University of Warwick

School of Engineering
ES184 First Year Laboratory
V-Notch Weir
(Dimensional Analysis)

Bring to the Laboratory:

(i)
Laboratory Note Book
(ii)
This handout
Before the Laboratory:
(i)
Read notes prior to page 12,
(ii)
Practice Worked Examples,
(iii) Complete assignment on page 12 and record your answers in your
laboratory book.
The solutions to most engineering problems involving fluid mechanics rely on data
acquired by experimental means. In many cases the empirical data are general
enough that engineers have need for them in their normal design practice.
Consequently, they are made available by publication in journals and textbooks.
Examples of such data are the resistance coefficients for pipes and the drag
coefficients for blunt bodies.1 For many problems, however, either the geometry of
the structure that guides the flow or the flow conditions themselves are so unique that
special tests on a replica of the structure at a different scale are required to predict the
flow patterns and pressure variation. When such tests are performed, the replica of
the structure on which the tests are made is called the model, and the full-scale
structure employed in the actual engineering design is called the prototype. The
model is usually made much smaller than the prototype for economic reasons.
The Need for Dimensional Analysis
Fluid mechanics is more heavily involved with empirical work than other branches
of engineering because the analytical tools presently available are not capable of
yielding exact solutions to most fluid flow problems. It is true that we now have
supercomputers to solve the equations of fluid mechanics, but even so numerical
solutions are approximations (often referred to as 'numerical experiments'). We must
still determine whether we should believe the results of such calculations, hence, the
need for experimental evaluation and verification.
For analyzing model studies and for correlating the results of experimental
research, it is essential that researchers employ dimensionless parameters. How do
we identify the dimensionless parameters relevant to a specific problem? Sometimes
we know the governing equation (for example, for the flow through a nozzle the
governing equation is Bernoulli's equation). In such cases we can construct a
dimensionless form of that equation and thereby obtain a set of dimensionless
1

These coefficients will be presented in the second year fluids course.

IGv1.10October2014

parameters with which to correlate our data. In many cases, however, the governing
equation is either not available or the flow problem is too complicated to use this
simple approach. (The V-notch weir is an example of the latter.) Then we must seek
the dimensionless parameters using a formal procedure called dimensional analysis.
To appreciate the importance of dimensional analysis it is helpful to imagine a
world without it. Let us consider such a case:
If the drag FD of a sphere in a fluid flowing past the sphere is a
function of the dynamic viscosity , the mass density, the velocity
U, and the diameter of the sphere D, deduce an expression relating
the drag force FD to these variables. At the very least, the drag FD
depends on 4 dimensional variables. Imagine how we would store
the empirical data for use on design work.
The variation of FD with U could be accommodated with a single
curve or a 2-column table.
The variation of FD with U and D would require several curves,
perhaps on a single graph, or a table of several columns probably
occupying at least a double page.
If we incorporate the variation of , we will require a book of
graphs or tables.
The further variations with will require a whole shelf of books!
In fact, by the use of dimensional analysis we can plot the drag coefficient CD
(non-dimensional FD) as a function of only one dimensional parameter namely
Reynolds number (Re) see worked example 2: the drag force on a sphere.
This example demonstrates that dimensional is a powerful and profound form of
argument in both theoretical and experimental science. It is the purpose of this
laboratory to introduce you to the procedures and advantages of dimensional analysis.
We shall do this using a combination of worked examples and a laboratory exercise
using the V-notch weir. It is important, therefore, that you read the following pages
and practice on worked example (1) before coming to the Laboratory. The
remaining exercises will be worked on during the laboratory prior to carrying out the
laboratory experiment. Your practice on the worked examples should be entered in
your Laboratory Notebook, which will be marked during the laboratory.

