Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.

edu)

Structure of Albanian

Albanian Grammar
Victor A. Friedman
A version of this grammar was published in

Studies on Albanian and Other Balkan Language by Victor A. Friedman Peja: Dukagjini. 2004.
alfabet-i
shqiptim
the alphabet
pronunciation
A a
as in mama
I i
B b
as in boy
J j
C c
as in heartsick
K k

as in cheap
L l
D d
as in dog
Ll ll
Dh dh
as in this
Mm
E e
as in pet
N n
E
as in sofa
Nj nj
F f
as in fall
O o
G g
as in go
P p
Gj gj
as in figure
Q q
H h
as in hat
R r
shnime
notes, observations
1)

2)

Gj/Q

L
Ll

3)

as in police
as in yard
as in skull
as in belief
as in pull
as in marry
as in notice
as in canyon
as in more
as in spot
as in cute
single flap (city)

Rr rr
S s
Sh sh
T t
Th th
U u
V v
X x
Xh xh
Y y
Z z
Zh zh

trill
as in same
as in short
as in stop
as in think
as in fool
as in voice
as in adze
as in job
like in future, une (Fr.)
as in zinc
as in vision

dorso-palatal stops, much as in Macedonian in the south, Serbian in the north. In Many Geg dialects,
Gj+Xh=Xh and Q+= (this is the basis of an anecdote involving A. Kostallari).
Minimal pairs: ko 'feed!', kjo 'this, nom. fem. sg.', qo 'wake up!', o 'put'
gol 'goal [soccer]', gjol 'lake, mire', xhol 'head of club'
more palatal than French L, less so than Serbian Lj djali 'the boy'
less velarized than Russian hard L (dh also velarized) djalli 'the devil'

P,T,K
T,D,C,X,Ll,N,R,Rr

are unaspirated.
are alveolar NOT dental! (except in some Geg) re 'cloud', rre 'roundworm'

4)

less rounded than in French, higher than in Turkish. ti 'you/nom.' ty 'you/acc.' tu 'your/m.pl.'

5)

^
-

denotes nazalization
denotes length

6)

is pronounced with greater friction and is never elided intervocalically or finally in Turkish loans (hajvan,
sahat, allah vs. thuhet, shoh) in Geg, h becomes f at the end of a word or before a consonant, e.g. shof,
ftoft (shoh, ftoht)

7)

shows considerable variation in pronunciation from very low (almost [] in Kor) to very high (e.g. in
Turkish loanwords). Final unstressed is dropped in Geg (with compensatory lengthening of the preceding
vowel oban/oban) and is only pronounced distinctly in southern Tosk. Elsewhere like the French e-muet.

theksim-i
the accent, stress
Stress is unpredictable & distinctive (pra'before'/par'money'; bla'hoes'/bel'trouble'; xhakon'seminary studies'/xhakni
'the seminarian')
BUT generally on the last syllable of the stem. In Geg, a nasal or long vowel will be stressed.
Bevington's Rule: V -> [+stress] / _ (V) Co <{e, a, o, (C), -ull, -as, -ur, -azi, -thi, -e}>]stem
<-Verb>

dle 'ewe' (< e ) BUT rruf 'lightning' (< e ); dhe 'female kid' VS edh 'and'
afrna 'vicinity' BUT bab 'dad' (allatrka BUT allaxh 'shiny silk-cotton cloth')
pllto 'overcoat' BUT byr 'office, bureau'
t 'father' BUT at 'that'; dk 'desire'/dik 'someone (acc.)'
lkr 'cabbage' nrr 'greater titmouse' BUT hatr 'feelings', akrr 'cross-eyed'
shmbull 'example' BUT fodll 'vain' (< Turkish)
hpur 'open' BUT abazhr 'lamp shade' (flmur & flamr 'flag')
Turkish -llk, pl. llqe, -sz, pl. sze (budallallk, sojsz), kll 'sword', kllf 'scabbard'
mjtas 'leftward', pshtazi 'from under', fshhurazi 'stealthily', prpthi 'backwards', elbasnas, elbasne 'Elabsanian' (n.,
adv.); filxhnash=filxhnthi 'shell game'

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 2

EMRI: GJINI, NUMR, SHQUARSI

the noun: gender, number, definite/indefinite
Forming the Definite
Njjsi e shquar
the definite singular:

In general, masc = C + i, fem = V + a, "neut" (= fem) = + t

ending
-k,-g,-h
-, ,
ye>e
nasal vowel (incl. all -u)

definite article
-u

BUT -
-o (propers &
expressives)
- (< - in Turkisms)

