2.

2 MOVEMENT OF
MOLECULES/
SUBSTANCES
IN AND OUT OF CELL
• Substances move in & out of cells by the
following processes:
a) Passive transport
- Diffusion
- Facilitated diffusion
- osmosis
b) Active transport
c) Endocytosis
- pinocytosis
- phagocytosis
d) Exocytosis
 a) PASSIVE TRANSPORT
• Passive transport is the
movement of ions & molecules
down their concentration
gradient. The process does not
require ATP & energy
expenditure.
 Diffusion
 Diffusion is the random movement of ions
or molecules down the concentration
gradient (from the region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration) until an equilibrium is
reached.
 The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to
very small uncharged molecules like O2 &
CO2. These diffuse freely in & out of the
cell through the phospholipid bilayer.
Hydrophobic substances, for eg. steroids
can also diffuse through.
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 The phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to
charged ions such as Na+, K+, Clˉ, HCO3ˉ, &
hydrophilic molecules like glucose &
macromolecules.
 The rate of diffusion depends upon:
a. The concentration gradient.
b. Surface area
c. Distance over which diffusion takes
place
d. Size & nature of the diffusing molecules.

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 Facilitated Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion is the movement of solutes
(such as ion or polar molecules) across a
membrane, with the help of transport proteins.
 This process follows the concentration gradient
& no energy is needed.
 An eg. of facilitated diffusion is the movement
of glucose & amino acids molecules into the
cell.

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A transport protein in the
membrane binds a solute
particle.
 The transport protein changes
its shape, opening a channel
through the membrane,
releasing the diffusing
molecules at the other side of
the membrane. 9
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 OSMOSIS
 Osmosis is the movement of
water molecules from a
region of higher water
potential to a region of lower
water potential across a
selectively permeable
membrane until equilibrium
is reached.
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Water Potential
 Water potential is the term given
to the tendency for water
molecules to enter or leave a
solution by osmosis.
 Water always moves from an area
of higher water potential to an
area of lower water potential.
 Water potential is affected by two
factors: pressure and the amount
of solute. 13
 For example, imagine a red blood cell
dropped into distilled water. Water
will move into the red blood cell and
cause the cell to expand, stretching
the flexible membrane. At some
point, the pressure of the incoming
water will cause the cell to pop, just
like an over-filled balloon.
 The symbol used for water potential
is ψ , the Greek letter psi, & is usually
measured in kilopascal (kPa).
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 Pure water has the highest water potential
which is set zero (ψ w = 0 kPa ).
 The addition of solutes lowers the water
potential. The water potential of solutions
therefore is lower than pure water & has a
negative value (ψ solution < 0 kPa ).

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 The greater the concentration of
solutes, the more negative is the
water potential.
In comparing 2 solutions, the
hypotonic solution is the solution
with the lower solute concentration,
& the hypertonic solution is the
solution with the higher solute
concentration. An isotonic solution
has the same solute concentration as
the other solution.
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Calculating Water Potential
Water potential is calculated using the
following formula:
Water potential (ψ ) = pressure potential
(ψ p) + solute
potential (ψ s )
Pressure potential In a plant cell, pressure exerted
by the rigid cell wall that limits
(ψ p ): further water uptake.

Solute potential ((ψ s ) The effect of solute

concentration. Pure water at
atmospheric pressure has a
solute potential of zero. As solute
is added, the value for solute
potential becomes more
negative. This causes water
potential to decrease also. In
sum, as solute is added, the
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water potential of a solution
 Osmosis in Plant Cells
 When a plant cell is placed in a
hypotonic solution, water enters
Water pressure
the cell by osmosis. The vacuole
within the cell
expands and the cell contents
press against the cell wall.
 As more water enters, the pressure
potential produced by the cell wall
increases until the pressure
potential equals the solute
potential.
 There is no net movement of water
in either direction. The plant cell is Pressure from
said to be turgid. cell wall

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 ψ =ψs +ψp
when ψs= ψp
ψ = 0

 Plant cell do not burst because

they are surrounded by their
strong cellulose cell walls.
 In isotonic solutions, there is no
net movement of water molecules
& no change in the volume of the
cell – the cell become flaccid.
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 In hypertonic solutions, there is a
net outflow of water by osmosis from
the cell.
 The cell vacuole shrinks & the
plasma membrane pulls away from
the cell wall.
 Plasmolysis of the cell occurs causes
the plant to wilt & can lead to plant
death.
 Turgid cells give support to
herbaceous plants.
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Example of question
1. The table below shows 2 adjacent cells & their values
Ψ s & Ψ p are given in kPa.

