‘TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT Measurement of temperature is one of the basic tasks for an engineer. Examples include: + The maintenance of a chemical process achieved through by the controlled application of heat or cooling water. * Optimal efficiency for a mechanical device through the control of the operating temperature. ie, internal combustion engine * Determining high temperature zones on rotating equipment which indicate regions of high friction. Methods of Temperature Measurement To measure temperature, one requires a measurement device which will convert the intensity of atomic or molecular vibration into some kind of proportional signal. In general there are four methods in which this can be done * Expansion: Temperature change can be converted into change of volume, as ina liquid in glass thermometer, or into change of shape , as in a bimetallic strip. * Electrical Resistance: Resistance of metals and of semiconductors varies with ‘temperature + Thermoclectricity: A small voltage is generated where two different metals are joined together . The magnitude of the voltage generated depends on the temperature of the junction. * Radiation: The heat energy radiated by a body increases in quantity and includes radiation at shorter and shorter wavelengths as temperature increases. For a temperature transducer to respond to a change in temperature it must gain or lose heat energy. The three ways in which this is done are through convection, radiation, and radiation. Thermal Expansion Methods ‘The most common temperature devices utilize the phenomenon of thermal expansion in some form. The expansion of solids is employed mainly through the use of bimetallic strips. These strips utilize the differential expansion of bonded strips of two metals (each metal which have a different thermal expansion coefficient). The common household thermostat controls the room temperature through this means. Liquid expansion at essentially constant pressure is used in common liquid in glass thermometers. Restrained aeexpansion of liquid, gases, or vapours results in a pressure rise, which is the basis of pressure thermometers. Seporow 4 see _ : heh Temperoture 6 a Seed oy QA ae ale . ve é Spirot on = & Double helixc Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s) The electrical resistance of various materials change in relation to temperature. Using this principle as the basis for temperature measurement leads to two basic classes of resistance thermometers: resistance temperature detectors (conductors) and thermistors (semiconductors). RTD’s are formed from a solid metal wire, which increases in electrical resistance with temperature. Thermistors are semiconductors devices that display a very large decrease in resistance as temperature increases. A resistance temperature detector is constructed using wire mounted on an insulated support structure configured so that no mechanical strains are introduced to the wire. Mechanical strain will change the resistance of the conductor thereby introducing error to the temperature reading. Normally the wire is coiled to allow for strain free expansion and contraction as the temperature changes. Relative resistance of several pore metals @x0°0) * TABLE 8.2 Temperature Coefficient of of Resistivity for Selected Mat aL ‘Substance alc) ‘laminar tA 30089 ook omnia) 007 g Sree cos 6 27 Gold (Au) 0.004 ca ron (Fe) 0.00651 i ter oto aS Nesiow ove? i Soc cat aoe Platinum (Pt) 0.003927, Zz Fare) oie af Thoma Boeaos0.4 Tit The relationship between the resistance and the temperature of the wire can be approximated as, R=Rofl + a(T-To}] where Ry is the reference temperature measured at temperature Ty and @ the temperature ~ coefficient of resistivity. The most common material chosen for the construction of RTD’s is platinum. Platinum exhibits a predictable and reproducible change in resistance with temperature and resists corrosion, (linear response to within 0.3% from 0° to 200°C). In general, RTD’s can be used for measuring temperatures from cryogenic to approximately 650°C. Proper measurement of the resistance can lead to uncertainties of approximately +0.005°Thermistor A thermistor (from ¢hermally sensitive resistors) are ceramic-like semiconductor devices. ‘The resistance of a thermistor decreases rapidly with temperature which is in contrast to ‘small increases in resistance for an RTD. The relationship between resistance and temperature for a thermistor is an exponential decay of the form, R=R, A) where f ranges from 3500 to 4600k, depending on the individual construction for each sensor. ‘Thermistors are generally used when high sensitivity, ruggedness, or fast response time is required. Thermistors are often encapsulated in glass in order to prevent corrosion. 