxa:Na:ya.eaH

;Da:na:NRa:ya.ea.=;nta.=M .sa:mEa:k+.a:m,a

+Na:mEa:k+.aM .. a ;Da:na:mxa:Na:Da:na:ZUa:nya:ya.eaH

9
10

.+pMa ZUa:nyea ;a.dH ZUa:nyea (8.29,30).

ZUa:nya:m,a

10

Introduction
The Infinitesmal and Infinity

The notion of infinity, which is so fundamental for the development of

calculus besides with the notion of infinitesimal, as presented by
Bh
askara in his Bjagan.ita:

A:a.sma:n,
/////// a ;a.va:k+a.=H Ka:h:=e na .=:a:Za.Ea A:a.pa :pra:a.va:e:Sva:a.pa ;
a.naH sxa:tea:Sua
ba:hu:Sva:a.pa .~ya.a:t,a l+ya:sxa:a.:k+a:le A:na:nteaY:. yua:tea BUa:ta:ga:Nea:Sua ya:d
:t,a

In this quantity that has zero as the divisor (khahara) there

is no change, even if very large quantities [numbers of huge
magnitudes] are inserted or extracted; as no change takes
place in the infinite (ananta) immutable (acyuta) [Brahman]
at the time of destruction or creation of the worlds when
numerous beings are absorbed and put forth.

Introduction
Signal achievements of Kerala Mathematicians

Infinite series expansions for trigonometric functions

sin x = x

x3 x5
+
...,
3!
5!

Infinite series for



1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 Vy
asa 1 + + . . .
3 5 7

(1)

(2)

The derivative of sine inverse function

r
dM
i
cos M
d h 1  r
dt
sin
sin M = qR

2
dt
R
r
1 R sin M

(3)

Introduction
Need for the precise values of Sines and Derivatives

In Indian astronomical texts the sine function is described

by the term jy
a or jv
a
This function is almost ubiquitous. For instance,

In the computation of longitude of the planets,


r
sin M
= 0 sin1
R

The declincation of the Sun is computed using the formula,

sin = sin sin ,
where obliquity of the ecliptic and declination of
the Sun.

(4)

Given that the sine function appears in almost all the

computations, a procedure to compute its precise value
becomes all the more important.

(5)

Nlakan.t.has discussion of irrationality of

While discussing the value of Nlakan.t.ha observes:

:pa:a=; a.Da:v.ya.a:sa:ya.eaH .sa:* +;a. a-.sa:}ba:nDaH :pra:d:a.ZRa:taH . . .

A.a:sa:aH , A.a:sa:a:ta:yEa:va A:yua:ta:d:ya:sa:* +;a:
a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya I+yMa

:pa:a=; a.Da:sa:* +;a. a o++a ku+.taH :pua:naH va.a:~ta:va.Ma .sa:* +;a. a:m,a o+tsxa.$ya
A.a:sa:Ea:va I+h.ea:+a ? o+. ya:tea ta:~ya.a va:u+.ma:Za:k+.a:tva.a:t,a ku+.taH ?
The relation between the circumference and the diameter
was expressed. . . .
Approximate: This value (62,832) was stated to be nearly
the circumference of a circle having a diameter of 20,000.
Why then has an approximate value been mentioned here
leaving behind the actual value? It is explained [as
follows]. Because it (the exact value) cannot be expressed.
Why?

Nlakan.t.has discussion of irrationality of

yea:na ma.a:nea:na ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:saH ;
a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .~ya.a:t,a, .tea:nEa:va ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH
:pa:a=; a.DaH :pua:naH .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va .~ya.a:t,a yea:na . a ma.a:ya:ma.a:naH :pa:a=; a.DaH
;
a.na.=;va:ya:vaH .tea:nEa:va ma.a:ya:ma.a:na.ea v.ya.a:sa.eaY:a.pa .sa.a:va:ya:va O;:va; I+ a.ta O;:ke+.nEa:va
ma.a:ya:ma.a:na:ya.eaH o+Ba:ya.eaH *: +a:a.pa na ;
a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa .~ya.a:t,a
Given a certain unit of measurement (m
ana) in terms of which
the diameter (vy
asa) specified [is just an integer and] has no
[fractional] part (niravayava), the same measure when
employed to specify the circumference (paridhi) will certainly
have a [fractional] part (s
avayava) [and cannot be just an
integer]. Again if in terms of certain [other] measure the
circumference has no [fractional] part, then employing the same
measure the diameter will certainly have a [fractional] part [and
cannot be an integer]. Thus when both [the diameter and the
circumference] are measured by the same unit, they cannot
both be specified [as integers] without [fractional] parts.