Dimensions and Equations

All variables used in science or engineering are expressed in terms of a limited
number of basic dimensions. For most engineering problems the basic dimensions are
mass (M), length (L) and time (T). (Sometimes it is necessary to deal with the
temperature, and then we have four basic dimensions.) The units of all other
dimensional variables can be expressed in terms of these units. For example, from

Newton's second law, force is equal to mass times acceleration, so the units for force
can be expressed in terms of M, L and T as

F M

L
T2

(1)

Here the brackets mean "dimension of". Therefore, Eq. (1) reads as follows: "The
dimensions of F are mass times length per time squared."
Another example is dynamic viscosity which has the units of Ns/m2, so the
dimensions of dynamic viscosity are

F T2

L
ML T
2 2
T L
M

LT

(2)

Pressure, by definition, is force per unit area, so the dimensions of pressure can be
expressed as

p F

A
ML 1
2 2
T L
M

LT 2

(3)

It goes without saying that all equations must balance in magnitude. However, all
rational equations (those developed from basic laws of physics) must also be
dimensionally homogeneous. That is, the left-hand side of the equation must have the
same dimensions as the right-hand side. Moreover, every term in the equation must
have the same dimensions. This is known as the principle of dimensional
homogeneity:
In any formula relating various physical parameters, all of the terms of
the formula must have the same dimensions.
That all equations must be dimensionally homogeneous is an excellent way of
checking out an equation to see if the basic relationship is correct (and hence not
needlessly lose points on an exam!).

Worked Example 1: The pendulum.

Determine the period of a pendulum as a function of the various parameters involved

without recourse to the principles of simple harmonic motion.
Step 1: Identify the significant variables and include these in a functional equation.

Some thought suggests that the period of a pendulum is probably related to the length
of the pendulum, the weight of the bob, the acceleration of gravity, and perhaps the
friction of the air as the pendulum swings back and forth.
To simplify matters, we shall discount air friction and consider only the length of the
pendulum (l), the weight of the pendulum bob (w), and the acceleration due to gravity
(g) as the significant variables determining the period. In other words, we are
assuming that the period of the pendulum () is a function of l, w and g. Thus the
functional equation is

f(l , w, g )
where

l L
w ML2
T
g L2
T

Step 2: Apply the method of exponents and determine the dimensionless

parameter(s):

The method of exponents derives from the requirement of dimensional homogeneity,

and is best explained by following this example. We assume that the variables in f
combine as the product:
l a wb g c

Thus,

f l a w b g c
where a, b and c are exponents to be selected that yield the dimensions of , which of
course is time. Dimensional homogeneity requires

l a wb g c
yielding the equation for the dimensions:

ML L
T La 2 2
T T

Equating the powers of M, L and T on each side of the equation results in three
algebraic equations:

M:
L:
T:

0b
0 abc
1 2b 2c

There are three equations and three unknowns, hence the solution is straightforward
and we find
a 1 2
b0
c 1 2

so that

f l/g k l/g
where k is some constant. Thus using only dimensional analysis techniques, we are
able to determine how the period of a pendulum is related to its length and the
acceleration due to gravity. More importantly, we found that the weight of the bob
has no effect on the pendulum's period. The constant k is only obtainable through an
analysis of simple harmonic motion, where it is found to be k = 2.
By using this simple method it is possible to achieve insight into the physical
characteristics of a problem that might not be available using any other method. This
method seems straightforward and uncomplicated, but it does have limitations. As an
illustration we consider another example.

Worked Example 2: The drag force on a sphere

If the drag FD of a sphere in a fluid flowing past the sphere is a function of the
dynamic viscosity , the mass density , the velocity of the flow U, and the diameter of
the sphere D, deduce an expression relating the drag force FD to these variables.
Step 1: Identify the significant variables and include these in a functional equation.

Considering all possible parameters, we might say that the drag force, FD, is equal to
some function of the size of the object (D), the speed of the fluid (U), the density of
the fluid (), and the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (). Thus the functional equation
is:

FD f( D, U , , )

where

D L
U L

T
M
3

L
M
LT
Step 2: Apply the method of exponents and determine the dimensionless
parameter(s):

Again we assume that the variables in f combine as the product:

D aU b c d
Dimensional homogeneity requires

FD D aU b c d

(*)

Replacing these variables with their dimensional equivalents results in

b

ML
L M M
La 3

2
T
T L LT

Setting up the mass, length, and time exponent equations, we get

M:
L:
T:

1 cd
1 a b 3c d
2 b d

Our dilemma is immediately apparent: we now have three equations and four
unknowns, which from the point of view of algebra, is a somewhat discouraging
situation. However, unlike the usual algebra case, there is a way to slip out of this
one. Suppose we solve for a, b, and c in terms of d:

c 1 d
b 2d
a 2d
Substituting in equation (*):