-ni
-ja

-ri

-a

Mashkullor
examples
shok-u 'comrade', zog-u 'bird', bari-u 'shepherd'
ka-u 'ox', dra-u dregs, mi-u 'mouse', njeri-u 'person', dhe-u 'earth'
plqyer-plqeri 'thumb', krye-kreu 'head [fig.]' (neuter kryet [lit.])
bli 'linden' (bli-ni'sturgeon'),bri 'horn', dre 'deer', dru 'tree', fre 'rein', flori
'gold', gdhe 'gnarl', gji 'bosom', gju 'knee', hu 'stake', kalli 'ear of
grain', krci 'shin', kufi 'border', kushri 'cousin', mulli 'mill', pe
'thread', mlle swelling sy 'eye', tra 'beam' [kryetra-ri BUT arkitra-u
lintel'], turi 'face', ulli 'olive', z 'voice',
kalama young child, vulla garden bed, rogja river branch in delta
Maqo-ja 'Tom', leshko-ja 'fool'

bab-baba 'dad', hoxh-hoxha 'teacher, daj-daja (also dai-daiu)

'maternal uncle', bac-baca'older brother', kumbar/kumtar-ra
'godfather', kallf 'apprentice', pap 'pope', tosk-toska 'Tosk man',
Kol-Kola 'Nick',
elsewhere:
-i
kungull-i 'squash, gourd', djall-i 'devil'
-(C) (>)
djal-djali 'boy' (burr 'man', kal 'horse', gjum 'sleep', lum 'river',
lm 'threshing yard', [uj 'water', djath 'cheese', ball 'forehead',
brum 'dough']
lbr-bri 'book', hatr-i 'feelings', kll/klli, 'pebble'ngjll-i 'angel',
komunizm -zmi, ardhs-i 'newcomer'
-ua>o,
ftua-ftoi 'quince', krua-kroi 'fountain', thua-thoi 'fingernail', etc.
a few poly in -a
vlla-i 'brother', baba-i 'dad', xhaxha-i 'paternal uncle', pasha-i 'general
(Tk)', qehaja-i 'town crier', aga-i 'feudal lord', mulla mullah, budalla
fool, usta master, kara black horse , qerrata scoundrel
Femror
ending
definite article
examples
-, -, -ull, -l
-a
fush-fusha 'field', shtpi-a 'house', vetull-a 'eyebrow', vegl-vegla 'tool'
-ur, -r[r], -je, -ie
flutur-a 'butterfly', motr-motra "sister', inrr-inrra 'greater titmouse', cucllcuclla'nipple',endz-a'cobweb,blossom
(e & > )
nyje-nyja 'knot', ngrnie-ngrnia 'eating' (dhnie, qenie, thnie),mmie-mmia
'mummy', kapaklle-kapaklla 'lidded rifle'
other vowels
-ja
raja-ja 'non-Muslim Ottoman subject',rruf-ja 'lightning',gj-ja 'thing', pallto-ja
'overcoat', kinostdio-ja, pardesy-ja 'light overcoat', grua-ja 'woman', hua-ja
'loan', dua Muslim prayer [=only 3 F in -ua]
(-e>)
dle-delja 'ewe', BUT karrge-karrigia 'chair' okane-okania 'cowbell, knocker'
(avoid gj, nj)
Asnjans (Ambigjen)
neuter
(verb=sg, def art. = pl, NA ata 'this' GD this=masc, nyja =masc or fem, adj = Msg, Fpl)
for example:
Same rules as for indefinite plural t folur, t folurit 'speaking' verbal nouns (> fem e)
(q.v.)
t kuq, t kuqt 'red dye' nominalized adjectives
uj, ujt 'water'
substances (all shifting to masc., e.g. uji, ujra)
krye, kryet 'head'
head of body , beginning, source vs kreu (krr) 'head' of
cattle, organization, chapter (formerly also ball 'forehead,
front')
ujt e ftoht or uji i ftoht; mbi kryet e mi, n krye t vet/krert e Ballit Kombtar
nj e qeshur e gjat vs me ata t qeshurit e tij
i ri, e re, t/e rinj/reja, t ri (= rini) (u lidha t rit e mi me kt djal)
e keqja = t keqt
SHUMSI I SHQUAR
the definite plural:
indef pl:
add:
examples:
V(C)
-t
shtpit, rrufet, grat, miqt, desht 'sheep', bijt 'sons', djemt 'boys', qent 'dogs',
gjaprinjt
-t
-t
lott 'tears' nett 'nights'
VCC, VC, (= -s,-z, -r)
-it
peshqit, bujqit 'farmers', prndrit, njerzit, nxnsit, msuesit,
other
-t
delet, dyert 'doors', muajt 'months', qept 'onions', qepat 'beaks', rkzat 'casket'