Nlakan.t.has discussion of irrationality of

ma:h.a:nta:m,a A:Dva.a:nMa ga:tva.a:a.pa A:pa.a:va:ya:va:tva:m,a O;:va l+Bya:m,a
;
a.na.=;va:ya:va:tvMa tua *: +a:a.pa na l+Bya:m,a I+ a.ta Ba.a:vaH

Even if you go a long way (i.e., keep on reducing the

measure of the unit employed), the fractional part [in
specifying one of them] will only become very small. A
situation in which there will be no [fractional] part (i.e,
both the diameter and circumference can be specified
in terms of integers) is impossible, and this is what is
the import [of the expression a
sanna]
What Nlakan.t.ha is trying to explain is the incommensurability
of the circumference and the diameter of a circle. The last line
of the above quote however small you may choose your unit
of measurement to be, the two quantities will never become
commensurate is indeed noteworthy.

Sum of an infinite geometric series

In his Aryabhat
a.sya, while deriving an interesting
.ya-bh
approximation for the arc of circle in terms of the jy
a
(Rsine) and the sara (Rversine), Nlakan.t.ha presents a
detailed demonstration of how to sum an infinite geometric
series.
The specific geometric series that arises in the above
context is:
1
+
4

 2
 n
1
1
1
+ ... +
+ ... = .
4
4
3

Here, we shall present an outline of Nlakan.t.has argument

It is clearly indicative of how the notion of limit was

understood.

Sum of an infinite geometric series

AB is c
apa (c) as it
looks like a bow.

AD is jy
ardha (j) as it
half the string.

BD is sara (s) as it
looks like an arrow.

F
A

The expression given by Nlakan.t.ha is:

s

1
c
1+
s2 + j 2 .
3

.sa.yMa:Za.a:a.d:Sua:va:ga.Ra:t,a .$ya.a:va:ga.Ra:Q.a.a:t,a :pa:dM ;Da:nuaH :pra.a:yaH

(6)

Sum of an infinite geometric series

The proof of (6) presented by Nlakan.t.ha involves:
1. Repeated halving of the arc-bit, c
apa c to get c1 . . . ci .
2. Finding the corresponding semi-chords, jy
a (ji ) and the
Rversines, sara (si )
3. Estimating the difference between the c
apa and jy
a at each
step.
If i be the difference between the c
apa and jy
a at the i th step,
i = ci ji .

(7)

apa decreases the

Nlakan.t.ha observation as the size of the c
difference also decreases.

Sum of an infinite geometric series

ta.a .$ya.a:. a.a:pa:ya.ea.=;nta.=;~ya :pua:naH :pua:naH nyUa:na:tvMa
. a.a:pa:pa:a=;ma.a:Na.a:pa:tva:k+.mea:Nea: a.ta ta.a-d:DRa:. a.a:pa.a:na.a:m,a A:DRa.$ya.a:pa.=;}.pa.=:a
Za.=;pa.=;}.pa.=:a . a A.a:na.a:ya:ma.a:na.a na *: +.
a. a:d:a.pa :pa:yRa:va:~ya: a.ta A.a:na:ntya.a:d,
;a.va:Ba.a:ga:~ya ta:taH ;a.k+.ya:nta:
a*.a:t,a :pra:de:ZMa ga:tva.a . a.a:pa:~ya .ja.a:va.a:ya.a:(a
A:pa.a:ya:~tva:m,a A.a:pa.a:d;a . a.a:pa.$ya.a:nta.=M . a ZUa:nya:pra.a:yMa l+b.Dva.a :pua:na.=;a.pa
k+.pya:ma.a:na:ma:nta.=;m,a A:tya:pa:ma:a.pa k+Ea:Za:l;a:t,a ea:ya:m,a

Generating successive values of the ji s and si s is an

unending process as one can keep on dividing the c
apa
into half ad infinitum.

It would therefore be appropriate to recognize that the

difference i is tending to zero and hence make an
intelligent approximation, to obtain the value of the
difference between c and j approximately.

Sum of an infinite geometric series

Nlakan.t.ha poses a very important question:

k+.TMa :pua:naH ta.a:va:de:va va:DRa:tea ta.a:va:d:DRa:tea . a ?

How do you know that [the sum of the series]
increases only upto that [limiting value] and that
certainly increases upto that [limiting value]?
Proceeding to answer he first states the general result
#
"   
 3
1
1 2
a
1
.
+
+ ... =
+
a
r
r
r
r 1

Infinite Geometric Series tua:ya:. Ce +d:pa.=;Ba.a:ga:pa.=;}.pa.=:a

Common Divisor Ce +d

(8)

Sum of an infinite geometric series

He further notes that this result is best demonstrated with r = 4
and obtains the sequence of results,
1
3
1
(4.3)
1
(4.4.3)

=
=
=

1
1
+
,
4 (4.3)
1
1
+
,
(4.4) (4.4.3)
1
1
+
,
(4.4.4) (4.4.4.3)

and so on, which leads to the general result,

"
 2
 n #  n  
1
1
1
1
1
1

+
+ ... +
=
.
3
4
4
4
4
3

(9)

(10)

As we sum more terms, the difference between 13 and sum of

powers of 41 , becomes extremely small, but never zero.