Cell A Cell B
Ψs = Ψs =
-2200 -1600
a) State Ψthepdirection
= 1000Ψ p = 800
of water flow between the
two cells & give the reason for your answer.
b) Calculate, the values of the pressure potential Ψ p
&
the water potential, Ψ of cell A & cell B, when
equilibrium is reached. Assume that changes in solute
potential are negligible.
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a) Cell A
ψ =ψs+ψp
= - 2200 kPa + 1000 kPa
= - 1200 kPa
Cell B
ψ =ψs+ψp
= - 1600 kPa + 800 kPa
= - 800 kPa
Water flows from cell B to cell A. In osmosis,
water flows down a water potential gradient
from a region of high water potential to a
region of lower water potential.

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b) At equilibrium,ψ cell A = ψ cell B
Cell A, ψ = - 1000 kPa
ψ p = - 1000kPa + 2200kPa
= 1200kPa

Cell B, ψ = - 1000 kPa

ψ p = - 1000 kPa + 1600 kPa
= 600 kPa

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 Osmosis in animal cells
 When an animal cell ( eg. red blood cell) is
placed in a hypotonic solution, water enters
the cell by osmosis.
 The cell expends & the thin plasma
membrane bursts, releasing cell contents.
 The red blood cell is said to be haemolysed.

 In isotonic solutions, there is no net

movement of water molecules & no change in
the shape or volume of the cell.

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 In hypertonic solutions, there is a
net
outflow of water by osmosis from
the
cell.
 The cell shrinks & the plasma

membrane has a crinkled

appearance.
 The cell is said to be crenated.
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 b. ACTIVE TRANSPORT
Active transport is the movement of ions or
molecules across a cell membrane against
their concentration gradient, The process
requires energy expenditure provided by ATP.
This process also involves carrier proteins in
membranes.
Active transport can be slowed down or
inhibited by respiratory poisons such as
cyanide or a lack of oxygen.

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 Eg. Sodium-potassium
pump
 The carrier pumps Na+& K+ ions
across the cell membrane against
their concentration gradients.
 For every 3 Na+ pumped out of the
cell, 2 K+ are pumped into the cell.
ATP is used directly in this
example.

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1. Binding of cytoplasmic Na+ to the protein
stimulates phosphorylation by ATP.
2. Phosphorylation causes the protein to
change its conformation.
3. The conformational change expels Na+ to
the outside, & extracellular K+ binds.
4. K+ binding triggers release of a phosphate
group.
5. Loss of phosphate restores original
conformation.
6. K+ is released & Na+ sites are receptive
again; the cycle repeats.

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 Extracellular Na+

fluid (1) (2)

Na+

Na+

Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ ADP Na+

(6) ATP
Na+

Cytoplasm (3)

K+
K+

K+
P i
K+

K+

K+
(5) (4)

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 c) ENDOCYTOSIS
 In endocytosis, the cell takes in
macromolecules & particulate
matter by forming new vesicles
from the plasma membrane.
 There are 3 types of endocytosis:
1. Phagocytosis ( cell eating )
2. Pinocytosis ( cell drinking )
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis

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 1. Phagocytosis
 In phagocytosis, the cell ingests large
solid particles such as bacteria & food.
 Phagocytosis is a mechanism used by
certain protists & by several types of
vertebrate white blood cells to ingest
particles ( eg. bacteria).
 During ingestion, folds of the plasma
membrane enclose the particle, which
has bound to surface of the cell,
forming a large membranous sac, or
vacuole.

36
 When the membrane has
encircled the particle, it fuses
at the point of contact.
 The vacuole then fuses with
lysosomes, & the ingested
material is degraded.
 This requires energy.ATP

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 2. Pinocytosis
 The cell takes in dissolved materials.
 Tiny droplets of fluid are trapped by folds in
the plasma membrane, which pinch off into
the cytosol as tiny vesicles.
 The liquid contents of these vesicles are then
slowly transferred into the cytosol; the
vesicles may become progressively smaller, to
the point that they appear to vanish.

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 d) EXOCYTOSIS
 This is the reverse of endocytosis.
 In exocytosis, the cell secretes
macromolecules by the fusion of
vesicles with the plasma membrane.
 Many secretory cells use exocytosis to
export their products. For eg:
1. Certain cells in the pancreas
manufacture the hormone insulin &
secrete it into the blood by exocytosis.
2. Neuron cells – which uses exocytosis to
release chemical signals that stimulate
another neurons or muscle cells.
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