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 3

Lakim-i
Declension
ACC. = NOM except M & F def. sg:
DEFINITE ACCUSATIVE
Masculine
def. nom. = V + i
Otherwise

indef Nom + -n
def Nom + -n

vllan, baban
lisin, mikun, dheun,ftoin, zrin, plqerin,Maqon

Feminine
indef. nom. = V
indef. nom. = -C
Otherwise

-n
-n
-n

rrufen, shtpin, pardesyn

fluturn, motrn
lulen, ann

Neuter
acc. = nom.
GENITIVE-DATIVE
Masculine
indef. gen.-dat. = def. nom.
def. gen-dat = add -t to indef. gen.-dat.
BUT masc nouns with nom. def. in -[j]a take endings of fem decl.
Feminine
indef gen-dat. = indef nom. + -e
def. gen.-dat. = def. acc. but n > s
indef. nom. = V
indef. nom. = -C
Otherwise

vllai, lisi, miku

vllait, lisit, mikut
babe, Maqoje & babs, Maqos

- , -[]C> , -C
V [not i] + je
elsewhere -e

ane, motre, endze 'cobweb, blossom'

deleje, rrufeje, tetoje, pardesyje
fluture, shtpie

-s
-s
-s

rrufes, shtpis
fluturs, motrs; also babs
lules, ans, tetos; also laros

Neuter
indef nom.-acc. + i
uji, t foluri
Add -t to the indefinite genitive-dative.
ujit, t folurit
NOTE: This means the indef gen-dat. neut looks exactly like the gen-dat. masc., whence the tendency to assimilate.

INDEFINITE
& DEFINITE GENITIVE-DATIVE PLURAL
Add -ve to the indef. nom.-acc. pl. (-t > -t-)
lisave(t), nxnsve(t), miqve(t), peshqve(t) , lotve(t)
def. can add -t to -ve, but this is facultative
INDEFINITE ABLATIVE PLURAL (rare, facultative (-ve can be used instead), but still a 4th case)
def. NA pl. -t > sh; -# > -; -tsh, -shsh > -tsh, -shsh
-t, -sh
-sh lotsh 'tears' netsh'nights' , deshsh (vje/e = adj. of pers'l age: djal/vajz pes vje/e
VCC, VC, (= -s,-z, -r) -ish peshqish, bujqish 'farmers', prndrish, njerzish, nxnsish, msuesish,
other
-sh
delesh, dyersh 'doors', muajsh'months', qepsh 'onions', qepash 'beaks', rkzash
'casket', shtpish, rrufesh, grash, miqsh, , bijsh 'sons', djemsh 'boys', qensh 'dogs',
gjaprinjsh
Notes
1. The nominative functions as the vocative (thirrore). (Also lex'l items, e.g. biro!) Usually indef: O Idriz!, but fem in - = def.
O Drita!, possessed = def. O shpirti im!, titles = def. O shok! but O shoku Rexhep! (Particle O = normal but omissible).
2. The locative (vendore), which was in -t added to the indef. nom. sg. ( jett, pyllt, fikt, malt) but > (misrit, letrt), also
astit, shelgut,'willow' is now considered dialectal (between rivers Mat & Vjos = Central Albania & north Toskri) and
obsolete. Only occurs after a preps. (mbi, me, m, n, nn, npr, pr, prmbi). Lit. lg. uses prep. + acc. or plain abl.

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 4

Shumsi i Emrave Femror - Trajta e Pashkuar

The Plural of Feminine Nouns - The Indefinite Form
Prapashtes
Suffix

Rreth
Environment

Shenime dhe Shembuj

Notes and Examples

-a

consonant or (>)

vajz- vajza 'girl', motr - motra 'sister',endz-endza

'cobweb,blossom'
petull - petulla 'fritter', gogl - gogla 'acorn'
mollz-a 'cheekbone', gjepur 'pretext' - gjepura 'nonsense'
ALSO: pll-plla 'milk-cow/goat/sheep'

esp. -r, -l, -z

-ull, -ur
-

vowel (stressed a,

dele sheep,ewe, rrufe 'lightning', kala 'fortress', shtpi 'house', hua

'loan'

e, i, o, and
unstressed e)
also many monosyllabic roots in -

an 'side', dit 'day', en 'utensils, goj 'month', gjurm 'trace',

kmb 'foot,leg', kng 'song', jet 'life', lug 'spoon, moll 'apple',
plag 'wound', rrnj' root', rrug 'street', shkall 'step'udh 'way'
kafsh 'animal, lop'cow, shtaz 'beast'

sometimes -a ~ -
for lexical
differentiation
-ra

dhjet kok dhen 'ten head of cattle'

kokat e qepve 'the heads of onions'
brinj'ribs'/brinja'side'

for collectives

ver -ra 'wines' (vs. vera 'summers'), gj -ra 'things'

irregular

grua - gra 'woman', der -dyer 'door', dor - duar 'hand', nat - net
'night'

Asnjans
neuter (all inanimate, pl. = F)
-ra (= collectives, tend to be epicene)

djath 'cheese' def. sg. djatht or djathi or djatha (e.g. in Kor, but
not in gjuha letrare) indef. pl. djathra

Shumsi i Emrave Mashkullor - Trajta e Pashquar

The Plural of Masculine Nouns - The Indefinite Form
Masculine plurals have 4 primary endings: , -, -e, -a
Note, some masculine plurals have more than one acceptable ending (orap -, -e) others now have a prescribed ending
different from that in the reference grammars and bilingual dictionaries (element > elemente)