What is a Limit ?
Cauchys (1821) definition of limit:
If the successive values attributed to the same
variable approach indefinitely a fixed value, such that
finally they differ from it by as little as one wishes, this
latter is called the limit of all the others.11

Nlakan.t.ha in his Aryabhat

a.sya:
.ya-bh

k+.TMa :pua:naH ta.a:va:de:va va:DRa:tea ta.a:va:d:DRa:tea . a ?

How do you know that [the sum of the series]
increases only upto that [limiting value] and that
certainly increases upto that [limiting value]?

11

Cauchy, Cours dAnalyse, cited by Victor J. Katz, A History of

Mathematics, Addison Wesley Longman, New York 1998, p. 708.

Binomial series expansion

nkara
Sa

Variyar in his Kriy

akramakar discusses as follows
c
b

Consider the product a

Here, a is called gun.ya, c the gun.aka and b the h

ara (these
are all assumed to be positive).


If we consider the ratio bc , there are two possibilities:

Case I: gun.aka > h

ara (c > b). In this case we rewrite the
product in the following form
a

c 
b

=a+a

(c b)
.
b

(11)

Case II: gun.aka < h

ara (c < b). In this case we rewrite the
product as
c 
(b c)
=aa
.
(12)
a
b
b

Binomial series expansion

In the expression a (bc)
b , if we want to replace the division by b by
division by c, then we have to make a subtractive correction
(sodhya-phala) which amounts to the following equation.
a

(b c)
(b c)
(b c) (b c)
=a
a

.
b
c
c
b

(13)

If we again replace the division by the divisor b by the multiplier c,



(b c)
(b c) (b c)
c
a
= a a
a

b
c
c
b


(b c) (b c) c
(b c)
a

= a a
c
c
c
b




2
(b c)
(b c)2
(b c)
(b c)
= a a
(14)
a

a
c
c2
c2
b
2

The quantity a (bc)

is called dvitya-phala or simply dvitya and the
c2
one subtracted from that is dvitya-sodhya-phala.

Binomial series expansion

Thus, after taking m sodhya-phala-s we get
2
m1


(b c)
(b c)
(b c)
c
m1
. . . + (1)
a
= aa
+a
a
b
c
c
c

m1
(b c)
(b c)
+(1)m a
.
(15)
c
b

x +.teaY:a.pa yua: a.+.taH 

O;:vMa mua:huH :P+l;a:na:ya:nea k
a.pa na .sa:ma.a: a.aH ta:Ta.a:a.pa ya.a:va:d:pea:[Ma
*:+a:
.sUa:[ma:ta.a:ma.a:pa.a:d;a :pa.a:(
a.a:tya.a:nyua:pea:[ya :P+l;a:na:ya:nMa .sa:ma.a:pa:na.a:ya:m,a
I+h.ea.a.=:ea.a.=;P+l;a:na.Ma nyUa:na:tvMa tua gua:Na:h.a.=:a:nta:=e gua:Na:k+a.=:a:yUa:na O;:va .~ya.a:t,a

Still, if we keep including correction terms, then there is logically

no end to the series of correction terms (phala-parampar
a).

For achieving a given level of accuracy, we can terminate the

process when the correction term becomes small enough.

If b c < c, then the successive correction terms keep

decreasing.

Different approximations to

The Sulba-s
utra-s, give the value of close to 3.088.

Aryabhat
. a (499 AD) gives an approximation which is correct to
four decimal places.

.. a:tua.=; a.Da:k
M Za:ta:ma::gua:NMa d
a
.a:Sa:a.:~ta:Ta.a .sa:h:~:a.a:Na.a:m,
A:yua:ta:d
:ya:a.va:Sk+.}Ba:~ya.a:sa:a.ea vxa.a:pa:a=;Na.a:hH

(100 + 4) 8 + 62000
62832
=
= 3.1416
20000
20000

Then we have the verse of Ll

avat12

v.ya.a:sea Ba:na:nd.a: a.
+;a:h:tea ;a.va:Ba:e Ka:ba.a:Na:sUa:yERaH :pa:a=; a.DaH .sua:sUa:[maH

e ;a.va:&+teaY:Ta ZEa:lE H .~TUa:l;eaY:Ta:va.a .~ya.a:d, v.ya:va:h.a.=;ya.ea:gyaH

d
.a:a.vMa:Za: a.ta*+

=
12

3927
= 3.1416
1250

thats same as Aryabhat

. as value.

arya,

Ll
avat of Bhaskar
ac
verse 199.

