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Literature Survey On Foundamental Issues of Voltage and Reactive Power Control v2
Literature Survey On Foundamental Issues of Voltage and Reactive Power Control v2
Rachid Cherkaoui
Rachid.Cherkaoui@epfl.ch
EPF Lausanne Power System Group
Table of Contents
1-
INTRODUCTION
2-
8
10
11
12
14
15
17
18
19
20
21
21
22
3-
24
4-
27
27
29
30
30
33
35
36
36
37
38
38
5-
38
6-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
43
Abbreviation
AVR: Automatic Voltage Regulator
CSCOPF: Corrective Security Constraint Optimal Power Flow
EC: Emergency Countermeasure
EGRPR: Effective Generator Reactive Power Reserve
FACTS: Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System
GRPR: Generator Reactive Power Reserve
HVDC: High Voltage Direct Current
LRPR: Load Reactive Power Reserve
LTC: Load Tap Changer
MAPS: Multi-Area Power system
OPF: Optimal Power Flow
PVR: Primary Voltage Regulator
RCCOPF: Reactive Reserve based Contingency Constrained Optimal Power Flow
RPR: Reactive Power Reserve
SAPS: Single Area Power System
SCOPF: Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow
SVR: Secondary Voltage Regulator
TGRPR: Technical Generator Reactive Power Reserve
TSO: Transmission System Operator
TVR: Tertiary Voltage Regulator
VSCOPF: Voltage Stability Constrained Optimal Power Flow
VSM: Voltage Stability Margin
1- Introduction
Voltage control service is a critical ancillary service used by all system operators for secure and reliable
operation of the power system. It must be continuously active. On-going researches attempt to welldefine how to measure and commercialize this ancillary service [1], [2].
In order to maintain the voltage for the system reliability, both active and reactive power consumptions
must be controlled. However, a direct link between the voltage and the reactive power makes it possible
to control the voltage to desired values by the control of the reactive power [3].
The voltage control can be achieved by providing sufficient reactive power resources to keep the voltage
level at a desired nominal value regardless how much reactive power it takes. On the other hand,
controlling the amount of reactive power injection at each node can be accomplished through the
regulation of the voltage at the node. This brings up the issue of difference between the voltage control
and the reactive power control. Each one of the aforementioned control methods contains limitation.
The control of the voltage by the reactive power is restricted to the limitations of reactive power
resources and the control of the reactive power through the voltage is restricted to the feasible limits of
voltage at each node. Whenever the concern of the control is the reactive power resources, the aim
could be either voltage or reactive power control, but not both of them at the same time. In the case of
the transmission system, the control would be implemented on the system voltage.
In normal operation state, the reactive power balance must be kept in such a way that the voltages are
within acceptable limits. In fact inequality between reactive power generation and consumption does
not exist and the reactive power generated and consumed is always equal. Therefore, an improper
reactive power generation and consumption level in the system will result in inappropriate voltage
profile.
Unlike the active power ancillary services (frequency control reserves), the reactive power cannot be
transmitted efficiently through long distances because it leads to additional active and reactive power
losses. Reactive power losses are due to the large reactive impedance of the high voltage transmission
system1. As a result, the voltage has to be controlled by using special devices dispersed throughout the
system. In other words, reactive power generation and consumption have to be as close as possible to
each other to avoid excessive reactive power transmission.
The operator of the power system is responsible to control the transmission system voltage which
means enough reactive power available to prevent or mitigate voltage violation conditions. The system
operator could respond to the voltage problem conditions asking for all available reactive support from
its area and also from the neighboring systems. The system operators usually provide the voltage
control services from generators and consumers within their own controlled area. It is due to the fact
that reactive power transmission is a highly localized service. Principally this ancillary service is provided
by the generators [1]. Moreover, the regulation establishes some services to be supplied also by
transmission and distribution systems.
Power system equipments provide a variety of actions for the system operator which could be
undertaken to control the voltage and to schedule the production of reactive power. Synchronous
generators are the backbone of the voltage control in the network2. They are already available over
entire the system and their voltage support are low-cost and simple to control. However, they are not
the only ones and other reactive power resources in the power system are automatic transformer tap
changer, synchronous condenser, capacitor banks, capacitance of overhead lines and cables, static VAR
compensators and FACTS devices.
As an example for a 345 kV line, the reactive impedance is approximately ten times the real portion of the lines impedance.
The reactive power output of synchronous machine can, for a given active power level, be adjusted within the limits of the
capability curve by the excitation system. These limitations are field winding thermal limit, stator winding thermal limit and
thermal limit of the end-turn area of the stator core. Hydro units are water cooled and they are not subjected to end-turn
thermal limitations. So their leading reactive capability is much greater than that of a thermal unit.
2
The voltage control from generation resources is a necessary supplement to static reactive devices to
prevent voltage problem because:
Generation supplied reactive resources do not lose effectiveness at low voltage as do static
reactive devices.
The response of a generator to an emergency reactive requirement is much faster and more
accurate than the static reactive sources (except power electronic based devices).
The voltage control capability of synchronous generators is limited by saturation of both: field current
and armature current. The generators under heavy real power loading require high amount of field
current to maintain the desired terminal voltage which pushes the generator and exciter to the
saturation region. When armature current limitation is in effect, a large reduction in the reactive power
output is needed if the active power output is to remain constant [4].
Among different types of generating units, hydro power plants have less limitations and so higher
capabilities in voltage and reactive power control. Pumped storage power plants, as a specific type of
hydro power plants, not only can improve the frequency control but also can participate in reactive
power control. New technologies like variable speed pumped storage power plants with higher
capabilities than conventional ones, like frequency control during night time (at low loading) and
independent active and reactive power control, bring more flexibility for the system control. However,
the provided support by these generating units is usually affected by their far geographical location from
load centers.
The transmission customers can also supply reactive power to the system or can reduce the use of
reactive resources by power factor correction. Note that even with a unity power factor, reactive supply
and voltage control from generation sources is still required for dynamic voltage control, supplying
reactive losses of the transmission system, and maintaining reactive reserves for security. Recently,
provision of ancillary services by dispersed generation and demand side response became important.
However, TSOs cannot effectively manage and operate the provided ancillary service by thousands of
DG units. Therefore, their participation in the ancillary services is confronted with barriers at this time
[5].
These voltage regulators can be operated in automatic or manual mode. From the system operation
perspective, all voltage regulators should remain in automatic mode. Power plant operators for a short
period of time may need to place voltage regulators in the manual mode because of maintenance,
testing, or any problem in the generating units voltage regulator. These automatic controllers are set by
the control area operators in order to maintain a scheduled voltage in response to system changes due
to a disturbance or an unusual increase of power demand.
The control of voltage could be accomplished with passive (shunt and series capacitors and reactors)
and/or active (synchronous generators, synchronous condenser, and FACTS) devices. The former devices
contribute to the voltage control by modifying the network characteristics, while the latters
automatically adjust the absorbed or supplied reactive power to maintain the voltages of buses at
specific points in the system [6].
Another classification divides the voltage control devices into static and dynamic types [7]. Dynamic
reactive power resources refer to equipment that can respond within cycle of a disturbance where static
devices are not capable of reacting fast enough. Appropriate balance between static and dynamic
reactive power resources in an area should be provided to obtain a feasible operating point after a
reactive power deficit in the area [8].
A well-planned and coordinated application of these devices is essential for the economical design and
operation of a reliable system [9]. The proper selection and coordination of equipment for controlling
reactive power and voltage are among the major challenges of the power system engineering [9].
For efficient and reliable operation of the power system, the control of voltage should a) maintain the
voltages of all terminals in the system within acceptable limits, b) enhance the system stability to
5
maximize utilization of the transmission system, and c) minimize the reactive power flow so as to reduce
active (RI2)and reactive (XI2) losses [9].
A power system at a given operating state and subjected to a given disturbance is voltage instable if the
voltages could not approach post-disturbance equilibrium values. Basically, voltage instability has two
origins: first, gradual increases of power demand without sufficient reactive power support, and second,
a sudden change in the network topology which redirect the power flow in such a way that the required
reactive power cannot be delivered to some buses.
Overvoltage instability could be excluded because the over-excitation of machines is not permitted. The
risk of overvoltage in the system during low loading conditions is normally more of an equipment
problem rather than a power system stability problem (Page 525) [10]. In order to avoid such
overvoltage problems reactive power sources and transmission equipments should be managed
appropriately. One possible approaches for solving this problem could be disconnection of low loading
transmission lines1 which doesnt seriously affect the thermal limit margins or other constraints of the
other paths in parallel [11].
Voltage instability is commonly analyzed by employing two techniques, namely time-domain (dynamic)
simulation and steady-state analysis. Depending on the phenomena under investigation, one or both of
these techniques may be applied [8].
The process by which the sequence of events accompanying the voltage instability leads to the loss of
voltage in a significant part of the system is called voltage collapse. It means that, a power system
undergoes the voltage collapse if the post disturbance equilibrium voltages are below acceptable limits.
Voltage instability commonly occurs as a result of reactive power deficiency. The voltage collapse may
be total (blackout) or partial [12], [13].
The term voltage security refers to the ability of the system to maintain the voltages within some limits
following any credible contingency. In other words, there should be a considerable margin from an
operating point to the voltage instability point (or to the maximum power transfer point) after a
contingency [12]. System security can be distinguished from stability in terms of the resulting
consequences. For example, two systems with equal stability margins, but one may be relatively more
secure because the consequences of instability are less severe. During the disturbances, sufficient
capabilities to supply static and dynamic reactive power are required to prevent the collapse and have
to be mobilized on request even if this enforces a reduction of active power supply [14]. Inadequate
voltage support can result in equipment damage and in the extreme case it can lead to voltage collapse
and system instability.
Voltage instability could be considered as important as thermal overloads and the associated risk of
cascading outages. In recent two decades power system has revealed with widespread blackouts which
insufficient reactive power support was an origin or a factor in major power outages worldwide. Lack of
reactive power reserves response to the increased reactive power demand in contingencies, can lead to
operation of protection system and also limit the generators reactive power support. As a consequence,
both of active and reactive power deficient participate in the separation of the system and the spread of
cascading events over the entire system and finally make a large blackout. Therefore, insufficient
reactive power reserves in one area can increase the propagation of disturbance even in neighboring
areas.
