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25 Lecture06 Design Loads
25 Lecture06 Design Loads
Design Loads
Introduction.
The bridge engineer must first list all the possible loads on the superstructure; to wit,
A) Permanent Loads:
B) Temporary Loads:
12. Creep
13. Shrinkage
14. Settlement
15. Uplift
16. Thermal Forces
Permanent Loads.
Permanent loads are always on the bridge throughout its life.
1. Dead Loads (DL). The dead loads of a bridge are all the loads from the superstructure,
such as, the wearing surface, the deck, the stay-in-place forms, parapets, sidewalks,
railings, bracing, connection plates, stiffeners, signing and utilities. The table below shows
some of the dead load unit weights that are used to calculate the superstructure.
3. Pressures.
In general, earth pressures upon the back-wall of the abutment is part of the substructure. The same is
true of the water pressure (and ice) upon the pier. However, part of the earth pressure can end up
affecting the superstructure, and this must be checked in all designs.
Temporary Loads.
4. Vehicle Live Loads (LL).
A live load is any load that moves along a bridge. AASHO in 1935 came up with the concept of a train
of trucks, which is seen below, and identified as the H-20-35 and H-15-35. In 1944, the much heavier
trucks (due to WWII) were the new five truck categories were, the H10-44 (20,000 lb), the H15-44
(30,000 lb), the H20-44 (40,000 lb), the HS15-44 (54,000 lb) and the HS20-44 (72,000 lb). All of these
are still valid except for the H10-44, which has been dropped.
Concentrated loadings generally govern for short simple spans. Lane loading governs for long and
continuous span bridges. The concentrated load is moved along the span to determine the point of
maximum moment.
To determine the maximum positive moment in continuous spans, only one concentrated load is used
(which is also true for a simple span bridge). To determine the maximum negative moment in a
continuous span, two concentrated loads are used.
A reduction of the live load is permitted for bridges with three or more lanes, that have maximum stress
caused by fully loading each lane. A reduction to 90% is allowed for three lane structures and to 75% for
bridges with four or more lanes (AASHTO 3.12). Reduction is justified on the premise that it is unlikely
that all the lanes will be fully loaded to the maximum at the same time.
The next step is to calculate the dead weight value w(x) from the superstructure and part of the substructure. It can also include some live load if the bridge is in a heavily traveled urban area. From these
two values, vs and w(x), we can find the fundamental period T of the bridge and the seismic force pe(x).
For this equation, in S.I. units, VDZ is the design wind velocity at the designated elevation Z in km/h.
VDZ is a function of the friction velocity Vo, also in km/h, multiplied by the ratio of the actual wind
velocity to the base wind velocity both at 10 m above grade, and the natural logarithm of the ratio of
height to a meteorological constant length for given surface conditions.
12. Creep.
Creep is the deformation of a concrete mass caused by carrying a load over a period of time. When the
load is applied, the concrete experiences an instant strain (linearly related to the stress), and an instant
deformation. Over time however, an additional strain (creep strain) occurs, which may be from 150% to
300% larger than the instant linear strain. Creep strain is a function of its moisture during curing. If the
concrete is left to dry out, creep will be very large. On the other hand, a protected fresh concrete surface
that is kept moist, will experience minimal creep strain. Excessive concrete in the deck may deform the
length of the members and lead to warping or misalignments.
13. Shrinkage.
Shrinkage is also, like creep, a deformation due to material properties. It is a consequence of the natural
change in volume of concrete, and not related to load. The shrinking is due to the los of moisture during
its drying. Steel reinforcing is usually added to absorb some of the tensile stresses induced by the
shrinking. The best way to diminish shrinkage is to keep the concrete moist during curing, and using
plasticizer to provide workability in lieu of extra water which increase shrinkage (and creep).
14. Settlement.
Settlement of the foundations will produce sizable moments in the superstructure, especially differential
settlement. Settlement can have one or several causes, including (1) exceeding the bearing capacity of the
soils, (2) lowering of the phreatic surface, (3) vibrations, (4) loading the embankments, and (5) changes
in the soil properties (for example, shrinkage and swelling).
15. Uplift.
Some bridge configurations may produce the lifting of a span with respect to its adjacent elements. For
example, high loading a long span, next to a short span. This is called uplift, and its discussed in
AASHTO 3.17.
16. Thermal Forces.
The fluctuations in temperature in a bridge may be very high, and produce sizable thermal forces. This
force is similar in nature to differential settlement. For example, a bridge in a northern climate, oriented
East-West, will always have its southern face heated, and the northern perennially in the shade. This
bridge will have a tendency towards thermal forces. Please refer to AASHTO 3.16 on this issue. One
common problem of extreme cold weather is brittle fracture of steel, which occurs instantaneously,
leading to fatal failure.