Different approximations to
The commentary Kriy
akramakar further proceeds to present more
aryas.
accurate values of given by different Ac

a:+.va.a:n,a
ma.a:Da:va.a:. a.a:yRaH :pua:naH A:ta.ea:pya.a:sa:a:ta:ma.Ma :pa:a=; a.Da:sa:*
+;a.a:mu

;a.va:bua:Da:nea.a:ga.ja.a:a.h:hu:ta.a:Za:na:aa:gua:Na:vea:d:Ba:va.a.=;Na:ba.a:h:vaH

na:va:
a.na:Ka:vRa:a.ma:tea vxa: a.ta:a.va:~ta:=e :pa:a=; a.Da:ma.a:na:a.ma:dM .ja:ga:du:bRua:Da.aH

13

The values of given by the above verses are:

=
=

355
113
2827433388233
9 1011

= 3.141592920353

(correct to 6 places)

= 3.141592653592

(correct to 11 places)

The latter one is due to M

adhava.
13

Vibudha=33, Netra=2, Gaja=8, Ahi=8, Hut

asana=3, Trigun
. a=3,
Veda=4, Bha=27, V
aran
ahu=2, Nava-nikharva=9 1011 . (The
. a=8, B
word nikharva represents 1011 ).

Infinite series for the as given in Yukti-dpika

v.ya.a:sea va.a:a=; a.Da:
a.na:h:tea .+pa:&+tea v.ya.a:sa:sa.a:ga.=:a:a.Ba:h:tea

+;a.a:Ba:+.m,
;aa:Za.=:a:a.d ;a.va:Sa:ma:sa:*
a +NMa .~vMa :pxa:Ta:k
, k
+.ma.a:t,a k
u +.ya.Ra:t,a

The diameter multiplied by four and divided by unity (is found and
stored). Again the products of the diameter and four are divided by
the odd numbers like three, five, etc., and the results are subtracted
and added in order (to the earlier stored result).

vy
ase v
aridhinihate 4 Diameter (v
aridhi)

vis.amasankhy

abhaktam Divided by odd numbers

trisar
adi 3, 5, etc. (bh
utasankhy

a system)

.rn.am
. svam
. to be subtracted and added [successively]


1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 Vy
asa 1 + + . . . . . .
3 5 7

Infinite series for the

E
N

The triangles OPi1 Ci and

OAi1 Bi are similar. Hence,

Blown up version
of this quadrant

Pi1 Ci
Ai1 Bi
=
OAi1
OPi1

(16)

Ci

Ai1

Ai

Similarly triangles Pi1 Ci Pi

and P0 OPi are similar.
Hence,
OP0
Pi1 Ci
=
Pi1 Pi
OPi

Pi

Pi1

P0

Bi

k i1
ki

(17)

Infinite series for the

From these two relations we have,
Ai1 Bi

OAi1 .OP0 .Pi1 Pi

OPi1 .OPi
OAi1 OP0
= Pi1 Pi

OPi1
OPi
r 
r
r

n
ki+1 ki
 r   r2 
=
.
n
ki ki+1

(18)

It is nr that is refered to as khan.d.a in the text. The text also
notes that, when the khan.d.a-s become small (or equivalently n
becomes large), the Rsines can be taken as the arc-bits itself.

:pa:a=; a.Da:Ka:Nq+~ya.a:DRa.$ya.a
i.e.,

:pa:a=;DyMa:Za

Ai1 Bi Ai1 Ai .

Infinite series for the

Though the value of 18 th of the circumference has been obtained as


 r   r 2   r 2   r 2 
C
r2
+
+
+ +
, (19)
=
8
n
k0 k1
k1 k2
k2 k3
kn1 kn
there may not be much difference in approximating it by either of the
following expressions:
!#
"
 r   r2   r2   r2 
C
r2
+
+
+ +
(20)
=
2
8
n
k02
k12
k22
kn1
 2 
 r   r 2   r 2   r 2 
C
r
or
=
+
+
+

+
(21)
8
n
k12
k22
k32
kn2

The difference between (21) and (20) will be

 
r 
 r   r 2   r 2 
1

=
1

n
n
2
k02
kn2
 r  1
=
n
2
Ka:Nq+~ya A:pa:tva:va:Za.a:t,a ta:d:nta.=M ZUa:nya:pra.a:ya:mea:va

( k02 , kn2 = r 2 , 2r 2 )
(22)

Infinite series for the

Thus we have,
C
8

=
=

 
n
X
r r2
n ki2
i=1
"
#



2
n
X
r
r ki2 r 2
r ki2 r 2
+

...
n n
r2
n
r2
i=1
r 
[1 + 1 + . . . + 1]
n
#
"
 r   1   r 2  2r 2
 nr 2

+
+ ... +
n
r2
n
n
n
#
"




4
 r 4
 nr 4
r  1
2r
+
+ ... +
+
n
r4
n
n
n
#
"




6
 r 6
 nr 6
r  1
2r
+
+ ... +

n
r6
n
n
n
+... .