Voltage collapse was a causal factor in the blackouts of August 4, 1982, Belgian; August 22, 1987, West
Tennessee; July 2, 1996, in WSCC; August 10, 1996, in West Coast; July 12, 2004, in Greece. Voltage
collapse also factored in the blackouts of December 19, 1978, in France; March 2, 1979, at Zealand in
Denmark; July 1979, Canada in B. C Hydros north coast region; December 27, 1983, Sweden; May 17,
1985, South Florida; July 1985, Czechoslovakia; July 23, 1987, in Tokyo; January 12, 1987, in Western
France; March 13, 1989, in Qubec; August 1992, Southern Finland; August 14, 2003, North America;
August 28, 2003, in London; September 23, 2003, in Sweden and Denmark; and September 28, 2003, in
1
Italy. The following given examples which ended in voltage collapse and blackouts can demonstrate
some aspects of the voltage control problems and their consequences.
Greece
The Hellenic system was prone to voltage instability on July 12th 2004. This phenomenon is related
to the maximum power transfer from the generating areas in the North and West of Greece to the
main load center in the Athens metropolitan area. The Hellenic interconnected system (Greece
network) blackout was a sever voltage collapse. At that time two generating units in Peloponnese
and Northern Greece were out of service which was further stressing the Athens grid.
The sequence of events leading to the blackout was started with the failure of 300 MW generating
unit in Athens area. This unit was reconnected to the network but it was lost again due to high drum
level.
A manual load shedding is implemented by the transmission system operator which was not enough
to stop the voltage decline. So a further load shedding command was requested which didnt have
time to be executed, because of a generating unit trip was occurred at central Greece automatically.
Another unit was manually tripped and the voltage was collapsed. The system was split into two
parts. In one part, the remaining generators were disconnected by under-voltage protection leading
to the blackout. The other part, North and Western of the Hellenic system, was saved due to the
split of the system. This part was interconnected to the 2nd UCTE synchronous zone. The resulting
surplus of power in this part created a severe disturbance in the neighboring systems of the UCTE
network. This excess generation changed the flow in the northern interconnections. As a result,
interconnection with FYROM was overloaded and tripped, the Bulgarian interconnection was
received huge surplus power, and the frequency increased to 50.75 Hz.
During the incident, the power stations in the affected area lost their voltage control due to the
over-excitation. Therefore, they lowered their pre-disturbance active generation in an attempt to
increase their reactive capability and controlling their terminal voltage. This, however, had an
adverse effect, as it increased the import of power into the affected area, thus creating further
voltage drop despite the increased reactive generation [15], [16].
North America
In 14 August 2003, several hours before the start of events, there was large volume of power
transmissions through Ohio to the other areas. It led to high reactive power demand and
consequently a severe shortage of reactive power in northern Ohio. But the supply of reactive
power was low because some power plants were out of service and others were not producing
enough reactive power. The sign of insufficient reactive power increased VAR production at nine of
power plants in this area. It caused the generators to operate near limits with reduced reactive
power reserves for contingencies [18].
Then a transmission line went out in southwest Ohio due to a contingency, and two hours after, low
voltage situation shut down the Eastlake plant. This state redirected active power and consequently
changed the need for reactive power. It made transmission lines between Cleveland and southern
Ohio and also links between northern Ohio and southern Ohio tripped. Ultimately, this situation
caused the power plant and transmission line failures and participated in the spread of blackout.
Although this blackout was not due to a voltage collapse but the Task Force Final Report said that
insufficient reactive power was an issue in the blackout.The report also cites overestimation of
dynamic reactive output of system generators as a common factor among major outages in the
United States [19].
As it is demonstrated above, although reactive power control is primarily a local problem, it may involve
several TSOs in the interconnected systems and increase the scale of blackouts and even affect on the
intact areas.
Some difficulties associated with the voltage control are a) the possible spread of a local but
uncontrolled voltage collapse whereas a relatively small remedial action at the right place and time may
stop the system degradation, and b) a sufficiently detailed representation of major components is
needed even if they are located geographically far from the disturbed area [20].
This report intends to study different aspects of the power system voltage control. The main concern is
whether the voltage control should be considered in the scope of multi-area power system. For this
purpose, the current practices of different system operators and their different voltage control
classifications are investigated in section 2. The different time scale classifications in the power system
voltage control are described in section 3. Section 4 studies the role of providing reactive power reserve
in the power system security and surveys different proposed methods by literatures in provision of
reactive power reserve for voltage control. Possible studies for the voltage control in multi-area power
system are intended in section 5.
control levels can be managed based on different objectives, time responses, and geographical
implications.
The primary voltage control or Primary Voltage Regulation (PVR) is performed by automatic and rapid
voltage regulators which control reactive power output so that the output voltage magnitudes are kept
at specified values. PVR has only local scope targeting the control in the particular bus assigned to the
controllable device. Generally, the primary voltage control is performed by the generators Automatic
Voltage Regulator (AVR). The AVR regulates the voltage by controlling the excitation system. The other
controllable devices like synchronous condenser and SVC can also be used for PVR.
The PVR set values are selected so that the desired voltage profile of the system is obtained. The
coordination and the supervision of the PVR set point values within a given geographical zone are the
tasks of the secondary voltage control also referred to as secondary voltage regulation (SVR). The main
idea behind SVR is to coordinate the various regional reactive power resources in such a manner that
they control the voltage at given pilot nodes. Pilot nodes are selected such that the voltage magnitude
at the pilot node represents the voltage profile over the associated zone. Usually the pilot nodes are the
ones with the highest short-circuit power in a given zone. The other method for pilot node selection is
based on electrical distance concept between nodes [21].
The SVRs should not be implemented in a centralized manner because the system operators should not
be involved in local voltage matter, if it is not necessary. Therefore, the SVRs zones should be selected
to have the minimum interaction between neighboring zones. In order to decentralize the SVRs, control
generators can be grouped into homogenous zones according to the electrical distance between them
or their capability to affect the pilot bus voltage. Hence, decentralized SVR zones should be selected to
minimize the effects of the generators of each area on the pilot bus voltages of the others. For the
extensively coupled zones the generators that produce the coupling effect can be taken out of the SVR
or each control center should utilize additional measurements to offset the effect of neighboring SVR
zones.
This hierarchical, zonal voltage control approach can be further enhanced using a Tertiary Voltage
Regulation (TVR) scheme. The basic idea of the TVR is to increase the operating security and efficiency of
the system through a centralized coordination of the zonal SVR structure [22]. The TVR considers the
counteract coupling between controls at the SVR levels. In fact, TVR defines the optimal voltage setpoints for the SVR pilot nodes. Different objectives like minimizing the grid losses or maximizing the
reactive reserve can be taken into account when selecting these set-points. Normally SVR and TVR are
implemented with a delay and they involve both automatic and manual actions.
The definition and the implementation of the SVR and the TVR vary from one TSO to another [23]. Some
TSOs consider secondary and tertiary voltage controls together. In this case, the voltage control is
divided only into two classes: primary and centralized voltage controls [24], [25]. From the perspective
of providers of voltage control services, the production of reactive power can be divided into a basic and
an enhanced reactive power service. The basic or compulsory service includes the generating units
requirements that must be fulfilled to be connected to the network. The enhanced reactive power
service is a non-compulsory service that is provided as supplement to the basic requirements [26], [27].
The hierarchical structure of the control system consists of numerous loops. Generally, the loops on
lower levels are characterized by smaller time constants than the loops on higher levels [6]. For
example, AVR typically responds in a timescale of seconds, while SVR operates within ten times slower
than AVR. The TVRs response time depends on the presumed operation time horizon of the operator.
These different timescales in operation result in a decoupling between the control loops and minimize
the interactions between different control levels. The requirement for communication devices on each
control level are given such that the delays must be lower than time constants of the controllers on
these control levels.
A generic hierarchical voltage control scheme is illustrated in Figure 2-1. In the depicted control scheme,
the system control center, which act as TVR, determines the optimal voltage set-points for the pilot
buses based on a given optimization criterion applied to the whole system. These set-points are then fed
9
to the SVRs and would be used by local voltage/reactive power regulators, which are PVRs, to control
their voltage/reactive power output with respect to their own reserves.
SVR
Ctrl.
The operation of the system under the hierarchical scheme increases the transmission capacity
associated with improvements in voltage stability characteristics of the interconnected grid [6].
Note that the voltage control areas are affected by both system topology and loading condition, and
hence these areas change dynamically during system operation, which is an issue with the current SVR
approaches, which assume that these areas remain fixed. This particular problem is addressed in [28] by
a combined Secondary and Tertiary Voltage Regulation (SVR+TVR) methodology based on real-time
optimal power flows (OPFs) to periodically update the generators AVR set points. Since the method is
mainly software-based, the voltage control areas boundaries can be readily redefined to better reflect
changes in the system operating and/or topological conditions. However, this method corresponds to
centralized OPF models, where in practice, this is likely to be an issue due to the large size and the
complexity of real systems.
In the case of hierarchical voltage control in power systems, [29] proposes wide area voltage protection
system, whenever the operating limits are reached and control efforts are saturated, including active
power rescheduling and load shedding on the area which is the first cause of the voltage instability. The
objective is the removal of the risk of voltage instability within the saturated voltage control area.
Voltage Range
0.80 pu 0.85 pu
30 minutes
0.85 pu 0.90 pu
180 min
0.90 pu 1.115 pu
Unlimited
1.115 pu 1.15 pu
60 minutes
0.80 pu 0.85 pu
30 minutes
0.85 pu 0.90 pu
180 minutes
0.90 pu 1.0875 pu
Unlimited
1.0875 pu 1.10 pu
60 minutes
According to the [25], the voltage control has been divided into primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.
Various TSOs employ different voltage control methods based on their policy. In most cases, a single
transmission system operator (TSO) is responsible for the primary voltage control, whereas the other
control modes might involve several TSOs.
Each TSO continuously and coordinately support the voltage in its own network. The TSOs must have
information of the available reactive resources and their restrictions. Besides, they have to exchange
data for real time operation and network security analysis.