FD D 2d U 2d 1d d

This may be factored and rearranged as:

FD D 2U 2 DU

which we may write as

FD D 2U 2 f DU
since D 2U 2 has the dimensions of force and DU is dimensionless. Finally we
may write
FD
f DU
D 2U 2

(**)

where the grouping FD D 2U 2 is a dimensionless parameter known as the "drag

coefficient", often denoted by the symbol C D .
The actual functional relationship between the dimensionless parameters is
determined by running a series of tests to observe values of FD D 2U 2 for different
values of the ratio DU . The results of these tests are plotted to yield a usable
functional relationship between the two parameters. Since the relationship is
experimentally determined, it is just as valid to express (**) with the argument of the
function inverted:
FD
g DU
D 2U 2

Note that DU is the Reynolds number, which you will be introduced to in the
first year fluids course. Expressing the result in terms of CD and Re, we write:
C D g Re

Exactly how CD depends on Re must be determined from experiment. Once done,

however, the results can be used to determine the drag force on any size sphere in
water, oil, glycerol, etc, without having to carry out any further experimental work!

A first look at the V-notch weir

Weirs are widely used in civil, mechanical, chemical, brewing or food engineering,
etc., for measuring the volumetric flow rate Q (metres cubed per second) of liquids
(the discharge). The V-notch weir is so called because of the shape of the gap in the
end-plate over which the liquid spills. The laboratory apparatus looks like this:

Some thought suggests that Q depends upon the pressure head h, gravity g, density
, and dynamic viscosity . This would yield the functional equation:
Q f h, g , , .

In fact the problem is actually worse because we should also consider the angle of the
notch , the width of the tank w, the depth of the tank (to the base of the notch) d, and
the surface tension of the liquid . Therefore we actually have
Q f h, , w, d , g , , ,

So how should we proceed? The answer was supplied in 1915 by Lord Buckingham
and is known as the Buckingham Pi Theorem.
The Buckingham Theorem

Here is a simple statement of the theorem:

Given n variables (such as length, speed, density, viscosity, force, etc) and
these variables are composed of a set of m basic dimensions (mass, length,
time, temperature etc), then it is possible to correlate the variables in terms of
n m dimensionless groups (dimensionless parameters) formed from any m
variables taken as "primary".
Note that not all sets of m variables can be taken as primary. Only those sets of m
variables that between them express all m basic dimensions are valid sets of primary
variables.

Buckingham referred to the dimensionless parameters as , which is the reason the

theorem is called the " theorem". We will refer to the dimensionless parameters as
" groups". If the equation describing a physical system has n dimensional variables
and is expressed as
y1 f y 2 , y 3 ,, y n
then it can be rearranged and expressed in terms of n m dimensionless parameters
( groups) as

1 2 , 3 ,, n m
In the case of example 2 (drag force of a fluid flowing past a sphere) we had n = 5, m
= 3, and n - m = 2, and thus the theorem says that the experimental results can be
correlated in the form

1 2
Similarly for the V-notch weir, we have n = 9, m = 3, and n - m = 6, and thus the
theorem says that the experimental results can be correlated in the form

1 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6
Before applying the theorem to the V-notch weir, we will redo the simpler example of
the drag force on a sphere.

Worked Example 3: The drag force on a sphere revisited (Pi theorem).

We begin by specifying the n 5 variables in terms of the basic dimensions:

FD ML2 ,

D L,

U L ,
T

M3 ,
L

M
LT

Since we are dealing with purely mechanical effects, we may immediately state that
m 3 , and hence we can form n m 2 dimensionless parameters. We now have to
decide what m 3 variables we will regard as "primary". You should convince
yourself that two possibilities are: (D, U, ) and (D, U, ). We will consider both in
turn.
Using (D, U, ) as the primary variables, we form the dimensionless parameters as:

FD
a

DU

D U

Consider the expression for 1. Since the dimensions of the numerator and
denominator must be equal, the equation for the dimensions is
ML
T

a L M
L 3
T L

( a b 3c )

Solving for the exponents:

1 a b 3c
1 c
2b
which yields a 2 , b 2 and c 1 , so that

FD
D 2U 2

The second dimensionless parameter is determined in a similar manner:

D U bc
a

M
a L M
L 3
LT
T L
( a b 3c )

Solving for the exponents:

1 a b 3c

1 c
1 b
which yields a b c 1 , so that

10

DU

1
Re

Thus the functional equation may be written as

1 2
or
FD
f UD
D 2U 2

This is the same result we obtained in example 2.

