Table 1: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Series

+
X

x(t) =

ak e

jk0 t

k=

1
ak =
T
Property

Periodic Convolution

x(t)e

jk0 t

ak ejk(2/T )t

k=

1
dt =
T

x(t)ejk(2/T )t dt
T

Periodic Signal

x(t)
y(t)
Linearity
Time-Shifting
Frequency-Shifting
Conjugation
Time Reversal
Time Scaling

+
X

Fourier Series Coefficients

Periodic with period T and

fundamental frequency 0 = 2/T

Ax(t) + By(t)
x(t t0 )
ejM 0 t = ejM (2/T )t x(t)
x (t)
x(t)
x(t),
> 0 (periodic with period T /)
Z
x( )y(t )d

ak
bk
Aak + Bbk
ak ejk0 t0 = ak ejk(2/T )t0
akM
ak
ak
ak
T a k bk

Multiplication

+
X

x(t)y(t)

al bkl

l=

Differentiation

dx(t)
Z dt
t

Integration

x(t)dt

(finite-valued and
periodic only if a0 = 0)

Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals

x(t) real

Real and Even Signals

x(t) real and even

Real and Odd Signals

x(t) real and odd

Even-Odd Decomposition of Real Signals

2
jk0 ak = jk ak
T



1
1
ak =
ak
jk(2/T )
jk0
ak = ak

<e{ak } = <e{ak }
=m{ak } = =m{ak }

|ak | = |ak |

<
) ak = <
) ak
ak real and even
ak purely imaginary and odd

xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real]

xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real]
Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals
Z
+
X
1
2
|x(t)| dt =
|ak |2
T T
k=

<e{ak }
j=m{ak }

Table 2: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Series

X
X
x[n] =
ak ejk0 n =
ak ejk(2/N )n
k=<N >

1
N

ak =

Property

Time Scaling

Periodic Convolution

x[n]ejk0 n =

n=<N >

1
N

x[n]ejk(2/N )n

n=<N >

Periodic signal

x[n]
y[n]
Linearity
Time shift
Frequency Shift
Conjugation
Time Reversal

k=<N >

Fourier series coefficients

Periodic with period N and fundamental frequency 0 = 2/N

Ax[n] + By[n]
x[n n0 ]
ejM (2/N )n x[n]
x [n]
x[n]

x[n/m] if n is a multiple of m
x(m) [n] =
0
if n is not a multiple of m
(periodic with period mN )
X
x[r]y[n r]

x[n]y[n]

First Difference

x[n] x[n 1]
n

X
finite-valued and
x[k]

Periodic with
period N

Aak + Bbk
ak ejk(2/N )n0
akM
ak
ak
viewed as
1
ak periodic with
m
period mN

N a k bk

r=hN i

Multiplication

ak
bk

al bkl

l=hN i

Running Sum

k=

periodic only if a0 = 0

Conjugate Symmetry
for Real Signals

x[n] real

Real and Even Signals

x[n] real and even

Real and Odd Signals

x[n] real and odd

Even-Odd Decomposition of Real Signals

(1 ejk(2/N ) )ak


1
ak
(1 ejk(2/N ) )

ak = ak

<e{ak } = <e{ak }
=m{ak } = =m{ak }

|a | = |ak |

k
<
) ak = <
) ak
ak real and even
ak purely imaginary and odd

xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real]

xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real]

<e{ak }
j=m{ak }

Parsevals Relation for Periodic Signals

X
1 X
|x[n]|2 =
|ak |2
N
n=hN i

k=hN i

Table 3: Properties of the Continuous-Time Fourier Transform

Z
1
x(t) =
X(j)ejt d
2
Z
x(t)ejt dt
X(j) =

Property

Aperiodic Signal

Fourier transform

x(t)
y(t)

X(j)
Y (j)

Linearity
Time-shifting
Frequency-shifting
Conjugation
Time-Reversal

ax(t) + by(t)
x(t t0 )
ej0 t x(t)
x (t)
x(t)