Prapashtes
suffix

Shnime dhe Shembuj

notes and examples

nxns 'pupil', maqedonas, msues, prkthyes, arbr, ball 'forehead', duk 'duke'
qen 'dog', thi 'hog', sy 'eye', muaj 'month', lot 'tear', kumtr/kumbar 'godfather',
maharaxha, muze 'museum', laro 'cur, piebald dog', va 'ford', rrush 'grape', mulla

-V[-round]+s, -r ,
also

In general, - is for animates, -e for abstract inanimates, and -a for concrete inanimates, but exceptions abound.
The following final syllables represent derivational affixes that generally take - for some or all plurals.
Those marked *are supposed to use - consistently. Those marked are suposed to show the animate - / inanimate -e
contrast.
first element
a
e
i
o
u

final element
c* * f* k
c *
k*
d k

k
c
(f) k*

l
l
l
l
l

m
m
ll
m

n
n*
n*
n
n

p*

r
r
r
r

sh*
sh*
sh
sh

[n]t
[n]t
*[s]t
[n]t*

z
z
z

The table which follows illustrates plurals according to suffix or final syllable. Items marked * are unusual in their class. Items
marked are specified as not occuring. Items left blank are not specified. Order is reverse by suffix BUT items showing only
- are placed first and items showing other consistencies (-/-e; -e only) are placed last

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 5

animate in -

tullac 'baldy'
binjak 'twin',
romak,baxhanak
mesap 'Mesappian'
hutaq 'absent-minded
person'
gunga'hunchback',kova'bl
acksmith'
general

inanimate in -
arcaf, paragraf, fotograf
kupac 'wooden lunchbox'
kapak'lid',dajak'stick',oxhak'
hearth',zambak'lily'
dollap 'cupboard'
cylaq 'pizzle'

plural in -e

gjemba 'thistle'

dibran

*aeroplan,tigan'skillet',karva
n,jargavan'lilac',koan'cob[c
orn]heart[cabbage]'
*kalendar,hambar
'granary',rezevuar

*ba 'herdsman', ila

'medicine', kula/e 'bun'
central, festival, ideal,
kristal,mal 'mountain'
dyqan 'shop', han 'inn',
oqean, organ, plan, stan
'summer hut', vullkan
pazar, zar, seminar, honorar

barbar, shqiptar
dollibash 'tamada'
memec 'mute',dordolec
'scarecrow'

kryene'stubborn'
lejlek 'stork', mjek
'dr.',ek'Czech'
rekordmen, kapiten
postier,berber

*kuintal '100 kg'

dhmbec 'loom reed'

arbresh,kalesh
atlet,lanet'devil'
mekanik,kreshnik

ibrik

latin,pinguin
ilir
gjirokastrit,komit,parazit
artist
shok'friend',streptokok,ma
ok'tomcat'; also -log
gogol'bogey',kaqol'walnut,bl
ockhead'
faqoll'animal with head dif
color fr body'
kampion, gjiton

kofin'basket'
peshqir,zinxhir'chain'
*satelit

puntor 'worker'
barkosh'potbelly'

lakror 'pie',fjalor
kablosh'tuft'

patriot,suljot,idiot
marangoz'cabinet
maker',tifoz'[sport]fan',bajlo
z'ambassador,sea monster'
poetuc'doggerel
writer',gjeluc'cockerel'
matuf'dotard'
kopuk'tramp'
somnambul
majmun,spiun

mishmash
*kotec 'coop,crib'

gjyve 'stew'
byrek, dyshek, lek,fishek
hosten 'spur'
fener'lantern',karakter,trans
portier
kablesh'pulp,cone'
planet

flok'hair',palok'dried fig
string'; dia-log
kaamol'small/immature
corncob'

kamion,timon'steering
wheel',vagon

plural in -a or other

gja/k-qe'feuds'=shkak'cause
',cak'marker',lak-leqe'snare'

*kec 'kid',
guralec'pebble',karkalec'gra
sshopper',kastravec
'cucumber',spec'pepper'
e/k-qe'check'

liqen 'lake'
minder'couch',kuartier

beden'fringe'

rrebesh'cloudburst,calamity'
det,fakultet,qytet,marifet,sh
tet

flakaresh 'slap'

mik/q'friend',armik'enemy',fi
k'fig',rrezi/k-qe'danger
manastir,panair,hir'will,sake'
boksit,grafit,deficit

*shirit'tape'
bllok/blloqe

gjol 'lake,mire'
gjoll'patch of sown
ground',voll'whim',kontroll
ballkon, ciklon,
elektron,fron'stool,throne',h
ormon,sallon, -ion
auditor,korridor,kor

lloz'bar,bolt'

sokol'goshawk',stol'stool',go
l'goal'

person,kupon,napolon'napol
eond'or', -fon

kosh'basket',djalosh/djelmo
sha
lot-
mitraloz,rrogoz'rush
mat',kavanoz'jar'
ngrehaluc 'braggart'majuc
'point,tip'

bishtuk oil lamp'

bastun,sapun,pirunfork

kanun,un'fishing boat'

un'boy'