(23)

Infinite series for the

If we take out the powers of bhuj
a-khan.d.a nr , the summations involved
are that of even powers of the natural numbers, namely
ed
adyekottara-varga-sankalita,

12 + 22 + ... + n2 ,
ed
adyekottara-varga-varga-sankalita,

14 + 24 + ... + n4 , and so on.

Kerala astronomers knew that
n
X
i=1

ik

nk +1
,
k +1

(24)

we arrive at the result

C
=r
8



1 1 1
1 + + ,
3 5 7

The above equation is given in the form



1 1 1
Paridhi = 4 Vy
asa 1 + +
3 5 7

(25)

Summation of series (sankalita)

[Integral ?]
Background

The Aryabhat

.ya of Aryabhat
. a has the formula for the sankalita-s
(1)

(2)

(3)

Sn

Sn
Sn

n(n + 1)
2
n(n
+ 1)(2n + 1)
12 + 22 + + n2 =
6
2

n(n + 1)
3
3
3
1 + 2 + + n =
2

1+ 2 + + n =

(26)

From these, it is easy to estimate these sums when n is large.

Yuktibh
as.a
gives a general method of estimating the
sama-gh
ata-sankalita

(k )

Sn = 1k + 2k + + nk ,

(27)

when n is large. What is presents is a general method of estimation,

which does make use of the actual value of the sum. So, the
argument is repeated even for k = 1, 2, 3, although the result of
summation is well known in these cases.

Summation of series (sankalita)

[Integral ?]
Kevala-sankalita

or M
ula-sankalita

The following is a citation from the translation of Yuktibh

as.a
(6.4.1):
Now is described the methods of making the summations. At first,
the simple arithmetical progression (kevala-sankalita)

is described.
This is followed by the summation of the products of equal numbers
(squares). . . .
ula-sankalita

(basic arithmetical progression), the final

Here, in this m
bhuj
a is equal to the radius. The term before that will be one segment
(khan.d.a) less. The next one will be two segments less. Here, if all the
terms (bhuj
a-s) had been equal to the radius, . . . .
Now, the smaller the segments, the more accurate (s
uks.ma) will be
the result. Hence, do the summation also by taking each segment as
small as an atom (an.u). Here, if it (namely, the bhuj
a or the radius) is
divided into par
ardha (a very large number) parts, to the bhuj
a
obtained by multiplying by par
ardha add one part in par
ardha and
multiply by the radius and divide by 2, and then divide by par
ardha.
For, the result will practically be the square of the radius divided by
two. . . .

Summation of series (sankalita)

[Integral ?]
Kevala-sankalita

or M
ula-sankalita

The first summation, the bhuj

a-sankalita,

may be written in the order

from the final bhuj
a to the first bhuj
a as
 nr   (n 1)r 
r 
(1)
Sn =
+
+ .... +
.
(28)
n
n
n

Now, conceive of the bhuj

a-khan.d.a nr as being infinitesimal (an.u) and
at the same time as of unit-measure (r
upa), so that the radius will be
the measure of n, the pada, or the number of terms. Then
(1)

Sn = n + (n 1) + .... + 1.

(29)

If each of the terms were of the measure of radius (n) then the sum
would be nothing but n2 , the square of the radius. But only the first
term is of the measure of radius, the next is deficient by one segment
(khan.d.a), the next by two segments and so on till the last term which
is deficient by an amount equal to radius-minus-one segment.
(1)

Sn

= n + [n 1] + [n 2].... + [n (n 2)] + [n (n 1)]

= n.n [1 + 2 + ... + (n 1)].
(30)

Summation of series (sankalita)

[Integral ?]
Kevala-sankalita

or M
ula-sankalita

(1)

Sn

= n + [n 1] + [n 2].... + [n (n 2)] + [n (n 1)]

= n.n [1 + 2 + ... + (n 1)].