Time- and Frequency-Scaling

x(at)

Convolution

x(t) y(t)

Multiplication

x(t)y(t)

aX(j) + bY (j)
ejt0 X(j)
X(j( 0 ))
X (j)
X(j)
 
1
j
X
|a|
a
X(j)Y (j)
1
X(j) Y (j)
2

d
x(t)
Zdt

Differentiation in Time

x(t)dt

Integration

Differentiation in Frequency

tx(t)

Conjugate Symmetry for Real

Signals

x(t) real

Symmetry for Real and Even

Signals
Symmetry for Real and Odd
Signals
Even-Odd Decomposition for
Real Signals

x(t) real and even

x(t) real and odd
xe (t) = Ev{x(t)} [x(t) real]
xo (t) = Od{x(t)} [x(t) real]

jX(j)
1
X(j) + X(0)()
j
d
j X(j)
d
X(j) = X (j)

<e{X(j)} = <e{X(j)}
=m{X(j)} = =m{X(j)}

|X(j)| = |X(j)|

<
) X(j) = <
) X(j)
X(j) real and even

X(j) purely imaginary and odd

<e{X(j)}
j=m{X(j)}

Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals

Z +
Z +
1
2
|X(j)|2d
|x(t)| dt =
2

Table 4: Basic Continuous-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Signal
+
X

Fourier transform

ak e

jk0 t

k=

+
X

ak ( k0 )

2( 0 )

cos 0 t

[( 0 ) + ( + 0 )]

sin 0 t

[( 0 ) ( + 0 )]
j

x(t) = 1

2()

Periodic
 square wave
1, |t| < T1
x(t) =
0, T1 < |t| T2
and
x(t + T ) = x(t)
+
X
(t nT )

x(t)

1, |t| < T1
0, |t| > T1

sin W t
t
(t)
u(t)
(t t0 )
e

at

ak

k=

ej0 t

n=


Fourier series coefficients

(if periodic)

u(t), <e{a} > 0

teat u(t), <e{a} > 0

tn1 at
u(t),
(n1)! e

<e{a} > 0

+
X
2 sin k0 T1
( k0 )
k

k=



+
2k
2 X

T
T
k=

2 sin T1


1, || < W
X(j) =
0, || > W
1
1
+ ()
j
ejt0
1
a + j
1
(a + j)2
1
(a + j)n

a1 = 1
ak = 0, otherwise
a1 = a1 = 21
ak = 0, otherwise
1
a1 = a1 = 2j
ak = 0, otherwise
a0 = 1, ak = 0, k 6= 0
!
this is the Fourier series representation for any choice of
T >0
0 T1
sinc

ak =

k0 T1

1
for all k
T

sin k0 T1
k

Table 5: Properties of the Discrete-Time Fourier Transform

Z
1
x[n] =
X(ej )ejn d
2 2
j

X(e ) =

+
X

x[n]ejn

n=

Property

Aperiodic Signal

Fourier transform

Periodic with
X(ej )
j
period 2
Y (e )
aX(ej ) + bY (ej )
ejn0 X(ej )
X(ej(0 ) )
X (ej )
X(ej )

Convolution

x[n]
y[n]
ax[n] + by[n]
x[n n0 ]
ej0 n x[n]
x [n]
x[n]

x[n/k], if n = multiple of k
x(k) [n] =
0,
if n 6= multiple of k
x[n] y[n]

Multiplication

x[n]y[n]

Differencing in Time

x[n] x[n 1]
n
X
x[k]

Linearity
Time-Shifting
Frequency-Shifting
Conjugation
Time Reversal
Time Expansions

Accumulation

k=

X(ejk )
X(eZj )Y (ej )
1
X(ej )Y (ej() )d
2 2
(1 ej )X(ej )
1
X(ej )
1 ej
+
X
j0
+X(e )
( 2k)
k=

Differentiation in Frequency

nx[n]