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 6

animate in -
argat 'day-worker'

inanimate in -

plural in -e
kat 'storey', kombinat

elefant
xhambaz'horsedealer'
dembel 'lazybones'

restaurant
kafaz 'cage'
hotel, tunel,akuarel,bel
'waist' ,zabel'grove',

student,docent
borgjez

heraklid,invalid
civil,katil,kopil

aksident,argument,element
qymez'coop',trapez'trapezoi
d'
hibrid
idil

kont,rinoqeront
jetim'orphan',thatim'skinniyb
ones'
mustako

front,horizont
botim,vendim,krkim

plural in -a or other
shtr/at'bed',kun/at'bro-inlaw'-etr

bel'hoe',gjel'rooster',harabel'
sparrow',engel'hook',tegel'
hem',tel'wire'
*brez'sash,generation'

bilbil,automobil,cupil'joist',ka
ndil,karafil'carnation'
qilim,trim'hero'

*kilo/centi-gram,
*auto/trolejbus

prbo'hearthstone'
diagram, telegram
papirus,pus'well', virus
alliazh'alloy',ambalazh
kortezh
elozh'elegy'
stadium,kostum,album,simp
ozium,kacarrum'corncob'

ansamb/l-ble, cik/l-kle
animate beings (polysyllabic, oxytonic) & some inan's by analogy mostly suffixed. SEE TABLE
a few final nasals add -r: bl 'linden',br 'horn', dr 'deer', dr 'tree',fr 'bridle/rein', tr 'beam', ALSO krye-krer,
other
dhmb 'tooth', am, sllav, ALSO plqyer-plqer 'thumb'

e
inanimates and abstracts -im, -ion, -um, -us, -Ct, -d, -azh,-ezh,-ozh, many polysyllabics in -l, -n, -r,
(>F if inanimate)
vend 'place', insekt, kopsht'garden', raft'shelf', fakt, konvikt, katund
others include (all > F)
mal 'mountain', fis 'tribe', komb 'nation', lloj 'type', qejf 'fun', kamp, mikrob, virus,
motiv, tank, triumf
a

nouns in -r
libr - libra litr, metr, pjepr 'canteloupe', also burr - burra
polysyllabics in -fon, -oz, -il, -ec
telefon, mitraloz 'machine gun', fitil, kastravec, fatos'hero'
many mono & some disyllabics (mostly in -p,-b,-m,-n,-l,-r, a few in -s,-z,-c) [hap 'step', kolektive > F)
cep corner, ap'step, pace; hunting-dog', grep'hook', agrep'scorpion', qep'beak', plep'poplar',
xhep'pocket', nip'nephew, grandson', rrip'slope', tip'type', top'canonball', trup'body', qyp'jug',
gjemb'thorn', rremb'stream', krimb'worm', plumb'bullet', pllumb'pigeon', dem'bull', trim'hero',
gjym'pitcher', man'mulberry', un'lad', bel'troubles', tel'wire', gjel'rooster', engel'hook',
bilbil'&whistle', fitil'wick', kandil'candle', stol'stool', brryl'elbow', derr'pig', brez'belt', plis'clod',
fatos'hero', kec 'kid', spec'pepper', ndalc 'cock,hammer', vi 'calf', gjysh'grandpa', rresht 'row',
grshet 'braid', qengj 'lamb', vidh 'English elm', z-zra 'voice' (zota'gods/zotrinj 'gentlemen')

r (mbretn->mbret-n)
(root a > e)
llar

prind 'parent', nip-a, 'nephew/grandson', gjysh-a 'grandfather, at 'father', kunat 'brotherin-law', mbret (&regj) 'king', princ 'prince', rob 'captive', skllav 'slave', lab, shenjt'saint',
frat'monk', dreq'devil', lugat'vampire, kec-a, mzat'baby bull (1-3 yrs)',shtrat 'bed'
etr,kunetr, skllevr, lebr, fretr, lugetr, mzetr, shtretr
aga, at 'horse', baba, pasha (also ag, bab, pash), hoxh (>a), subash 'bailiff',
usta 'master craftsman', xhaxha, dai(-u)-dajllar 'maternal uncle'
bej, dervish, efendi, haxhi, kadi, sheh

ler
Umlaut, etc.

dash - desh 'ram'

cjap-cjep 'he-goat'
kula-kule 'bun'
vllah-vlleh
krap-krep'carp'
djal - djem 'boy'
gardh - gjerdhe 'enclosure'

new

teatr/teatro (said to be spreading)

-o

rreth - rrath 'circle'

njri - njerz 'person'
thes - thas 'bag'
vlla - vllezr 'brother'
gthep-gthap 'tine, hook'
dhndr - dhndr 'groom,son/bro-in-law'
kal - kuaj 'horse'
vit - vjet (&vite) year
ka - qe 'ox'

Victor A. Friedman (vfriedm@midway .uchicago.edu)

Structure of Albanian 7

shumsi me <j>
plurals with <j>
k,g > q,gj + (30=k, 10=g)
(moslty anim.)
k,g > q,gj + e (100=k, 45=g)
(mostly inan.)