When n is very large, the quantity to be subtracted from n2 is

(1)
practically (pr
ayen.a) the same as Sn , thus leading to the estimate
(1)

(1)

Sn n2 Sn ,

(31)

or, equivalently
n2
.
(32)
2
It is stated that the result is more accurate, the smaller the size of the
nkara
segments (or equivalently the larger the value of n). Sa

V
ariyar
notes in his Kriy
akramakar:
(1)

Sn

Ka:Nq+~ya.a:pa:tvea .sa:tyea:va l+b.Da:~ya .sUa:[ma:ta.a .. a .~ya.a:t,a

Summation of series (sankalita)

Varga-sankalita

With the same convention that nr is the measure of the unit, the
bhuj
a-varga-sankalita

(the sum of the squares of the bhuj

a-s) will be
(2)

Sn = n2 + (n 1)2 + .... + 12 .

(33)

In above expression, each bhuj

a is multiplied by itself. If instead, we
consider that each bhuj
a is multiplied by the radius (n in our units)
then that would give raise to the sum
(1)

n [n + (n 1) + ... + 1] = n Sn .

(34)

This sum is exceeds the bhuj

a-varga-sankalita

by the amount
(1)

(2)

nSn Sn = 1.(n 1) + 2.(n 2) + 3.(n 3) + . . . + (n 1).1.

This may be written as
(1)

(2)

nSn Sn = (n 1) + (n 2) + (n 3)

+ . . . +1

+(n 2) + (n 3)
+(n 3)

+ . . . +1
+ . . . +1
+... .

(35)

Summation of series (sankalita)

Varga-sankalita

and Sankalita-sa

nkalita

Thus,

(1)

(2)

(1)

(1)

(1)

nSn Sn = Sn1 + Sn2 + Sn3 + . . . .

(1)

For large n, we have already estimated Sn

(1)

(2)

nSn Sn =

n2
2 .

(36)

Thus,

(n 2)2
(n 3)2
(n 1)2
+
+
+ ....
2
2
2

(37)

Thus, the right hand side of (36) (the sankalita-sa

nkalita

or the excess
(1)

(2)

(2)

of nSn over Sn ) is essentially

Sn
2

(1)

for large n, so that we obtain

(2)

(2)

nSn Sn

Sn
.
2

(38)

(1)

Again, using the earlier estimate (19) for Sn , we obtain the result
(2)

Sn

n3
.
3

Thus bhuj
a-varga-sankalita

is one-third the cube of the radius.

(39)

Summation of series (sankalita)

Samaghata-sankalita

Thus in general we have,

(k 1)

nSn

(k )

Sn

(n 1)k
(n 2)k
(n 3)k
+
+
+ ...
k
k
k
 
1
(k )
Sn .
(40)
k

Rewriting the above equation we have

(k )
Sn

(A:ta

(k 1)
nSn

 
1
(k )
Sn .

(41)

o;a.=:ea.a.=;sa:*:+

 a.l+ta:~ya v.ya.a:sa.a:DRa:gua:Na:na:m,a
 a.l+ta.a:na:ya:na.a:ya ta.a:tsa:*:+

+;a.a:a
O;;k
E +.k+a: a.Da:k+.sa:*
.~va.Ma:Za:Za.ea:Da:nMa .. a k+a:yRa:m,a I+ a.ta ;a.~Ta:ta:m,
////
a

Thus we obtain the estimate

(k )

Sn

nk +1
.
(k + 1)

(42)

End-correction in the infinite series for

Expression for the remainder terms (Antyasam
ara)
. sk

x +.tea ;
a.na:vxa.a.a &+ a.ta:~tua .ja.a:a.ma:ta:ya.a
+;a:ya.a.a
h.=;Nea k
ya:tsa:*

+;a.a
ta:;lM gua:Na.eaY:ntea .~ya.a:t,a
ta:~ya.a +.DvRa:ga:ta.a ya.a .sa:ma:sa:*

ta:d
/
:pra.a:gva:t,a
:ga.eRa .+pa:yua:ta.ea h.a.=:ea v.ya.a:sa.a:a.b.Da:Ga.a:ta:taH

x +.tea ;Ga:nea [ea:pa O;:va k+=;Na.a:yaH

ta.a:Bya.a:ma.a:Ma .~va:mxa:Nea k

x +.tva.ea h.=;Na:ta.eaY: a.ta:sUa:[maH .~ya.a:t,a

l+b.DaH :pa:a=; a.DaH .sUa:[maH ba:hu:k

yatsankhyay

atra haran.e Dividing by a certain number (p)

nivr.tt
a hr.tistu if the division is stopped
j
amitay
a being bored (due to slow-convergence)


Remainder term = 

p+1
2

p+1
2

2

+1

labdhah. paridhih. s
uks.mah. the circumference obtained would
be quite accurate

End-correction in the infinite series for

When does the end-correction give exact result ?

nkara
The discussion by Sa

V
ariyar is almost in the form of a
engaging dialogue between the teacher and the taught and
commences with the question, how do you ensure accuracy.