Exercise: Show that using (D, U, ) as the primary variables yields

1
2

FD
DU
UD

Re

We thus see that from the purely dimensional analysis point of view we are able to
determine two possible dimensionless formulas for the drag force on a sphere
submerged in a moving fluid. These results would have been extremely difficult to
obtain by any other methodology. The question of which formula to choose for FD
cannot be settled by dimensional analysis. One must carry out experiments to
determine this.

Now let's tackle the V-notch weir!

11

Applying the Theorem to the V-notch Weir

In our first look at the V-notch weir we found that the functional equation relating the
discharge to the other variables in the problem took the form:
Q f h, , g , , ,

Select (, h, g) as the primary variables and find the dimensionless groups for the
remaining (7-3 = 4) variables.
Here is some information on the dimensions:
Discharge, [Q] = [velocity x area] = L3/T
Notch angle, [] = 1
Height, [h] = L
Gravitational acceleration, [g] = L/T2
Density of fluid, = M/L3
Dynamic viscosity of fluid, = M/LT
Surface tension, = = M/T2

Assignment:
Select (, h, g) as the primary variables and show that the dimensionless
groups for the remaining (7-3 = 4) variables are:

gh 2 h 2
1

hgh

,
2

gh

12

THE V-NOTCH WEIR

In hydraulic engineering, weirs are commonly used to regulate flow in rivers and
other open channels. In some cases the relationship between the water level upstream
of the weir and the discharge over it is known, so that the discharge at any time may
be found by observing the upstream water level. It is the purpose of this experiment to
derive relationships between head on the weir and discharge for a V-shaped sharpedged notch.

M
H

ZM

ZH
ZN

ZH

Datum

Figure 1: Arrangement of apparatus for measuring flow over weirs

Figure 1 indicates the essential features of flow over v-notch weirs. Consider the
motion of a particle of fluid from a position M some distance upstream of the weir to
its subsequent position N in the plane of the vertical weir plate. If there is no energy
loss, according to Bernoullis equation we have:
2

uM
p
u
p
M zM N N zN
2g g
2g g

(1)

Where:
u is the fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline,
g is the acceleration due to gravity,
z is the elevation of the point above a reference plane,
p is the pressure at the point, and
is the density of the fluid at all points in the fluid.
Now provided that the approach channel has a much larger cross-sectional area than
the v-notch, the fluid in the vertical plane containing M will be comparatively at rest,
so that it is almost a hydrostatic condition for which the total head of all points has the
same value H relative to the datum shown. Making the further assumption than pn = 0,
i.e. the static pressure is atmospheric at N, equation (1) simplifies to

13

Now

uN
zN H
2g

(2)

H zN zH

(3)

as may be seen from the figure, so

2

uN
zH
2g

(4)

This velocity is the same as that which would be attained by a particle falling freely
from the level of the upstream surface to the position of N.
The discharge over each weir may be now found by integration. For the v-notch weir
of angle 2, the width of an element is 2(H z H ) tan, so that the area of the element
having height z H is 2(H z H ) tan z H . The flow rate (Q = VA) through it is
Q = uN 2(H z H ) tan z H =

2gz H 2(H z H ) tan z H

(5)

so that, integrating the above,

zH

or

Q=

2 gz H 2( H - z H )tan d z H
8
2 g tan H 5 2
15

(6)

(7)

As the flow passes through the notch there is a contraction of the stream which
reduces the discharge, thus it is customary to write equation (7) is the form
Q = Cd

8
2 g tan H 5 2
15

(8)

Where Cd is a coefficient of discharge of the notch which is not necessarily

independent of H and may be determined by experiment.