In order to ensure a safe operation of the synchronous area, adjacent TSOs should agree on common
voltage ranges on each side of the borders. In addition, they (adjacent TSOs) should provide coordinated
11
voltage control near the boundaries preventing that individual actions have opposite effects to the
security of the neighbors in normal operation and in case of disturbances.
TSO can have contract with the reactive power providers to get proper, adequate, and rapid reactive
power resources for normal and emergency operation. It is declared that, if the reactive power can be
produced in the adjacent TSOs, specific bilateral contracts should be made to transfer reactive power
through the tie-lines.
Moreover, [25] states that the TSOs are committed to have available a sufficient reserve of fast reactive
power resources participating to the PVR in order to ensure normal operation condition with a
continuous evolving of load and transits, and to prevent voltage collapse after any contingency of the
contingency list. TSOs have to keep available a sufficient number of reactive power resources connected
to the grid, which contribute to reactive power generation or absorption, in order to maintain or get
back the voltage in normal ranges after any contingency.
Different European grid operators, depending on their hierarchical level, developed and implemented
specific voltage control schemes. Here, the current practices in France, Italy, Belgium, Switzerland,
Spain, Germany, Nordic, and Netherlands TSOs are studied in depth.
2-2-1-1- France
France TSO (RTE1) has organized a three level voltage control which concern distinct geographical zones.
The zones are mutually decoupled and a decentralized secondary voltage control (DSVC) coordinate the
action of different generating sets at zonal level. The DSVC acts on all PVRs of regulating units within the
zone to control the zone pilot bus voltage and to maintain their uniform reactive loadings.
RTE has designed a coordinated secondary voltage control (CSVC) which it can be considered as the first
industrial implementation to improve the SVR. The CSVC is a closed loop centralized voltage control
scheme with a dynamic of a few minutes. This coordinated control remains on the regional level and it is
formed of several strongly coupled zones. In fact the CSVC take into account the interactions between
voltage regulation zones.
In each region one control center (CSVC) gathers the information of the pilot nodes voltage and critical
nodes voltage and also generators participating in the CSVC. This information is used to determine the
pilot nodes voltage and the set point of all PVRs in a region. The aim of the CSVC system is the
controlling of the voltages at the pilot nodes and generator terminals to set point values while
maximizing the reactive power reserves and improving the system voltage stability within a region.
Actually the CSVC continuously employs optimization for computing the voltage set points of the
generators in the supervised zone2. The CSVC is afforded to use the existing reactive resources and to
avoid installation of new devices for the voltage control [23], [32], [33], [34]. The CSVC is installed only in
the Western region which is particularly sensitive to voltage problems [35]. The described hierarchical
voltage control of French system is depicted in figure 2-2.
1
2
For this purpose, each 10 seconds, measurements of "pilot node" voltages and generator reactive outputs are collected, from
which new AVR voltage set-points are computed and sent to generators at the next time step. This computation consists in
minimizing the sum of squared pilot node voltage deviations and machine reactive productions, with inequality constraints on
controls, pilot node voltages, generator reactive outputs and sensitive bus voltages
12
In France, RTE ensure the provision of the primary and secondary voltage control reserves through the
ancillary services contract with the power plants. Long-term contract is signed with all the producers to
ensure the availability of the ancillary services. The voltage control remuneration depends on the unit's
geographic zone. RTE defines reactive power sensitive zones. In these zones, the generators are
remunerated to provide the voltage control whereas in the other zones, this remuneration is not
payable. The sensitive zones cover roughly a third of French territory. These areas are colored in brown
on the map given in figure 2-3.
However, regardless of the zone, the energy generator's operating expenses are remunerated at a fixed
rate per MVar/hr when the unit is run. This remuneration is increased by 50% if the unit participates in
the secondary automatic voltage control. These voltage controls are procured through the bilateral
contract with generators.
Some specific regulations related to the reactive energy are considered at the interface between the
transmission and the distribution networks. A coordinated policy and incentives is provided for
distribution companies to maintain their power factors near unity [1].
13
2-2-1-2- Italy
The Italian system operator (TERNA1) employs a hierarchical voltage control scheme for controlling the
network voltages and the generator reactive outputs. All generating units connected to the transmission
and sub-transmission grids shall contribute to the PVR. The PVR is a mandatory service without any
financial compensation. The most significant levels of this hierarchical control are the SVR and the TVR.
The hierarchical structure of the Italian transmission system voltage control is shown in figure 2-4.
Figure 2-4: Hierarchical structure for transmission network voltage control in Italy [22].
SART2 regulates the units' reactive power or local nodes voltage by directly controlling the AVR setpoints and sharing out total generated reactive power among power plant units in a balanced way. The
Regional Voltage Regulators (RVRs) within each area provide a specific reactive power level which
controls the SARTs. The RVR also controls capacitor banks, shunt reactors, OLTCs, and SVCs to avoid
saturation of area generators. The combination of the SART and the RVR implements the SVR. The SVR is
installed on all generators and is coordinated by the Italian National Control Center with the objective of
controlling voltages in some selected pilot nodes. The SVR is now a voluntary service. The pilot nodes
and the control power plants of the SVR in the Italian system are selected such that the network is
subdivided into 18 automatic coordinated control areas [36].
At the highest hierarchical control level, a TVR automatically coordinates the RVRs in a real-time closed
loop with a time constant of about 5 minutes. The TVR aims to both minimize network losses and
improve the operation voltage security [37], [38]. An Optimal Reactive Power Flow (ORPF) for Losses
Minimization Control (LMC) computes the forecasted optimal voltages and reactive levels. On the basis
of a forecasted state estimation, LMC computes in advance (i. e. the day ahead) the provisional optimal
voltage and reactive power plan, which is stored and used by the TVR. The TVR minimizes the
differences between the actual field measurements and the optimal forecasted references. The
combination of the TVR and the LMC forms the National Voltage Regulator (NVR), which links the ORPF
forecasting with real-time optimization of the SVR set-points [36]. The schematic diagram of the
hierarchical voltage control in Italian transmission system is depicted in figure 2-5 with more details.
Automatic system for the regulation of voltage of power stations. (Sistema Automatico per la Regolazione della Tensione di
centrale)
14
Figure 2-5: Schematic diagram of the Hierarchical voltage control for the Italian transmission system [36].
The main achieved operational benefits of the hierarchical voltage control implementation are: the
reduction of the real losses, the increase of the reactive reserves for facing large perturbations, the
increase of the active power transfer capability, and the reduction of the risk of voltage collapse [22].
In addition to the described hierarchical voltage control, TERNA introduced a mandatory framework of
payments (/MVar/hr) for consumers and Distribution System Operators (DSOs) with excess reactive
energy withdrawals [36].
2-2-1-3- Belgium
The coordinated voltage control has been employed in Belgium since 1998, as a tool to support
decisions made by the system operators. Elia, the TSO of the Belgium network, ensure sufficient
absorption or generation of the reactive power to stabilize the system voltage through making contract
with the producers. In the network of Belgium, the secondary and tertiary hierarchical levels, as defined
by the French and Italian propositions, is not utilized. In this application, the voltage control exercised
both as primary control and centralized control. The primary voltage control automatically adjusts the
voltage variation within a given band defined by the producer, while the centralized control is activated
by the producer upon request of Elia depending on the contracted band. The main goal of alignment
objective function is to spread and maximize the reactive power reserves on the different generators
taking part to the voltage control of the system. The proper operation of this objective requires that the
import and the export of reactive power from the neighboring system tend to zero. In the present
implementation generating units, shunt capacitors, and UHV-HV transformers tap changers are
considered as controllers [39].
15
The reactive power generating units are divided into regulating units and non-regulating units. The
regulating units are capable to participate in both of the primary and centralized controls while the nonregulating units are only involved in the centralized control. The generating units with capacity over 25
MW are required to participate in the primary voltage control of the Belgium network. As additional
mean to solve a problem, Elia can ask the regulating units to activate the reactive power beyond the
bands, if this activation didnt jeopardize the security of the producing unit. Figures 2-6 and 2-7
demonstrate the aforementioned characteristics of the regulating and the non-regulating units,
respectively [24].
Figure 2-6: Utilization of the reactive band for the regulating unit in Belgium [24].
Figure 2-7: Utilization of the reactive band for the non-regulated unit in Belgium [24].
Elia launches a tender for providing the voltage control, and chooses the providers based on the price of
the received bids and the location of the generating units in the grid. The producers are paid for the
actual consumed or generated volumes of the reactive power (/MVar/hr). In addition, the required
reactive power reserve is provided through adjusting the set of the generating units [24].
In order to improve the voltage control of the network of Belgium, a hierarchical voltage control scheme
with SVR and TVR is studied in [40]. In this scheme, SVR calculates the voltage of the pilot nodes and
sends the reactive power set-points to generators. The objective of TVR is defined as minimization of
generators reactive production, capacitor switching, reactive power exchange with neighbor grids, and
voltage deviation. General structure of the proposed control system is shown in figure 2-8.
16
Figure 2-8: General Diagram of the proposed hierarchical voltage control for the network of Belgium.
2-2-1-4- Switzerland
There is no formal SVR and TVR in the Swiss grid. The TSO of Switzerland (Swissgrid) is responsible for
ensuring voltage support in coordination with the prequalified ancillary service provider (ASP), power
plant operators (PPO), distribution system operators (DSO) and TSOs in other countries (FTSO). Since
2009, Swissgrid has implemented a central voltage/reactive power control, which coordinates the
generators AVR and the transformers tap changers through a Day-Ahead Reactive Planning (DARP). The
DARP process is shown schematically in figure 2-9.
The main input data of the DARP process is the 24 DACF (Day-Ahead Congestion Forecast) snapshots
that contain the 24 hours day-ahead power flow forecast. Moreover, it is necessary to add reactive
power limits of power plants and tap changer transformers model. The minimum available reactive
power of each plant is derived from its total active power production of the DACF model (Qlim=f(P)).