Conjugate Symmetry
Real Signals

x[n] real

for

Symmetry for Real, Even

Signals

x[n] real and even

Symmetry for Real, Odd

Signals
Even-odd Decomposition of
Real Signals

x[n] real and odd

dX(ej )
j
d
j
X(e ) = X (ej )

<e{X(ej )} = <e{X(ej )}
=m{X(ej )} = =m{X(ej )}

|X(ej )| = |X(ej )|

<
) X(ej ) = <
) X(ej )
X(ej ) real and even
X(ej ) purely
imaginary and odd

xe [n] = Ev{x[n]} [x[n] real]

xo [n] = Od{x[n]} [x[n] real]
Parsevals Relation for Aperiodic Signals
Z
+
X
1
2
|X(ej )|2 d
|x[n]| =
2 2
n=

<e{X(ej )}
j=m{X(ej )}

Table 6: Basic Discrete-Time Fourier Transform Pairs

Signal
X

Fourier transform

ak ejk(2/N )n

+
X



2k
ak
N

+
X

( 0 2l)

k=

k=hN i

ej0 n

+
X

0
ak
0
2
0

(b)
(a)

{( 0 2l) + ( + 0 2l)}

l=

+
X
{( 0 2l) ( + 0 2l)}
j

sin 0 n

ak
(a)

l=

cos 0 n

Fourier series coefficients

(if periodic)

ak
(b)
(a)

0
2
0

ak

(b)

l=

x[n] = 1

+
X

( 2l)

l=

Periodic
 square wave
1, |n| N1
x[n] =
0, N1 < |n| N/2
and
x[n + N ] = x[n]
+
X
[n kN ]

k=

an u[n], |a| < 1

x[n]

1, |n| N1
0, |n| > N1

=W
sinc
0<W <
sin W n
n

Wn

[n]
u[n]
[n n0 ]
(n + 1)an u[n], |a| < 1
(n + r 1)! n
a u[n], |a| < 1
n!(r 1)!

+
X

k=



2k
ak
N



+
2 X
2k

N
N
k=
1
1 aej
sin[(N1 + 21 )]
sin(/2)

1, 0 || W
X() =
0, W < ||
X()periodic with period 2

ejn0

2
1, k = 0, N, 2N, . . .
ak =
0, otherwise
ak
ak

=
=

ak =

k=

1
(1 aej )2
1
(1 aej )r

sin[(2k/N )(N1 + 12 )]
, k 6= 0, N, 2N, . . .
N sin[2k/2N ]
2N1 +1
,
k
=
0,
N,
2N, . . .
N

1
for all k
N

+
X
1
+
( 2k)
1 ej

2m
=
N
1, k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
=
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic
2m
=
N
1
2 , k = m, m N, m 2N, . . .
=
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic
2r
=
N1
2j , k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
1 , k = r, r N, r 2N, . . .
2j
0, otherwise
irrational The signal is aperiodic

Table 7: Properties of the Laplace Transform

Property

Linearity

Signal

Transform

x(t)

X(s)

x1 (t)

X1 (s)

R1

x2 (t)

X2 (s)

R2

ax1 (t) + bx2 (t)

ROC

aX1 (s) + bX2 (s) At least R1 R2

Time shifting

x(t t0 )

est0 X(s)

Shifting in the s-Domain

es0 t x(t)

X(s s0 )

Shifted version of R [i.e., s is

in the ROC if (s s0 ) is in
R]

Time scaling

x(at)

1 s
X
|a|
a

Conjugation

x (t)

X (s )

Convolution

x1 (t) x2 (t)

X1 (s)X2 (s)

Differentiation in the Time Domain

d
x(t)
dt

sX(s)

Differentiation in the s-Domain

tx(t)

Integration in the Time Domain

x( )d( )

d
X(s)
ds
1
X(s)
s

Scaled ROC (i.e., s is in

the ROC if (s/a) is in R)
R
At least R1 R2
At least R
R
At least R {<e{s} > 0}

Initial- and Final Value Theorems

If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) contains no impulses or higher-order singularities at t = 0, then
x(0+ ) = lims sX(s)
If x(t) = 0 for t < 0 and x(t) has a finite limit as t , then
limt x(t) = lims0 sX(s)

Table 8: Laplace Transforms of Elementary Functions

Signal

Transform

ROC

1. (t)

All s

2. u(t)
3. u(t)
tn1
u(t)
(n 1)!
tn1
5.
u(t)
(n 1)!
4.