14

Applying the Theorem

In our first look at the V-notch weir we found that the functional equation relating the
discharge to the other variables in the problem took the form:
Q f h, , g , , ,

(1)

The dimensionless groups for the v-notch weir are:

gh 2 h
1

hgh

,
2

gh

Thus equation (1) becomes

Q , ,
or

h gh 12

,
,
1
2
gh
gh 2 h 2
Q

(2)

Mathematical Modeling

a)

In a look up table of physical constants, the surface tension of water at a

3
water-air interface is 73 10 N/m and the density of water is about
3

10 kg/m . Determine the range of values the parameters take on.

We now claim that the smallness of this parameter justifies their neglect. The
lecturer or demonstrator will discuss this in the laboratory. However, you
should note that the final arbiter is the result of careful experiment.

h gh 1 2

,

1
2

gh 2 h

b)

For a given weir, = constant, and therefore does not influence the result.

or

Re ,

gh 12 h 2
Q
1

g 2h

(3)

(4)

Re
2

15

h gh
where Re =

is a form of Reynolds number, since (gh)

has

dimensions of velocity.

A Fact of Experience

Decades of work has shown that fluid flow phenomena become independent of
Reynolds number provided the value of Reynolds number is greater than a specific
value.

Q
1

g h

constant .

(5)

This takes us literally to the frontier of knowledge. No mathematician can go further.

But dimensional analysis has predicted the form of the calibration of our V-notch
weir, namely, since g will not be varied, we have

Q h

Experimental Procedure
Your task is to check the prediction
5

Q h 2.
Experimentally we take a more skeptical view and say that we shall analyse the data
for the following power-law behavior
Qh

(6)

Taking logarithms we find

log Q = m log h + const.

(7)

You will measure values of Q and h and plot log Q against log h, determine the slope
m and see if the prediction is correct -- a straight line of slope 5/2.
Note: We supply log-log paper, which takes logs automatically and makes the
task very easy.
A valve on the side of the tank controls the water supply, or discharge, Q.

16

The discharge Q can be determined by collecting a volume of water during a period of

time. The volume collected can be determined by taking the height difference on the
manometer showing the level (and volume) within the collection tank. A stop watch
can be used to measure the time between two collected depths.
The height of the water above the notch can be read from a Vernier depth gauge. This
can be read to the nearest 0.1mm when the point just touches the free water surface.
Initially zero the Vernier depth gauge by filling the tank to the base of notch, shutting
off the supply and letting the water drain through the notch. After allowing the water
level to stabilize at the notch level, the Vernier can be zeroed.
You should aim to record data for around 6 or 7 different flow rates and for each flow
rate, assess the discharge 2 or 3 times to minimize operator error.

Warning: Many students forget to convert h into metres before plotting their
results. Don't you forget!
Results

i) V-Notch
Volume
(m3)

Time
(s)

height
(m)

Q
(m3/s)

17

For Discussion:
5

1.

The predicted relationship was Q h 2 . What power have you found

experimentally? Is there good agreement with the prediction? Is there a range
of h within which the 5/2 law is valid?

2.

Would you expect the graph to be non-linear (bend up or down) at high flow
rates? That is, for a given h, will Q be greater than or less than the h5/2 law
predicts? Does your graph confirm this? Consider the following argument.
We assumed earlier that the tank was very large and that the fluid accelerated
virtually from rest. This is reasonable at low flows when the jet is small. But
at high flow rates it must fail, thus the dimensions (width, w and depth, d ) of
the tank must now be considered. The water velocity along the tank, before
the weir, cannot be neglected now, and so w and d must be incorporated into
in the analysis. Thus
Q f h, , g , w, d , excluding fluid properties, or
Q
5
g 2h 2
1

h h
, ,
w d

(8)

The function must be such that h/w and h/d lose influence when they get
small enough. If h/w and h/d have an influence, then equation (8) above
implies that Q is NOT proportional to h5/2 anymore. This means that the graph
of log Q against log h must deviate from a linear relationship (bend) at high
flow rates (provided you got that far in your experiment).
3.

In our dimensional analysis we neglected surface tension. Have you any

comments about this based on your visual observations in the experiment?
(Hint: What did you observe to happen when h was very small?)

18