The optimal set-point for the power plants and transformer tap changers are determined such that they
minimize the cost of active power losses throughout the transmission system plus the cost of reactive
energy payment to the generators. The optimization has to ensure a number of technical and
operational constraints like voltage limits of generations and nodes, transformer tap position limits, and
reactive power flow branch group limits at the borders and for Switzerland [42], [41]. The Optimal
Power Flow (OPF) is performed in a consecutive manner for all 24 snapshots. The day-ahead voltage
17
schedule contains the individual 24 hourly set-point values for all transmission system production
nodes.
The power plant operators must regulate their units reactive power in such a way that the magnitudes
of voltages at nodes are within the reference of 3 kV. All generators in operation must support the
voltage within the obligatory reactive power margin which doesnt cause any opportunity cost for
generators. In addition, generators can provide enhanced reactive power support beyond the obligatory
service by concluding bilateral agreements with Swissgrid.
It can be seen that there is no closed-loop automatic voltage control and the voltage set-points are
determined off-line. Therefore, Swissgrid provided an operational emergency plan for the operators,
including a number of procedures to keep the voltages within operational limits in the event of
violations [43]. Based on the severity of the situations the following countermeasures can be taken:
completely utilize the obligatory reactive power, order for enhanced reactive power services, call for
synchronizing all available units as the last measure on a national level, and international redispatch
procedure with the surrounding TSOs.
The generators provided reactive energy for the voltage control is compensated by a constant default
(CHF/MVar/hr) payment rate. The precondition for this remuneration is supporting the hourly defined
voltage set-points that it is checked every 15 minutes.
At the moment, DSOs and end consumers directly connected to the transmission system have limited
ability to control the system voltage [41]. However, they have the opportunity to choose between active
or passive participation in the voltage control. The active participants are reimbursed and the passive
participants are charged. The goal of this elaborated concept is to increase the reactive power reserves
through increasing of the active participants voltage support, and improving load factor of the passive
participants [44].
Possible future enhancements of voltage control in the Swiss network could be an active participation of
DSOs and end consumers directly connected to the transmission system, better coordination with
surrounding networks, and realization of a central closed-loop voltage control with direct online control
of generators reactive power [41].
2-2-1-5- Spain
REE (Red Elctrica de Espana) is in charge of the unified operation of the Peninsular Power System and is
the owner of the High voltage Power System. REE performs its basic functions and 5 regional control
centers perform complementary functions to those of the REE.
To improve reactive power management, off-line OPF studies are performed using the worst real time
cases whose solution was obtained by the state estimator and saved in the applications computer.
These voltage optimization studies were performed in a regional level. In one region, an expert system,
called SEGRE (Reactive Power Management Expert System), to assist the operator has been developed
and it is currently in operation.
The Spain system operator adopted a two layers reactive service. The first layer is a minimum reactive
service required of all generators, which is mandatory, and the second layer the reactive services
exceeding the minimum requirement [1]. The service providers are the generators connected to the
transmission system, the available means in the network like capacitors and transformers with
regulation for the reactive management, the qualified consumers with contracted power greater than
15 MW, and the distribution networks. The providers may offer the availability of an additional band of
generation and/or absorption of reactive power that exceeds the corresponding required resources.
Voltage control and reactive power support in the Spanish transmission network is regulated by two
market mechanisms: 1) the network constraint management and 2) the voltage control ancillary service
(VCAS). Constraint management is conducted by the system operator, who asks generators to modify
their outputs to solve power system voltage problems. REE fulfill security criteria while minimizing the
cost of generation redispatch based on the generators submitted bids to the day-ahead energy market
18
[45]. VCAS has been implemented under two different time scopes: 1) annual and 2) daily. In the annual
time scope, the service suppliers submit optional reactive offers exceeding the minimum mandatory
one. According to the offers of different providers, the required resources are selected through a
tendering process and by analyzing a number of scenarios that represent the future operation of the
power system. In the daily time scope, an OPF determines the optimal operation of the power system
based on the available reactive power offers: mandatory and optional assigned in the annual time scope
[46]. Nowadays, only the first mechanism is fully implemented, while the VCAS is partially established.
The voltage set-points and the limits of reactive power output in the boundary points are determined in
a day-ahead basis. The system operator undertakes a sampling of the voltage values in the controlled
nodes every five minutes. The operator set a permissible band of 2.5 kV around the set point voltage
value.
The provision of the voltage control ensure the optimal safety and the quality of supply while minimizing
transmission losses and keeping the system away from voltage instability. The latter target can be
achieved through by: 1) maintaining an adequate voltage profile in normal operating condition and 2)
assuring that generators exhibit enough reactive margins that guarantee that the system voltages will
remain under acceptable values in case of contingencies.
The voltage control is paid for the various service providers on a monthly basis. The remuneration not
only contains the generated and absorbed reactive powers (/MVar/hr), but also considers availability
of additional band for reactive power generation and absorption (/MVar) [47].
Besides, REE has launched a research project on analysis, design and implementation of a hierarchical
and automatic voltage control, in which the current primary generator AVR would be completed by a
regional SVR and, eventually, by an automatic or semi-automatic TVR. Figure 2 shows the complete
voltage control system. The reference values for the SVR will be provided by an expert system. [48]
Figure 2-10: Proposed reactive power management and voltage control in Spanish electric system [48].
2-2-1-6- Germany
The TSOs in the network of Germany are responsible for the voltage control in the system as a part of a
secure supply. Each TSO must ensure voltage stability in its own controlled area, which involves the
power grid (transmission and distribution networks), generating units, power stations, consumers, and
the boundary areas of the adjacent networks. The following parties are involved in the voltage control
under the coordination of the responsible system operator:
Generating facilities, reactive compensation installations, transformer tap changing, and modification of
network topology are taken into consideration by the TSOs to ensure enough reactive power generation
and demand in the system. The conditions for supply and purchase of reactive power are specified in
bilateral agreements between the concerned parties.
Each generating unit must meet the defined minimum requirements regarding to the specified power
factor in the transmission codes. The generating unit under operation should provide the requested
reactive power as specified by the TSO.
According to the contractual agreements, if the suppliers notified a restriction in reactive power
generation, the TSO should be immediately notified. In addition, if a TSO during daily operational
planning cannot be ascertain of reactive power management by the available means (its own passive
facilities and contractually guaranteed ancillary services), it should ask for supplementary generating
units to supply reactive power. Financial compensation for that is settled on a bilateral basis [49].
2-2-1-7- NORDEL
The network of NORDEL is composed of four countries, including Norway, Sweden, Finland, and
Denmark. Each one of the system operator is responsible for voltage regulation in its own grid.
Deregulated markets in the Nordic countries do not have any provision for payments towards reactive
power services [50]. For example, Sweden follows a policy wherein reactive power is supplied by
generators on a mandatory basis and without any financial compensation. Some large generators are
rarely used for voltage control and are operated at a constant reactive power output. Also in Norway
there is mandatory reactive power supply, within power factor range of 0.93 lagging to 0.98 leading,
without any financial compensation. Additional reactive power supply could be individually imposed to
generators which it would be remunerated yearly by negotiation between system operator and
producers.
Moreover, the interaction between the system operators is considered such as communication between
the Norwegian and the Swedish system operators. The voltage of the Norwegian system is monitored by
the National Centre and also Regional Centers. If the Regional Centers do not have sufficient resources
to maintain the voltage within the given limits, the National Centre will be contacted. Two operation
centers in the Swedish system are responsible for voltage regulation in the northern and southern parts
of the grid. If the operations centers do not have sufficient resources to maintain the voltage within the
given limits, they should contact each others. In normal operation, the goal is the higher voltage within
the normal operation range. In conjunction with operational disturbances and switching, the respective
operations centers in Sweden and Norway can agree on actions to maintain the voltage within the given
intervals.
The margin for the PVR is set by each system operator for its own system and bilaterally between the
system operators in borders between the systems. Voltage regulation in each system should be
conducted in such a way that the operational security standards1 are upheld and the reactive flow
between the systems does not entail operational problems. The Parties rights and liabilities regarding
reactive power flows on the AC interconnections are limited to what corresponds to zero exchange (no
reactive exchange) at the national border, based on values measured at the terminals of the links.
NORDEL operational security standard states that there must be a reserve of reactive power within each
subsystem. It must be constituted with regard to the size, the regulation capability and the localization
to prevent the system collapse [51].
Operational security standards are criteria which the system operators use when conducting operational planning in order to
uphold the reliable operation of the power system.
20
2-2-1-8- Netherlands
In the Netherlands, individual network companies have to provide for their own reactive power, usually
through bilateral contracts with local generators, who are only paid for the reactive capacity but not for
reactive energy [36].
The operating point for the reactive power exchange at the active power output is defined by one of the
following three possibilities: power factor (cos ), reactive power level, voltage level, if necessary with
tolerance band. The operating points are defined by agreement of a value or online set-point
specification. The generators which active power is taken from must maintain a power factor of cos =
0.95 (inductive) to 1. Further exchange of reactive power is permissible and has to be agreed separately
[52].
2-2-2- NERC
In the North America power system, the enhanced voltage control is not utilized. Power plants are the
primary resources used to control the transmission system voltage. The effectiveness of the existing
reactive power and voltage control standards and how they are being implemented in practice has been
reevaluated in the ten NERC regions [53]. New generators should have an over and under-excited power
factor capability of 0.95 or less. If a generator could not meet this requirement, it should make alternate
arrangements for supplying an equivalent dynamic reactive power capability. The provision of the basic
voltage controls is compulsory in NERC. The generators are remunerated based on a regulated price.
This price incurs the fixed and opportunity cost of the generators [27].
Generators must declare their reactive power capabilities for the system operator such as
characteristics of the unit automatic voltage regulator, maximum and minimum reactive power output
capabilities, and speed of response. The generators accept and confirm the scheduled voltage or the
scheduled reactive output requests from the system operator within two minutes. These generators
must modify MVAR output to keep the voltage or the reactive output error less than the specified band
around the scheduled voltage. The generator must meet either the voltage or reactive output
requirements, but not both of them at the same time [54].
However, the performance requirements for voltage controls are not dealt with in great detail by NERC.