6. et u(t)
7. et u(t)
tn1 t
e u(t)
(n 1)!
tn1 t
e u(t)
9.
(n 1)!
8.

esT

10. (t T )
11. [cos 0 t]u(t)

s
+ 02
0
s2 + 02
s+
(s + )2 + 02
0
(s + )2 + 02
s2

12. [sin 0 t]u(t)

13. [et cos 0 t]u(t)
14. [et sin 0 t]u(t)
15. un (t) =

1
s
1
s
1
sn
1
sn
1
s+
1
s+
1
(s + )n
1
(s + )n

dn (t)
dtn

16. un (t) = u(t) u(t)

|
{z
}
n times

<e{s} > 0
<e{s} < 0
<e{s} > 0
<e{s} < 0
<e{s} >
<e{s} <
<e{s} >
<e{s} <
All s
<e{s} > 0
<e{s} > 0
<e{s} >
<e{s} >

sn

All s

1
sn

<e{s} > 0

Table 9: Properties of the z-Transform

Property

Sequence

Transform

ROC

x[n]
x1 [n]
x2 [n]

X(z)
X1 (z)
X2 (z)

R
R1
R2

Linearity

ax1 [n] + bx2 [n]

aX1 (z) + bX2 (z)

At least the intersection

of R1 and R2

Time shifting

x[n n0 ]

z n0 X(z)

R except for the

possible addition or
deletion of the origin

Scaling in the

ej0 n x[n]

z-Domain

z0n x[n]
an x[n]

j0
X(e
  z)
X zz0
X(a1 z)

Time reversal

x[n]

X(z 1 )

Inverted R (i.e., R1
= the set of points
z 1 where z is in R)

X(z k )

R1/k

Time expansion

x(k) [n] =

x[r], n = rk
0,
n 6= rk
for some integer r

z0 R
Scaled version of R
(i.e., |a|R = the
set of points {|a|z}
for z in R)

(i.e., the set of points z 1/k

where z is in R)

Conjugation

x [n]

X (z )

Convolution

x1 [n] x2 [n]

X1 (z)X2 (z)

At least the intersection

of R1 and R2

First difference

x[n] x[n 1]

(1 z 1 )X(z)

At least the
intersection of R and |z| > 0

Accumulation

Pn

1
X(z)
1z 1

At least the
intersection of R and |z| > 1

Differentiation
in the z-Domain

nx[n]

z dX(z)
dz

k= x[k]

Initial Value Theorem

If x[n] = 0 for n < 0, then
x[0] = limz X(z)

Table 10: Some Common z-Transform Pairs

Signal

Transform

ROC

1. [n]

All z

2. u[n]

1
1z 1

|z| > 1

3. u[n 1]

1
1z 1

|z| < 1

4. [n m]

z m

All z except
0 (if m > 0) or
(if m < 0)

5. n u[n]

1
1z 1

|z| > ||

6. n u[n 1]

1
1z 1

|z| < ||

7. nn u[n]

z 1
(1z 1 )2

|z| > ||

8. nn u[n 1]

z 1
(1z 1 )2

|z| < ||

9. [cos 0 n]u[n]

1[cos 0 ]z 1
1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2

|z| > 1

10. [sin 0 n]u[n]

[sin 0 ]z 1
1[2 cos 0 ]z 1 +z 2

|z| > 1

11. [r n cos 0 n]u[n]

1[r cos 0 ]z 1
1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2

|z| > r

12. [r n sin 0 n]u[n]

[r sin 0 ]z 1
1[2r cos 0 ]z 1 +r 2 z 2

|z| > r