-ir/-ur, -ll > -ij/-uj, j

+ a > e, ua > o

many monosyllabics = -je

either -je or -j
Vowels + -nj

a>e
-inj
--rinj
-ra
(> F)

collectives

plak/pleq'old man', armik'enemy',mik'friend', fik'fig', ujk'wolf, bujk'farmer', ndalk

'shieldfish', turk,larushk'wild grape', krushk'in-law', peshk'fish', vjeshk'sapling'
zog'bird'[=only-og exc. -log, -gog], shtrig'miser', jevg'Gypsy', murg'monk',
drang'kitten,cub', frng'frenchman; [NB ballkano/dia-log = -log; demagog-, demiurg]
lak/leqe'snare,loop', cak'marker',shkak'cause', gjak'blood', , rrezik'danger',
dushk'oak,holly,leaves used for fodder',sfurk'scorpion', budalla-llk, muslluk(~)'cock,hammer'
prag'threshhold', palavig''small log',lug'valley', drang'iron bar',shtrg 'stork',
burg'prison',lng'liquid',miting, shelg'willow'; bejleg 'dual', breg/brigje 'shore',
shteg/shtigje 'path ; [NB -ek, -k, -yk, -ok, non-mono in -ak, -ik [except rrezik] = -]
bir - bij 'son', (BUT hir-e'sake'), lepur - lepuj 'rabbit', portokall-portokaj'orange., delldej'vein',diell-diej 'sun', krmill-krmij'snail', fyell-fyej 'flute', tingull - tinguj 'sound'
flmu/r-j vs flamr- BUT grbyell-grbej'felly,wheel rim', & gavyell'hipbone',
kaprcyell'stile', rrshyell'sleepwort'
bakall-bakej'grocer', hamall'porter', akall'jackal', mashkull/meshkuj'male'
BUT: hall - halle 'trouble'
huall - hoje 'honeycomb'
shall - shalle 'scarf'
truall - troje 'plot of land'
kavall - kavalle 'flute'
shuall - shoje 'sole[foot,shoe]'
BUT: mall - mallra 'property, goods'
pyll - pyje 'woods', zall - zaje 'alluvium', fill 'thread'
hell 'spit', yll 'star'
bari - barinj 'shepherd', ftua - ftonj 'quince', gajdexhinj , zanatinj
bli-nj 'sturgeon', hu'stake', flori'gold', gdhe'knurl', gji 'bosom', (but gjiret e detit), kalli'ear
of grain/corn', krci'shin', etc. [all those not mentioned elsewhere]; gju'knee'-gjunj;
drur ~ drunj~dru (dru-ri/druja] M = 'tree, wood, lumber' F = firewood, shillelagh'
kalama-j young child, vulla-[n]j garden bed, rogja -[n]jriver branch in delta
but krua - kroje 'spring, stream'
budallenj, qerratenj, also, lum - lumenj 'river', & dhaskl-dhasknj, prrua-prrenj
'rivulet,creek', shpargr-shprgnj 'swaddling clothes'
drap(r) 'sickle', gjarp(r) 'snake', shkmb 'rock' , thelb(b>p) 'kernel' , shkop 'stick',
prift'priest', gisht-a'finger', zot 'master, mister' (zota 'gods')
mall 'property, goods', bulmet 'dairy product', mut 'shit', bar() 'herb, grass',
pleh 'manure'/plehra 'garbage' also fshat 'village', shi 'rain'
and gjak: gjakra 'types of blood', gjaqe 'blood feuds'

Nyja e Prparme
particles of concord

6. premri lidhor "i cili"

1. Mbiemrat dhe emrat e nyjshm, p.sh. i mir, i ri, e re, t
7. Emrat e ditve t javs (e hn)
re, t folurit (Emrat prejpjesore)
8. Disa emra q tregojn lidhe gjaku
2. disa premra pronor (t mi[a], t tu[a])
ose familiare: Zemra e s'ms
3. premri dftor "i till"
4. Emrat e rass gjinore
5. Numrort themelor dhe premrat e pacaktuar gjith
tr kur tregojn nj sasi shterues (t dy)
1-4: particle determined by head
preposed 1-3 + 5, 6: Number/Gender by head, case by function
7,8 (& some nom'l 1): gender fixed, number/case by function
T/e: e is used if 1-4 immediately follow & form a constitutent with a definite noun, otherwise (indefinite noun, preposed, in a
series, non-constituent relation, 5-8) t is used.
T/s: Same rule as for t/e, but substantivized and preposed adjectives take s if definite:
e s ardhmes BUT i nj t ardhmeje t afrt