Thereby targets of network voltage schedules are left for the regional coordinating and operating
entities to define these requirements more specifically. NERC voltage and reactive control requirements
states that each transmission operator should acquire adequate dynamic and static reactive resources
within its area to protect the voltage levels of interconnected system under normal and contingency
conditions. Reactive resources should be dispersed so that they can be applied effectively and quickly
when contingencies occur [55]. The adjacent transmission operators are responsible for facilitating the
resolution of any potential conflicts in the applicable voltage limits.
In addition to NERC standard, the Western Electricity Coordinating Council (WECC) defines more
detailed performance requirements for automatic voltage regulators. WECC-specific standards
addressed the required active and reactive power margin in the system for both transfer paths and load
areas. The established standards of WECC assess the required static stability margin and reactive power
margin through conducting PV and PQ analysis, respectively. It defines the active power margin
requirement in such a way that the path flow transfer (the area load) should be kept 5% below the path
flow transfer (the area load) of the nose-point on the PV curve for normal operation and worst single
contingency. Also the active power margin should be kept 2.5% below the path flow transfer (the area
load) of the nose-point on the PV curve for worst multiple contingency. Similarly, the reactive power
margin requirement at the critical node under consideration is equal to the change in the reactive
power margin between
100% and 105% of forecast loading (or path transfer) for single contingencies.
100% and 102.5% of forecast loading (or path transfer) for multiple contingencies.
21
The described active and reactive power margins requirements are depicted in figures 2-11 and 2-12,
respectively [8].
2-2-3- Conclusion
Study of current practices in voltage and reactive power control demonstrates the intention of different
system operators toward implementation of more sophisticated schemes like centralized and
hierarchical voltage controls. Table 2-2 and 2-3 summarize the current practices of different TSOs in
ENTSO-E and NERC for voltage and reactive power control and its remuneration, respectively, which
explicitly described in this chapter.
Moreover, a combined SVR and TVR (SVR+TVR) methodology based on real-time centralized optimal
power flows (OPFs) is proposed in [28] to periodically update the generators voltage regulator set
points. Minimum active power losses (MAPL) and maximum loadability (ML) OPF approaches are used
for the proposed SVR+TVR control. However, in practice implementation of centralized OPF is
problematic and regionalization of the OPFs for the proposed SVR+TVR needs to be studied.
22
Centralized
System
TSOs
Voltage
Control
SVR
Reactive
Power
Control
Voltage
Control
France
RTE
Italy
ENEL
Practice
Belgium
Proposed
Swissgrid
Practice
Spain
Reactive
Power
Control
Voltage
Control
Reactive
Power
Control
Elia
Switzerland
TVR
REE
Proposed
Vattenfal, EON,
RWE, EnBW
Germany
NORDEL
Netherlands
PJM
NERC
Table2-3: Summary of different provision and remuneration methods in voltage and reactive power control
System
Provision
Remuneration
France
Italy
Belgium
Switzerland
Spain
NORDEL
Netherlands
They are only paid for the reactive capacity not for reactive
energy
PJM
23
Design Stage
Procurement
Scheduling
Real-Time
In the power system planning stage, the system operator has to ensure the viability of voltage controls
requirement of the future system. The most perceptible countermeasures actions in this stage are:
Transmission reinforcement by adding new VAR resources such as series and shunt
compensations, FACTS devices, and etc.
Construction of generation units with more capability of reactive power control.
Improving reactive power management through implementing automatic SVR and TVR schemes.
The system protection against voltage collapse consists of automatic control actions based on local or
wide area measurements. Reactive compensation switching, load shedding and load tap changers
blocking can be implemented in this stage. In these two stages the aforementioned countermeasures,
except the load shedding, deal with long-term stability.
The operational planning and the real-time control typically involve different generator responses
(including PVR, SVR and TVR) and reactive device switching. In emergency states, load shedding and load
tap changer blocking also can be taken into account. These actions aim in maintaining voltage profile
and reactive power reserves. They can be implemented either manually or automatically.
In the context of deregulated electricity markets, there are two classes of problems when analyzing the
reactive power provision (operational planning), namely, reactive power procurement and reactive
power dispatch. Reactive power procurement is essentially a long-term issue, i.e., a seasonal problem.
The system operator looks for optimal and secure reactive power allocations from possible suppliers in
the given time period. Reactive power dispatch, on the other hand, corresponds to the short-term
allocation of reactive power to suppliers based on current operating conditions. In this stage the system
operator determines the optimal reactive power schedule for all providers [56].
The system operator in the various voltage control studies deals with different phenomena in different
time-scales. The voltage stability can be classified into two categories based on the size of the
disturbance. Small-disturbance voltage stability concerns the systems ability to control voltages
following small perturbations, such as gradual change in load. This form of stability can be effectively
studied by steady-state approaches based on load flow. A lot of methods are developed for this purpose
such PV and VQ curves, Jacobian matrix, continuation power flow, and quasy steady state simulation.
Largedisturbance voltage stability concerns the systems ability to control voltages following large
disturbances such as system faults, loss of load, or loss of generation. It can be studied by using nonlinear time domain simulations in the short-term timeframe and steady state analysis in the long-term
time frame [57].
In addition, according to the different time-scale of phenomena, the voltage stability can be classified
into short, mid and long-term stability [12], [13]. In some reviews, the mid-term voltage stability with
24
time-scale within a few minutes is treated as a separate class [4], [8], [58], [59]. Nevertheless, as
discussed in [9] (p.1078) distinction between mid-term and long-term stability appears less and less
justified. Thus, in recent literatures the mid and long-term voltage instabilities are considered in the
same category [13], [60], [61], [62]. In this report, the expression long-term voltage instability concerns
all studies beyond the short-term.
The short-term voltage stability is characterized by fast acting dynamics of the power system and its
components following a disturbance. The time frame is from less than one second to several seconds.
The response of the PVR is in this time scale. Time-domain or dynamic simulation considering different
control actions are commonly used for the short-term studies.
The long-term voltage stability involves slow phenomena and slower acting equipments. Its time frame
may extend from several minutes to hours. It contains automatic or manual actions of higher level
controls like the SVR and the TVR. The investigation in this time period is done through static analysis
methods based on power flow models while considering fast dynamics stable.
The mechanisms that make the system instable in short-term and long-term dynamics are a) loss of
post-disturbance equilibrium (ST1 and LT1)1, b) lack of attraction toward stable equilibrium (ST2 and
LT2), and c) post-disturbance oscillatory instability (ST3 and LT3). Usually the evolution of the long-term
voltage instability, leads to a short-term instability. Similarly, this type of instability (S-LT1, S-LT2, and SLT3) can be distinguished according to the three aforementioned mechanisms. To face the problem, the
generators and the synchronous condensers can be asked to provide reactive power in excess of their
current limits for a limited time. But it transforms a short-term voltage problem to a long-term one.
This time scale decomposition perspective can be utilized to indicate time horizon of various
phenomena and system components actions taking part in the voltage stability. The fast acting
automatically controlled equipments participate in the short-term stability dynamics such as: generators
automatic control devices (excitation system), synchronous condensers, automatic switched shunt
capacitors, SVC, induction motor, voltage dependent loads, FACTS, HVDC links, etc. In the long-term
stability dynamics, SVR, TVR, transformer tap changers, generator limiters, switched shunt
compensation, and in the last resort load shedding could be enumerated. They typically act over several
minutes. The response of the components in the long-term voltage stability is designed in such a
manner that it has no interaction with the short-term dynamics.
This time decoupling allows to categorize the voltage controls and to perform more precise analysis.
Figure 3-1 depicts the dynamic of voltage control response in comparison with the response of other
power system controllers timescale.
Operator LFC
Long-term
voltage control
AGC
Short-term
voltage control
Protection
Power electronic
controllers
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
time (s)
Figure 3-1: Short and long-term voltage controls in comparison with different time scales of power system controls [6], [63].
1
25
It can be derived that fast response of automatic voltage controls, which are commonly available over
the entire power system, is even faster than rapid active power control. For the first few seconds or
even tens of seconds after a system disturbance, there is no active power control from the generators.
The controllability of the reactive power in the generators is fast since it involves electronic control of
excitation current and does not need any mechanical power control [64]. Therefore, when there is a
sudden change in load, the voltage profile at the load buses can be controlled with rapid reactive power
regulation of generators and then the generators governor restores the active power balance at their
low speed [64]. All of the aforementioned controllers could be applied in both preventive and corrective
strategies.
The preventive and the corrective controls are two main defenses against instability incidents. These
control actions must be taken appropriately to provide sufficient margin for security. The objective of
the voltage security assessment in operational planning and real-time environments is to ensure the
system security through taking into account both types of the remedial actions. Usually the secure
operation point can be obtained with applying different countermeasure. Such decisions are taken in
accordance with each actions cost as a trade-off between reliability and economy.
In the case of the short-term voltage problem, there is not always enough time to implement the
corrective actions. Therefore, sufficient reactive power margin should be provided for the short-term
voltage instability prior the disturbance by the automatic support of the control devices. The
countermeasures for the long-term voltage instability contain both preventive and corrective actions,
because in the long-term voltage instability usually there is time for operator actions. The SVR control
actions are basically in the time scale of the long-term voltage studies. The various remedial actions for
different time-scales of the voltage instability are shown in table 3-2.
Table 3-2: Various preventive and corrective countermeasures for different time-scales of voltage instability.
Preventive action
Corrective action
short-term
PVR
long-term
SVR
TVR
Capacitor switching
Load tap changer
Load shedding
Generation redispatch
Capacitor switching
Load tap changer blocking
Automatic or manual preventive controls include the optimization of the amount and location of
reactive reserves. The PVR in the short-term voltage control and the SVR and the TVR schemes in the
long-term voltage control can be used in this respect. Note that SVR is also in charge of the shunt
compensation switching and the transformer tap changing with the objective of maintaining reactive
reserves on generators to face incidents. Automatic or manual corrective controls in the long-term
instability include shunt compensation switching, load tap changer blocking, load shedding and
generation redispatch.
In order to avoid voltage instability, three characteristics of countermeasures including amount,
location, and execution time should be appropriately adjusted. The location of corrective actions should
be selected such that the minimum amount could be achieved. The farther the countermeasure from
the location with voltage instability, the more countermeasures is needed to save the system.