+;a.a:h.=;Ne
a:na l+Bya:~ya :pa:a=;DeaH
k+.TMa :pua:na.=:a mua:hu:a.vRa:Sa:ma:sa:*

A.a:sa:a:tva:ma:ntya:sMa:~k+a:=e;Na A.a:pa.a:d;a:te
a

o+. ya:tea

ta.a ta.a:va:du:++pa:ssMa:~k+a.=H .sUa:[ma.ea na :vea: a.ta :pra:Ta:mMa ;

a.na.+pa:Na.a:ya:m,a

x +.tea :pxa:Ta:k
, ;a.va:Sa:ma:sMa:K.ya:ya.a h.=;Nea k
, .sMa:~k+a.=M
ta:d:Ta ya:ya.a:k+.ya.a ;
a.. a:d

, .sMa:~k+a.=M
k
u +.ya.Ra:t,a A:Ta ta:du.a.=;a.va:Sa:ma:sMa:K.ya.a h.=;Na.a:na:nta.=M .. a :pxa:Ta:k
x +.tea l+b.Da.Ea :pa:a=;Da.a ya:a.d tua:ya.Ea Ba:va:taH ta:a.hR .sMa:~k+a.=H
k
u +.ya.Ra:t,a O;:vMa k
.sUa:[ma I+ a.ta ;
a.na:Na.Ra:ya:ta.a:m,a k+.Ta:m,a

How do you say that you get the value close to the
circumference by using antya-sam
ara, instead of
. sk
repeatedly dividing by odd numbers? Let me explain this.

End-correction in the infinite series for

When does the end-correction give exact result ?

The argument is as follows: If the correction term

odd denominator p 2 (with

p1
2

1
ap2

is applied after

is odd), then

1 1 1
1
1
.
= 1 + ...
+
4
3 5 7
p 2 ap2
On the other hand, if the correction term
denominator p, then

l
ap ,

(43)

is applied after the odd

1 1 1
1
1
1
= 1 + ...
+ .
4
3 5 7
p 2 p ap

(44)

If the correction terms are exact, then both should yield the same
result. That is,
1
1
1
=
ap2
p ap

or

1
1
1
+
= ,
ap2
ap
p

is the condition for the end-correction to lead to the exact result.

(45)

End-correction in the infinite series for

Need for the end-correction terms

The series for

To obtain value of which is accurate to 4-5 decimal

places we need to consider millions of terms.

To circumvent this problem, Madhavaseems to have found

ara
an ingenious way called antya-sam
. sk
It essentially consists of

is an extremely slowly convergent series.

Terminating the series are a particular term if you get

amitay
a).
boredom (j
Make an estimate of the remainder terms in the series
Apply it (+vely/-vely) to the value obtained by summation
after termination.

The expression provided to estimate the remainder terms

is noted to be quite effective.

Even if a consider a few terms (say 20), we are able to get

values accurate to 8-9 decimal places.

Error-minimization in the evaluation of Pi

104
k

10

106

107
or

108

109

1010

1011

Construction of the Sine-table

A quadrant is divided into 24 equal parts, so that each arc bit

= 90
24 = 3 45 = 225 .

A procedure for finding R sin i, i = 1, 2, . . . 24 is explicitly

given. Pi Ni are known.

The R sines of the intermediate angles are determined by

interpolation (I order or II order).
P 24

P 23

P 22

P3
P2
P1

N23

N22

N3 N2 N1

P0

Recursion relation for the construction of sine-table

Aryabhat
.yas algorithm for constructing of sine-table

The content of the verse is equivalent to the relation:

R sin(i + 1) R sin i = R sin i R sin(i 1)

R sin i
.
R sin

In fact, the values of the 24 Rsines themselves are explicitly

noted in another verse.

The exact recursion relation for the Rsine differences is:

R sin(i+1)R sin i = R sin iR sin(i1)R sin i 2(1cos ).

Approximation used by Aryabhat

. a is 2(1 cos ) =

While, 2(1 cos ) = 0.0042822,

In the recursion relation provided by Nlakan.t.ha we find

1
1
225 233.5 (= 0.0042827) .

1
225

1
225 .

= 0.00444444.