Structure of Albanian 8
Shembuj:
djal i mir e i dukur; djalin e mir e t dukur; i miri djal; t mirin djal; i t mirit djal; libri i djalit t dukur; libri i vajzs s bukur
e t mir; vajza e mir; e mira vajz; libri i s mirs vajz; vajzn e mir e t bukur, libri i [s/t] mirs dhe s bukururs vajz,
librin e t dukurit [dhe t mirit] djal; nj libr t s bukurs vajz [kall.]; dele e djemve t dukur (em.nj.); dele t djemve
(Pashq.F.Kall.;Sh.Em./Kall.), delja/delet e djemve, prve nyjs s prparme, e cila e dallon formalisht nga premri pyetes...;
jets s qytetit e t fshatit; t dy 'both', t tet 'the 8 of them' (or 8th); t gjith 'everybody/thing'; t tr 'the whole [thing]', e
ka antn e bukur=antn e bukur e ka= =e ka t bukurn ant=t bukurn ant e ka she has the nice purse, e ka antn
t bukur=e ka t bukur antn=t bukur e ka antn=antn e ka t bukur her purse is nice=she has the purse that is nice, E
pash vajzn, e cila sht e mir dhe e cila banon n Prishtin 'I saw the girl who is good and who lives in Prishtina', Gjuha
sht pasqyra m e qart e nj kombi dhe e kulturs s tij 'Language is the clearest mirror of a people and of its culture'
Mbiemri
adjectives (F = default gender)
Prapashtesa
Tip
suffix
type
Ms=Mp except as noted below
:
procl. (-)fundit & panonprocl. -V or Verb
Cpd adj w/ F subst as 2nd element
Fp -a
procliticized -, -l, -r, -t (-V(j))
nonprocl. compounds in these
Fs,p -e
other procliticized (mostly -m, -q)
nonprocl. in -s, -sh, -
Mp - (& Fs,p -e)
(-a/k,r,n(t);-ez;-i/k,v,t; -o/r,sh)

Shembuj
examples
fundit, parafundit, pafund,pagjum,paatdhe
alaturka, gri,blu, bezh, bruto, fringo'brand-new',foleqesh
syshqiponj 'eagle-eyed'
mir, mbl, mbyllur,dobt,huaj,ve'widow/er'
fatbardh 'lucky',mendjemdhenj 'arrogant' (m.pl.)
afrm, sotshm, kuq, pashoq
tiranas, dykatsh, pyets, krijues,geg
karakteristik (subst=karateristik/a)
horizontal, (subst=horizontale)
socialist,sojnik,sojsz, qesharak'humorous'
puntor,kinez,solemn

Adjectives formed from substantives (nouns) are generally nonprocl. and inflect like the substantive (cf. -/e-e above):
plak-pleq:plak - plaka, budalla-budallenj: budallaqe,
qejfli-nj 'fun-loving', inati-nj 'spiteful', def. inatiu (F s,p inatie, qejflie OR inatesh/a,qejflesh/a)
trim/a-trime OR trimresh/a

There are five 'irregular' procliticized adjectives + 2 more that are procliticized and inflect like substantives + 1 mixed:
Ms
Mp
Fs
Fp
zi
zez OR zinj
zez
zeza
'black'
ri
rinj
re
reja
'young, new'
madh
mdhenj
mdhe
mdha
'big, great'
keq
kqij
kqe
kqija
'bad'
vogl
vegjl
vogl
vogla
'small, little'
lig
ligj
lig
liga
'thin, bad'
zoti
zott
zonja
zonjat)
'able,master'
Jam i zoti ta bj, Ai sht i zoti i shtpis
tjetr
tjetr
t tjer
t tjera
'other'
Postposed adjectives do not decline.
Libri i djalit t mir/djemve[t] t mir
Preposed adjectives do, but then the substantive doesn't. Libri i t mirit djal/ mirve djem, Librat t nj t riut/ca t rinjve;
i veu, e veja
Shkallt e Mbiemrit (gradation of adjectives)
Shkalla pohore: Aliu sht i madh (Krahasore: m i madh)
Shkalla krahasore e sipris relative: Aliu sht m i madh se Murati.
Aliu sht m i madh se (sa) i mir.
Shkalla krahasore e ultsis: Aliu sht m pak i madh se Murati/se (sa) i mir.
Shkalla krahasore e barazis: Aliu sht aq i madh sa Murati/sa i mir.
Shkalla krahasore e sipris absolute:
Buzuku sht m i vjetri i shkrimtarve t letrsis shqipe.
Buzuku sht m i vjetri shkrimtar i letrsis shqipe.
Buzuku sht shkrimtari m i vjetr i letrsis shqipe.
Shkalla siprore: Aliu sht i menur.
shum/fort 'very',jashtzakonisht 'extraordinarily/extremely',mjaft 'rather',fare 'quite',tepr 'too',
bukur shum pretty much

Structure of Albanian 9
Vetor Pers'l

Premri The Pronoun

Trajta t Shkurta

Trajta t Shkurta t Bashkuara

Dftor demonstrative
1. For the proximate demonstrative, a> kbut Ns=ky & kjo
2. a > when following a preposition,
but not in the nom
3. ai alternates with ay.
4. 'such a' i till, atill, ktill ;
inflected like mir.