Moreover, execution of corrective actions can restore the long-term equilibrium when they are
performed before the time limit. If corrective actions were realized after the time limit, the system
would be prone to LT2 instability. Otherwise, more corrective actions are required to restore the stable
post-contingency equilibrium.
26
The provided emergency controls to protect the system against the voltage collapse are divided into two
categories. The first group has no impact on consumers. This group could include the topology change,
the modification of cross border flow, the reduction of exchange, the fast generation rescheduling, and
the load tap changers. If they were available, they would be the first controls to be utilized. Some of
these actions such as generation rescheduling may involve additional cost to the utilities. In this case, if
the generators reactive power production affects on their active power dispatch, they receive an
opportunity cost payment. The second group of emergency controls, like load shedding, have a direct
impact on consumer and usually are used as the ultimate remedial action. In serious contingencies, the
system cannot be efficiently restored without some form of load shedding. It is shown that among
different emergency controls only load shedding is able to restore the long-term system equilibrium in
the presence of load self-restoration1 [65]. However, the efficient load shedding scheme should be
designed so that appropriate amounts of loads are disconnected within a delay to protect the system
against the voltage collapse. For instance, the Hydro-Quebec operator has implemented an under
voltage load shedding scheme -TDST- to have an extensive defense plan against major disturbances [66],
[67].
Usually power systems are operated with sufficient preventive controls in such a way that they can
survive credible contingencies. For more severe incidents the TSOs relies on corrective actions. When
the preventive actions are insufficient or cannot be implemented fast enough, corrective measures
should be adopted. The remedies for higher order contingencies could be covered either by its own TSO
or with neighbors. During such situation, the TSO which is on alert provide the necessary information to
the neighbors and also looks for convenient remedial actions with them [25]. Moreover to the various
mentioned countermeasures, modification of cross boarder flow and reduction of exchanged power
also can be included in the remedial actions.
The reactive power reserve in the system should be managed to improve the voltage stability and to
avoid the voltage control problems in case of disturbances. It requires adequate response of the
equipments and coordination of the control and the protection equipments. Next chapter studies the
concepts of reactive power reserve and emergency countermeasures in depth.
Following a disturbance in the supply voltage, the active and reactive powers drawn by the load are restored by internal
controllers (like thermostats).
27
the system to assist the voltage control. This capability should be held in reserve to respond to
unforeseen events which lead to a sudden change of required reactive power. Contingencies like outage
of transmission line, capacitor, SVC, and large generator supplying reactive power can increase the
required reactive power substantially and immediately.
The RPR has to be composed of both reactive supply and absorption capabilities [54]. It can be activated
either automatically or manually during the momentary operational situation. The generators are the
main source of RPR which also referred as spinning RPR. Generator supplied reactive power is especially
an effective resource of RPRs because of a) its superior performance at low voltage as compared to
static reactive devices, b) fast response of excitation system, and c) large reactive range. The other
equipments which can maintain the RPR are synchronous condensers, spare shunt capacitors and shunt
reactors, and SVCs.
The RPR can be viewed from the loads and generators perspective. The two bus test system, shown in
Figure 4-1-a, is used to illustrate the various viewpoints of the RPR. A generator and a load are
connected to bus 1 and bus 2, respectively. The QVcurve method, which more details are given in [68],
is used to obtain the reactive power margin to voltage collapse point. For this purpose a fictitious
reactive power support Qf is connected to the load bus (pilot node). The QVcurve, shown in Figure 4-1c, expresses the relationship between the reactive power support (Qf) at the given bus and the amount
of the voltage at that bus (V) [30]. The minimum of the QVcurve distinguishes the reactive power
margin to loss of the current operating point. This point is called voltage collapse point and it is shown
by the white circle. The current operating point without compensation (Qf = 0) is shown with black
circle. The generators reactive power outputs of the current operating point and of the voltage collapse
point are shown on the generator capability curve in Figure 1-b. In this paper, the optimal power flow is
used as an alternative method to calculate the reactive power margin to the voltage collapse point [4].
The Load RPR (LRPR), shown in Figure 4-1-c, is the difference between the reactive power at the current
operating point and the reactive power at the voltage collapse point. It is also called reactive power
margin and usually the literatures concentrate on this point of view. The Generator RPR (GRPR) focuses
is on the quantity and the value of RPR provided by each generator. The simplest definition, which is
called Technical Generator RPR (TGRPR), is the difference between the maximum reactive power
capability of the generator and its reactive power generation at the current operating point. However,
V<
E<0
PL , QL
PPig,,QQi g
Bus 1
Bus 2
QQcf
Qi
Qf
Qc
Qi
TGRPR
Qi
EGRPR
Qf
LRPR
Pi
P
i
Figure 4-2: LRPR, TGRPR, and EGRPR for the two bus test system.
28
this quantity may not represent the useful quantity of the RPR since at the collapse point all amount of
the TGRPR cannot be utilized. Effective Generator RPR (EGRPR), as a more accurate representative of
the GRPR, is defined as the difference between the generators reactive power output at the voltage
collapse point and the generators reactive power output at the current operating point. The TGRPR is
an upper bound for the EGRPR. The LRPR, the TGRPR, and the EGRPR for the two bus test system are
shown in Figure 4-1-c and 4-1-b. Fewer studies are performed around the GRPRs rather than the LRPR.
Both perspectives need to be considered for system operation and planning to meet the system
reliability criteria [69].
Furthermore, the RPR can be classified into static and dynamic RPR based on the resources. In case of a
contingency, both of static and dynamic reactive resources are necessary for the system to survive the
transitions and settle to new operating condition. Appropriate balance between them and their location
should be well determined [8]. The dynamic RPR respond to the system voltage deviations within a few
cycles. Synchronous generators, synchronous condensers, and SVCs are equipments which fit the
definition of dynamic RPRs. Manually controlled elements are static RPRs. Note that automatic
controlled shunt capacitors do not qualify as dynamic RPRs since their control systems limit their
response.
In order to respond to the contingencies and to support the voltage during extreme system operating
conditions, the system operator needs to carry sufficient RPRs according to the best response capability
of the resources. Thus it would be a wise practice to control the system in such a way to keep maximum
amount of RPRs on the generators. In other words, generators should be operated at low reactive
power production to ensure sufficient RPR response to the system voltage changes. For this purpose,
the system operator may have to switch shunt reactors or shunt capacitors to relieve the MVar supply of
generators and allow an increase to their RPRs while maintaining the desired voltage profile [64].
However, beyond a certain level of compensation with shunt capacitors the voltage regulation tends to
be poor and stable operation is unattainable. The reason is that the generated reactive power by shunt
capacitors is proportional to square of voltage and during low voltage conditions their VAR support
drops and thus exacerbating the problem.
An effective way for the system operator to manage the RPRs in the system is the application of SVR and
TVR. After a disturbance, the operating points of the generators change according to PVR action. It leads
to poor distribution of production, consumption and total reserve of reactive power. Thus, a nonoptimum solution is attained for the overall network. As a result, the network voltage control plan
degrades due to major reactive power flows, increase of line losses, and generator overloads. SVR can
act on the set point levels of PVRs to restore the operation point to a more optimal situation. SVR
performs this modification in a coordinated manner in a control zone. This action is performed through
scheduling the voltage of the pilot points. SVR scheme increases RPR because all the generators tend to
have their RPRs exhausted at the same time. Moreover, the system operator has to respond the
scheduled and unscheduled changes of the system operating conditions. Thus the application of the TVR
would be necessary to adapt and harmonize the various set point voltages to the pilot points in all the
networks so as to economically optimize the operation of the system and ensure its optimum safety
[70]. However, it should be noted that SVR has not been devised to face emergency situations, where a
faster and coordinated control of generator is needed. If this control is performed over a large enough
area, it could preserve generator RPR by reducing network reactive losses and by increasing the
production of shunt compensation [60].
actions subject to the system equalities and inequalities is often referred to as solvability restoration.
The system operators must be able to recognize voltage stability related symptoms and take
appropriate remedial actions.
Generation redispatch can be one of the emergency countermeasures, since the available RPR of a
generator varies depending on its loading condition. The generator RPR is determined by its capability
curve. Note that for a given real power output, the reactive power generation is limited by both
armature and field heating limits.
Usually emergency action on load is the ultimate countermeasure. This can be implemented indirectly
through a modified control of LTCs or directly as load shedding. Emergency control of LTCs can be
achieved by LTC blocking or LTC voltage reduction. This emergency action has to be coordinated
between different LTC levels in EHV transmission, HV sub-transmission and MV distribution levels. LTC
emergency control slows down the system degradation, but its response is affected by counteraction of
load power restoration mechanism and complex implementation due to large number of distribution
transformer to control [60]. Appropriate load shedding is the ultimate way of stopping voltage
instability. Under-voltage load shedding scheme can restore a long-term equilibrium by increasing the
active power margin of the system.
The PV and the VQ curves are utilized to obtain the active and the reactive power margins for two-bus
test system as shown in figure 4-2.
E<0
V<
X
X
X
P L , QL
Bus 1
Bus 2
Qc
In the given system the synchronous generator at bus 1 with voltage E<0 (E=1.1) feeds the load at bus 2
with active power PL (PL=2) and reactive power QL (QL=0.4). Three parallel transmission lines, each one
with inductance X (X=0.3), connect the generation bus to the consumption bus.
The PV and the VQ curves are calculated for this system in pre-contingency, post-contingency #1
(outage of one transmission line), and post-contingency #2 (outage of two transmission lines) and are
shown in figures 4-3 and 4-4, respectively.
The point on the nose-curve where the maximum power occurs is called the critical point and in
literature is often considered to be the voltage stability limit.
In figure 4-3, the active power margin to the voltage collapse is the distance of the operating point
(black circle) to the nose-point on the PV curve. This margin for the post-contingency #1 (1) decreases
comparing with the pre-contingency (0) due to the loss of one transmission line (1<0). The
contingency #2 has a negative active power margin (2) with respect to the current operating point
which means voltage instability. The system operator can restore the system to voltage stable area by
applying fast enough corrective countermeasures like shedding more than 2 MW of the loads.