Infinite series for the sine function

The verses giving the series for the sine function is14

;
a.na:h:tya . a.a:pa:va:geRa:Na . a.a:pMa ta.a:tP+l;a:
a.na . a
h:=e;t,a .sa:mUa:l+yua:gva:gERaH ;aa.$ya.a:va:gRa:h:tEaH k+.ma.a:t,a
. a.a:pMa :P+l;a:
a.na . a.a:Da.eaY:Da.ea nya:~ya.ea:pa:yRua:pa:a= tya.jea:t,a
.ja.a:va.a:yEa, .sa:*:" +h.eaY:~yEa:va ;a.va:d.a:
a.na:tya.a:a.d:na.a kx+.taH

N0 = R

D0 = 1
(R)2

Ni+1 = Ni (R)2

N1 = R

D1 = R 2 (2 + 22 )

.ja.a:va.a =

.ja.a:va.a:yEa = For obtaining the jva (Rsine)

14

N0
D0

Di = Di1 R 2 (2i + (2i)2 )

N3
N2
1
[N
D1 ( D2 { D3 . . . })]

Yuktidpik
a (16th cent) and attributed to Madhava
(14th cent. AD).

Infinite series for the sine function

Expressing the series using modern notation as described

as described in the above verse
Jv
a = R

R (R)2 (R)2
R (R)2
+
...
R 2 (2 + 22 )
R 2 (2 + 22 ) R 2 (4 + 42 )

Simplifying the above we have

Jv
a = R

(R)5
(R)7
(R)3
+

+. . .
R 2 6 R 4 6 20 R 6 6 20 42

Further simplifying


3 5 7
Jv
a=R
+

+ . . . = R sin
3!
5!
7!

Thus the given expression well known sine series.

The importance of infinite series in the development of

modern science

The pivotal role played by Newtonian physics in the

development of modern science is too well known.

That the discovery of infinite series expansion is the key to

attain pinnacle to this has been succinctly put forth by
V. I. Arnold15 :
Newtons basic discovery was that everything had to
be expanded in infinite series . . . Newton, although did
not strictly prove convergence, had not doubts about it
. . . What did Newton do in analysis? What was his
main mathematical discovery? Newton invented Taylor
series, the main instrument of analysis.16

15

One of the greatest mathematicians of recent times.

V. I. Arnold, Barrow and Huygens, Newton and Hooke, trans.
E. J. E. Primrose, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel, 1990, pp.35-42. Cited by
C. K. Raju, PHISPC, Cultural Foundations of Mathematics Part 4, Pearson
Longman, 2007, p.xxxv.
16

Instantaneous velocity of a planet

The mandaphala or equation of centre correction

P0 mean planet

P true planet

0 mean longitude

A (direction of mandocca)

P (planet)

Q
0

P0
0

MS

M S true longitude
called the
manda-sphut.a.

The true longitude of the planet is given by

r

sin M
= 0 sin1
R

where M (manda-kendra) = 0 longitude of apogee

The second term in the RHS, known as manda-phala, takes care

of the eccentricity of the planetary orbit.

Instantaneous velocity of a planet

Derivative of sin1 function

The instantaneous velocity of the planet called t

atk
alikagati is
given by Nlakan.t.ha in his Tantrasangraha

as follows:

. a:nd;ba.a:hu:P+l+va:gRa:Za.ea: a.Da:ta:aa.$ya:k+a:kx+. a.ta:pa:de:na .sMa:h:=e;t,a

ta.a k+ea: a.f:P+l+
a.l+ a.a:k+a:h:ta.Ma :ke+.nd;Bua: a.+.a=;h ya:a l+Bya:tea
If M be the manda-kendra, then the content of the above verse
can be expressed as
r
dM
i
cos M
d h 1  r
dt
sin
sin M = qR

2
dt
R
r
1 R sin M

(46)

Instantaneous velocity of a planet

Derivative of the ratio of two functions

Some of the astronomers in the Indian tradition including Munj

ala had
proposed the expression for mandaphala to be
r
sin M
R
= 
,
r
1 cos M
R

(47)

According to Acyuta, the correction to the mean velocity of a planet to

obtain its instantaneous velocity in this case is given by
2
r
sin M
R
!
cos M +
r
R
cos M
1
dM
R


,
r
dt
1 cos M
R

r

which is nothing but the derivative of (47).

(48)

Concluding Remarks

It is clear that major discoveries in the foundations of calculus,

mathematical analysis, etc., did take place in Kerala School
(14-16 century).

Besides arriving at the infinite series, that the Kerala

astronomers could manipulate with them to obtain several forms
of rapidly convergent series is indeed remarkable.

While the procedure by which they arrived at many of these

results are evident, there are still certain grey areas (derivative
of sine inverse function, ratio of two functions)

Many of these achievements are attributed to M

adhava, who
lived in the 14th century (his works ?).

Whether some of these results came to be known to the

European mathematicians ? ? . . . .

Thanks!

Isnt enough for one Lecture ?

T HANK YOU !