1009 soo | all Core oe for vous materia al i cos © 2.001 | i a | 000 ; 250 9300080 to i Tenperotes y Figure 825 Thermstorresistuncetempe | Figare 826 Thermistor probe designs. (Courtesy Fenwal Electrons, Framingham, Mass)‘Thermoelectric Sensors (Thermocouples) ‘When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at the end, there is a continuous small voltage generated at the point where they meet (the junction). This voltage is generated by what is called the Seebeck Effect (named after Thomas Seebeck who discovered this phenomenon in 1821). The voltage depends on the temperature of the junction and the composition of the two metals used. The junction can be used as a temperature transducer, converting temperature into voltage. This type of transducer is called a thermocouple. If we devise a simple circuit in which two dissimilar wires are connected at each end, any voltage difference V - V2 is due to the temperature difference between the two junctions. ‘Wires joined at each end. maetalB In order to measure this voltage, we must introduce a voltmeter into the circuit. This requires that we introduce another metal (copper) into the circuit which creates additional sources of thermoelectric voltages. However, if these two new junctions are at the same temperature, the two additional voltages generated, V3 and V, will be equal and opposite, and therefore will have no effect on the voltage difference (V -V2). Reference junction ‘Temperature-measuring See junction &i Moving coil meter { oan In order to measure a temperature with a thermocouple, the reference junction (cold junction) must be kept at a known constant temperature. Normally, an ice bath (0°C) is used as the reference temperature for accurate temperature readings 4 1 2 ck fe = eS = to “8 t eae |Handheld electronic multimeters and data recorders often have a built in RTD or thermistor to measure the reference junction temperature (i.e. measure Ry to find Tr and convert Ty to its equivalent reference junction voltage V...). The measured voltage is then corrected using the reference junction voltage (measure V and subtract Vig to find ‘V, and convert V, to T;:) EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNGTION.NO ICE BATH ‘The materials used for the thermocouple leads will define the operating temperature range and accuracy of the device. The materials have been standardized into categories which are normally designated by a letter (Type J, K, N and Rare the most common) and conversion tables of voltage versus temperature are widely published. Tes a we a oe " a igh output EMF (atperaes ba pe v4 Metsu sn ene se genau eee LEME Neutron radiation sm te Eran an sano K 4 Nctebevomiam Nice amin ao 00060 Temperature 0) EF temperature characteristics of some Indust! thermocouples Thermocouples have a number of advantages over RTDs and thermistors. They can be used over a wide range of temperatures (including very high temperatures) and optimized for various applications. They are very rugged and can be applied by welding the junction directly to a metal part or clamped under a screw. They can be manufactured on the spot either by soldering or twisting a pair of wires together. Thermocouples measurement becomes especially convenient when a one must monitor a large number of temperature caedata points on an item. Since all modern thermocouple readers do all the reference compensation and conversion, using a thermocouple is as easy as connecting a pair of wires. Radiation Methods In situations where you cannot measure temperature by direct contact, one can use radiation methods of temperature measurement. This type of application would be used in situations of very high temperatures such as molten metals, or for non-contact, applications such as measuring the temperature of moving objects or sensitive items such as circuit boards. The major disadvantage to these devices are the very high costs of the devices. Radiation methods for temperature measurement is a complex subject well beyond the scope of these notes. Simply put, they employ the basic principle that an object will emit radiation of given wavelengths and intensity as a function of the temperature . The emitted radiation can be measured through optical means and temperatures are derived from the measured radiation levels. Power density (Wim) on 10 Wavelength (um) ‘Curves showing the heat power radiated by a black body at various temperatures, Visible ight 450-700 nm xrays Lytraviolt Infrared acto waves: 30pm 100pm tam 1AM 1OOnm 14m 1pm 1OOum AMM YOM Om Im 1m 100M “The electromagnetic spectrum, on a logarithmic seale of wavelength te