31
As shown in figure 4-2, a fictitious reactive power injection (QC) is added to bus 2 to obtain the VQ
curves. The VQ curves for the three aforementioned scenarios and the corresponding reactive power
margin are depicted in figure 4-4. The black circles show the operating points of the system where the
fictitious injections are equal to zero (QC=0). The difference between the minimum of the VQ curve and
the operating point is defined as the reactive power margin at the bus, which is equal to the negative
value of the fictitious injected reactive power. The positive margins of the pre-contingency and postcontingency #1 are, Q0 and Q1, respectively. For the post-contingency #2, the reactive power margin (Q2)
became negative. This value (Q2) is the reactive power margin to operability. The reactive power margin
can be managed to keep the voltage secure by using different reactive resources.
Note that at the minimum of the VQ curve, the RPRs of depleted generators are the effective reserves
for the area and, thereby, determine the reactive margin in the area. The amount of effective RPR is a
key index in voltage stability assessment [72]. Developing of VQ curves is recommended as an
alternative method for time-domain or dynamic simulations to identify the appropriate RPR.
1
V/E
tan()=0.2
0
Secure
Voltage Zone
pre-contingency
post-contingency
#1
post-contingency
#2
0
0
PL
Figure 4-3: The PV curves of the two-bus test system.
(QCX)/E2
post-contingency
#2
0
Q
post-contingency
#1
pre-contingency
1
Figure 4-4: The VQ curves of the two-bus test system.
32
V/E
The MW and MVAr margin to the critical point in the PV and the VQ curves can be used as stability
indices. Many voltage stability indices are derived based on the information obtained from the proximity
to voltage collapse. These indices can be classified into state-based indices and large-deviation indices
[30]. The state-based indices compare the current state of the system with a theoretically calculated
critical value. The calculation of these indices doesnt need to obtain the real critical point. For instance,
voltage drops, eigenvalues and singular values can be enumerated. The large deviation-based indices
are determined by tracking a certain parameter from the operating point to the voltage instability point.
These indices, like active and reactive power margins, are widely used in voltage stability analysis [73].
Practical indices should be observable and controllable parameters for operator and anticipate the
effects of contingencies. Moreover, composite system reliability can be evaluated by incorporating
voltage stability indices to OPF [74].
As mentioned before, OPF can be used to obtain the critical information of the PV and VQ curves, such
as active and reactive power margin to instability.
The security limit is defined as the maximum stress that the system can accept, taking into account
contingencies. There are two types of security limits for a given direction of the system stress and a list
of contingencies:
1) Post-contingency loadability limits (PCLL) indicate how far the system can be stressed after the
occurrence of each contingency. It provides a measure of the security margin left after a
contingency.
2) Secure operation limits (SOL) indicate how far the system can be stressed before any contingency
such that it will remain stable after the contingencies. Interpretation of SOL is easier since it
separately refers to pre-contingency parameters that operators can either observe or control.
Also, SOL makes a clear separation between the pre- and post-contingency actions.
A set of contingencies should be selected for these studies to avoid the huge computational effort of
analyzing all contingencies. Contingency filtering is a key process for the success of voltage security
studies [75].
A combination of SOL determination and contingency filtering procedure, namely binary search, is
widely used to determine the secure operation limit of the system [30]. Binary search determines the
system stress limit for a single contingency. Similarly, simultaneous binary search can be used when the
study is for several contingencies. The presented methods in [76] and [77] extrapolates this limit
through extracting more information from the simulated responses.
Preventive control actions are taken in pre-contingency situation to increase the security margin with
respect to a set of postulated contingencies. Corrective control actions are taken in a given postdisturbance configuration in order to restore system stability. Each one of the preventive and the
corrective controls can be identified from eigenvector or based on Optimal Power Flow (OPF).
Different analysis methods described above can be used in appropriate provision of voltage control for
planning, operational planning, and real-time time scales.
Contingency #0
Min. (vi-1)
Min Ploss
Pg0= 1.2144
Pg0=1.2154
Pg0= 1.2144
Qg0= 0.5301
Qg0= 0.5458
Qg0= 0.5301
=2.81360.5301= 2.2835
= 2.81330.5458=2.2675
=2.81360.5301= 2.2835
=1.17810.5301= 0.6480
=1.1781 0.5458=0.6323
=1.17810.5301= 0.6480
Pg1= 1.2225
Pg1= 1.2234
Pg1= 1.2225
Qg1= 0.5612
Qg1= 0.5756
Qg1= 0.5612
V11= 1.0332
Qgc= 1.1781
V1c= 1.0500 < 0
Prob=0.9697
Contingency #1
Pgc= 1.2225
Pgc= 1.2267
Qgc= 0.8384
V1c= 1.0500 < 0
Prob =0.03
=2.81100.5612=2.2499
2.8107-0.5756=2.2351
=2.81100.5612=2.2499
=0.8384 0.5612=0.2772
=0.83840.5756=0.2628
=0.8384 0.5612=0.2772
Pgc= 1.2479
Contingency #2
Prob =0.0003
Qgc= 0.5270
No convergence
No convergence
No convergence
34
power of generator, and PM and QM are maximum active and reactive power of generator
which are equal to
3.5,
3. The effect of generators voltage on its capability
curve is neglected in this formulation.
c) In this test case the minimization of active power losses (Min Ploss) is in the direction of line
reactive power flow minimization which means minimization of reactive power generation
(Min. Qg). It is the reason that the results of objectives (Min Ploss) and (Min. Qg) are exactly
the same.
In contingency #2, there is not sufficient RPR to obstacle against the voltage collapse. In this case the
obtained results in the last column of table 4-1 can be considered as an index which measures the
severity of instability. In order to obtain an operable point, emergency countermeasures (ECs) such as
active and reactive generation rescheduling and load shedding need to be utilized. Here, since there is
only one generator, the generation rescheduling is not possible and load shedding should be
implemented. For this purpose, an OPF is developed to obtain minimum amount of load shedding with
respect to the system voltage collapse. The results are given in table 4-2.
Table 4-2: The results of EC for the two bus test case.
Pgc = 0.9022
Contingency #2
Prob =0.0003
Qgc = 0.4508
V1c = 1.0500 < 0
V2c = 0.9500 < -0.2631
PLS = 0.3238
power injections. The optimization procedure in this paper focuses on reactive reserve margin
optimization instead of reactive power rescheduling. In the management scheme, the participation
factors of the involved generators are determined based on the VQ curves.
b) Generation RPR
As described in section 4-1, the generators RPR (GRPR) can be classified into technical GRPR and
effective GRPR. Many studies in this area utilize the technical GRPR since it can be calculated easily
regardless stability analysis [83], [84], [85], [86], [87], and [88]. However, in [89] it is shown that the
effective RPR not only depends on the generators capability curve, but also on the network
characteristics that play an important role in generators RPRs. That means maximization of generators
RPR could not demonstrate the effective RPR all the times. Moreover, active and reactive power limits
of generators are linked together according to their capability curve. This dependency entails that the
RPR of a generator depends on the active power reserves provided by the generator. The effective RPR
for a bus or an area is determined in [90] as the weighted some of the individual RPRs of generators at
the minimum of the VQ curve. The weights are calculated based on sensitivities of generator reactive
outputs to reactive loads.
In [91], correlative relationship between GRPR and system voltage stability margins (VSM) is
investigated and a method for on-line voltage stability monitoring is proposed. Nonlinearity relationship
between GRPR and both VSM and voltage violations is investigated in [92].
The TSOs is responsible to provide and to coordinate the RPR requirements. In one hand, inappropriate
RPR provision treats the security of the system, and on the other hand, devoting large amount of RPRs
increase the operating cost of the system. In order to maximize the efficient use of assets, the minimum
amount and optimal location of required RPR should be well determined.
The proposed approach in [93], determines the minimal RPR to face a contingency, while stressing the
system in its pre-contingency state, until reaching an unacceptable post-contingency response.
In [75] a two-step approach is proposed to assess the required RPR with respect to operating constraints
and voltage stability for a set of assumed operating scenarios. At the first step a Security Constraint
Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF) determines the minimum overall needed RPR of generators such that the
system withstands any postulated scenario. In the second step additional RPR is determined to ensure
voltage stability of scenarios, whenever the obtained RPRs by SCOPF are insufficient to confront with
dynamic system behavior.
Application of the aforementioned reactive power rescheduling and RPR management methods can be
proposed as the objective of SVR and TVR, to increase voltage stability, and active and reactive power
margins.
4-7-2- EC provision
Given the cost of corrective countermeasures and the low probability of contingency occurrences, it
would be desirable to resort to post-disturbance controls. However, an essential characteristic in these
actions is the implementation time needed since the speed of response is an issue for long-term voltage
stability.
The system operator must be able to recognize voltage instability and take appropriate remedial actions
such as voltage and power transfer controls, generation rescheduling, and as a last resort, load
curtailment. One may try to find suitable remedial actions to restore the system to the voltage secure
zone. Branch and generator participation factors are among the proposed methods to determine the
appropriate remedial actions. The branch participation factor indicates which branches consume the
most reactive power in response to an incremental change in reactive load. It would be useful for
identifying remedial measures to alleviate the voltage stability problems and also for contingency
selection. Similarly, the generator participation factor shows which generators supply the most reactive
37
power for a given reactive power variation. It provides important information regarding proper
distribution of RPRs among all the machines in order to maintain an adequate voltage stability margin.
Moreover, the proposed method in [58] utilizes the analytical methods to determine the corrective
actions through a linear approximation of the feasible set boundary. The analytical methods use
continuous models of the system components, and describe the system with a set of differentialalgebraic equations.
In addition, specific OPFs can be developed to find appropriate remedial action. For this purpose,
literatures use the term Corrective Security Constraint Optimal Power Flow (CSCOPF) [94], [95]. The
constraints of the CSCOPF formulation is improved in [94] by incorporation of the system dynamics to
ensure existence and viability of the post-contingency short-term equilibrium of the system until
corrective actions can start. The proposed optimal load shedding in [96] utilizes time-domain simulation
to check voltage stability in corrective controls.
4-7-3- Preventive and Corrective control actions
Some references defined a coupling security-constraint optimal power flow to determine an optimal
combination of preventive and corrective controls ensuring long-term voltage stability.
An optimal combination of preventive and corrective control actions is determined in [97] while
ensuring dynamic transition of the system. The result of quasi steady state simulation is used iteratively
to modify the combination of both control actions. Post-disturbance generations rescheduling is applied
as corrective countermeasure against long-term voltage instability.
4-8- Conclusion
Although the main concern of this chapter is provision of preventive and corrective voltage and reactive
power control in Single Area Power System (SAPS), this concern remains important in Multi-Area Power
system (MAPS). A coordinated provision of reactive power supply and voltage control with system wide
voltage scheduling and emergency response capabilities is required for the reliable system operation.
The TSO dispatches the reactive resources and provide adequate reactive supply and voltage control.
The required RPR and EC must be identified and maintained by each TSO within its own voltage control
area. However, the interaction of different control levels and actions between neighboring TSOs should
be investigated for the security of the interconnected system.
applied various coordinated voltage control schemes to improve the system voltage control against
voltage collapse.
In addition, evolution of the power systems toward the continental interconnection, obviously,
demonstrates the intention of TSOs to be operated as a member of a Multi-Area Power System (MAPS).
The interconnected networks in continental Europe (ENTSOE) and North America (NERC) which involve
multi independent TSOs are examples of such MAPSs. Improvement of system security and economic
efficiency within the entire system are the main motivations for operation as a member of MAPS. Higher
security margins can be obtained because of shared active power reserves within MAPS. However,
interconnections may also have some drawbacks when the system is operated by non-coordinated
TSOs. The non-coordinated operation situation in MAPS can be the result of each TSOs intention to not
disclose its control action to other TSOs. Moreover, operation of MAPS under supervision of a super TSO
with higher level of control would be more expensive and requires more communications.
Since voltage control primarily is of regional concern, the ENTSO-E operational handbook [25]
recommends that interconnected TSOs should coordinate their actions and agree on an acceptable
voltage range at each interconnection link, which can be roughly formulated as a zero reactive power
flow at every interconnection link [85]. However, No reactive power flow at the interconnection links is
difficult to apply. Observations show that reactive power flows are rarely negligible at the
interconnection links [98].
As described above, although voltage control is mainly a local issue, voltage control problem can spread
in the interconnected systems and increase the scale of blackouts and even affect on the intact areas.
For this purpose, each TSO utilizes specific hierarchical voltage control or centralized one, within its own
control area. Since the voltage control approaches and practices are different from one TSO to another,
it is necessary to study the interaction of different control levels of neighboring TSOs with each other.
As a result, as shown in figure 5-1, in MAPS each TSO requires to take into account interactions of its
own centralized voltage control or TVR with the ones in the neighboring TSOs (type I). In addition, if the
neighboring TSOs utilize a hierarchical voltage control, the counteractions of the corresponding SVRs at
the borders need to be investigated (type II). These higher levels of coordination are necessary in MAPS
since the TSOs accessibility to the neighboring TSOs information is limited. There are little relevant
works for required additional coordination between TSOs [98], and so voltage and reactive power
control in MAPS need more attention by using distributed or decentralized control schemes.
Figure 5-1. Possible interactions between different levels of voltage control in MAPS.
39
In fact, when a contingency happens in an area, an automatic and non-coordinated response of voltage
controller (PVR) by the generators electrically closer to the disturbance1 may lead to unacceptable
reactive power flow or voltage level in its own control area or even in neighboring areas. That means
some TSOs dont provide sufficient MVar support. Due to locally provision characteristic of voltage
control, normally in real time, each TSO is aware of this situation in its own control area. The added
value of a wide coordinated control is to propose a global optimum remedial action to restore the
system to a secure state. Otherwise, the system would be operated in a non-optimal state which means
less security margin. This situation requires a higher level control to achieve the global optimum
operation point. The experience of CORESO2 in ENTSO-E demonstrated such operating situation may
happen and a coordinated control action can improve the taken remedial action.
In the case of sever contingency in presence of interregional voltage management in the system, the
TSOs can take the advantages of the available voltage controls in the neighboring TSOs to counteract
with their problem or to limit the extent of the problem in the MAPS. Similarly, one TSO may utilize its
own control facilities to help the neighboring TSO or to avoid the effects of external contingency in its
own control area.
The following uncertainties made the wide coordinated control system necessary [8]:
Combination of both preventive and corrective control actions including amount and place of RPRs and
emergency controls should be determined to respond to the system sudden changes. The optimization
of a system wide coordination is proposed as important measure for sharing reactive reserves when
some control limits are reached [32]. If voltage constraints begin to be approached, a wide voltage
scheduling regarding the effect of neighboring regions becomes significant.
However, the implementation of a centralized control in MAPS is not possible since not only the TSOs
dont intend to reveal their operational information for the other TSOs but also implementation of a
wide area control scheme would be technically more expensive and requires more communication.
Therefore, distributed [99] or decentralized [98] control manners are needed to be considered for this
purpose, which has got little attention up to now. These control schemes are difficult to be effectively
implemented or might achieve suboptimal performance.
In [99] distributed voltage control and Model Predictive Control (MPC) technique are applied for
emergency voltage control to coordinate the control actions among the various grids while each
operator preserves its own sensitive local system data. The proposed centralized control scheme is
solved in a distributed fashion through Lagrangian decomposition method. Although the control
problem is global, only local information is employed to achieve the overall optimum control. All AVR
references and load shedding at some buses are assumed as available controls. At each iteration of
solution procedure, the information which are sent out to the external control centers are the obtained
local optimal cost and the calculated interface bus voltages. It is shown that in some operation
conditions; when a contingency happens within an area, the control actions also must be taken in other
areas to restore the grid to safe operation state according to the chosen globally optimal criterion. It
should be noted that the proposed method in [99] cannot consider the different TSOs with different
objectives, since a centralized control scheme has been taken.
1
The required reactive power will be produced by the generators electrically closer to the disturbance and hence the remained
reserve may be unevenly distributed.
2
CORESO (Coordination of Electricity System Operators) is a centralized control center to coordinate control actions and
strength operational security in the Central Western Europe.
40
The decentralized voltage control in MAPS is studied in [100], [84], [85], [86], [87] and [88] with different
approaches such as neighboring network equivalent [84], fairness of different TSOs objective [86], [87],
and advantages and disadvantages of centralized and decentralized voltage controls [85], [88]. A new
layer of hierarchical control to coordinate long-term control actions over several control regions in
normal operating conditions is proposed in [98]. The corresponding time horizon of the proposed MAPS
voltage control in this work is shown in figure 5-2, in comparison to the different levels of hierarchical
voltage control (PVR, SVR, and TVR). These works study reactive power scheduling using multi-objective
optimization for minimizing reactive power support and active power losses. The TSOs different
strategies in voltage control are considered with different combination of this multi-objective function.
International Scale
Regional or
National Scale
Zonal Scale
By each generator
or compensator
Figure 5-2: Time-space delineation of a four-layer hierarchical voltage control scheme [98].
The reference [100] compares two strategies for accessing to the information of the neighboring TSOs.
In the first strategy, two TSOs have access to all the information of each other except their controllers
value in the next step (It is called wide observation). In the second strategy each TSO just knows about
its own control area and the access to the information of the neighboring TSO is limited to the borders.
It should be mentioned that the latter strategy is closer to the present situation of power system. It is
shown that the decentralized control of the system with wide observation leads to the worst result since
each area behaves in greedy way and wants to import reactive power from the other area resources.
However, the decentralized voltage control with limited access to the neighboring TSOs information can
be considered in MAPS studies. In [84], [85], [86], [87] and [88] the centralized voltage control which
optimizes a unique objective over the entire system is assumed as the utopian optimum. The result of
the decentralized voltage control is evaluated based on the distance to this utopian optimum. The
difference between global optimization results and decentralized optimization results is the additional
cost that should be paid for decentralized control. In the decentralized manner each TSO solves its own
objective function considering its own network constraints and imposed constraints of the external
networks. Then all TSOs apply the solution to their own systems as a part of interconnected system and
each TSO measures parameters for external network equivalents. If the control values dont comply the
constraints of the entire network, faster voltage control loop will change the operation setting while
slow devices are remained unchanged. The fast voltage control actions use available reactive power
reserves. The dynamics of the proposed method strongly depend on the number of interconnections
and the size of the power system.
In [84] the neighboring TSOs is modeled with a constant PQ injection corresponding to the value of flows
outside of area. [85] compares the different models of neighboring areas such as PV, PQ, Thevenin
equivalent, and more advanced models like REI equivalent and non-reduced power system equivalent.
These equivalents replace the power system beyond an interconnection of a TSO with a single
interconnection. The parameters of different models for neighboring TSOs are fitted by using different
least square based methods according to the past and current observations. This method is only based
on local voltage and current measurements in the interconnections and doesnt need any coordination
between the different TSOs. It is shown that PQ equivalent could achieve near optimal performance. In
41
addition, PQ equivalent provides the possibility to consider the exchange of active and reactive power
between areas according to bilateral contracts.
The concept of fairness is introduced in [86] and [87] to evaluate a compromise between different
objectives of TSOs so that each TSO is less displeased. It should be noted that the system security is not
taken into account by the mentioned works in [84], [85], [86], [87], [88].
In conclusion, in addition to the aforementioned studies in this area, it is still needed to study the
current practices in voltage and reactive power control from security point of view. Possible problems in
current practices which can threat the security of MAPS would be investigated. Furthermore, it is
necessary to enhance the voltage and reactive power control methods in SAPS based on security
criteria. According to the literature some aspects of this topic like considering both of RPR (particularly
generator RPR) and corrective countermeasures, in addition to security based voltage control provision
need more attention. For this purpose, it is important to propose an approach to enhance the voltage
and reactive power control in SAPS by considering both preventive and corrective actions. In order to
enhance the security of voltage control in MAPS the proposed methodology for SAPS could be extended
for MAPS. For this purpose, a decentralized or distributed control scheme is required to manage
appropriate voltage and reactive power control with respect to the security of MAPS.
42
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