Vetvetor reflexive
vete - vetja, veten, vetes,
also vetvetja, etc.
vete = reflexive e.g. e mban veten 'he
controls himself' (BUT mblodhi veten)
vet = emphatic e.g. klthiti vet
vojvoda 'the chief himself hollered'.
Gala ia ktheu duart vetvetes
(F pl = veta)

Pronor Possessive

prej tim bir, pr tt bir, nga gjoksi i tyt ati

5) when substantivized,
like definite substantives

1)
2)
3)
4)

e.g. ky sht imi - yni - juaji

kjo sht imja - jotja - jona
kta jan t mit - tuajt - t sajat
nj dijetar yni

his/her/their = i tij/i saj/i tyre inflect

svoj = i vet (Fp e veta)
Mp, Fp of My&Yours take particle of concord (t mi, t t)
Ms Fs of Yours when preposed to kinship terms:
Pyets interrogative
cili 'which', i sati 'what number': I sati doli Sokoli?
Nom. kush, Acc. k, Gen./Dat. kujt 'who'
Nom/Acc. sa, Gen./Dat. save 'how, so, as many'
', far, se, ka 'what'
i/e sejt 'from what (made of)'
Pr se e do? Nga se sht i smure? 'sht kjo? ka?
far njeriu sht? E sejt sht kjo?
Lidhor relative: caktuar/definite: q, i cili
pacaktuar/indefinite: kush 'who-, cili 'which-, ' 'what-, sa 'how many- -ever': Hajde me k / cilin t duash.

Structure of Albanian

10

Ndajfolja Adverbs
Nga, ku, kah (vend)

Kur (koh)

ktu(1)-aty(2)-atje(3)
kndej/andej
djthtas/mjtas
drejt/shtrembt
(do)kudo=tekdo 'every'
kurr -kund -kah,askund 'no'
diku, ak(se)ku, ndokund 'some'
kund 'any'
diku=gjkndi 'somewhere'
asgjkndi 'nowhere'
tjetrkund = gjtk = gjetu
Kund nuk e gjete? 'Didn't you find it anywhere?'
Kund nuk e gjeta.=I didn't find it anywhere
E ke par kund? 'Have you seen it anywhere?'
sipr, lart/posht
afr, pran/larg
brenda/jasht
prpra/prpa

tan,tash[t]/ather
shume/pak
hrt/von
mjaft/tepr
shpejt/m von
kaq/aq
rrall/dndur, shpesh[her]
-her 'time'
tashm/akma=nde=dhe(BvsR)
-fish 'fold'
gjithnj,kurd[hr]/ kurr
Si (mnyre)
dikur/do her
kshtu/ashtu
ditn/natn
mir/keq
sonte/mbrm
shpejt/[dal]ngadal, avash[-]avash
(n) mngjes/mbrmje-(mbrma)
Pse (shkak,sebep,arsye)
pranver/vjesht
prse
vers/dimrit (behar=pranver)
far (silsi) (+ gen.)
sivjet 'this'/vjet 'last'
tjetrpardje - pardje - dje - sot - nesr - pasnesr - tjetrpasnesr

Parafjala
Prepositions

veri 'north'
jug 'south'
lindje 'east'
perndim 'west'

derivational affixes: -()sht, -as/-azi, -thi, -e, procl. i >

Lidhza
Conjunctions

Nom. nga (G: kah), te(k)/_(V)

Acc. me/pa, mbi/nn, ndr'among',
pr 'for', npr 'thru', m 'in,on,by,at,with'
n 'in,on,of' (unmodified takes indefinite)
Abl. larg'far', afr'near',
pran'next to', mes/ndrmjet'among',
midis'between', pra'before', pas'after',
sipas'according to', prej'from,of',
drejt'toward', karsh/kundr'opposite',
krhas'alongside', rreth'around',
brnda'inside', prve'aside',
gjat'during', jasht'outside'

Drejtime
directions

Sa (sasi)

and,also:
but:
or:
than,for:
either-or:
neither-nor:
therefore:
then:
whereas:
since/because:
so that:
while:
until:
except:
although:
however:
insofar as:
unless:
[as] if:
nonethless:

Muajt e Vjetit
Months of the Year
e,dhe,edh,si edh
por, am, po
ap, se, a
se
ose . . . ose . . .
as . . . as . . .
prandj,kshtu,ashtu,pra
mandej,ather,pastaj
kurse
pas,seps
pr t + verb
ndrs
deris,gjers,pas
ves
sad/sid q, dhe pse
sidoqft,mirpo
me qen se
ve n mos (+opt'v)
po [t],n(qoft)se,[sikr]
megjithat, sadoms

Janri
Shkurti
Marsi
Prilli
Maji
Qershori

Ditt e Javs
Days of the Week
e Diel
e Hn
e Mart
e Merkur

-mbdhjet(m)
-dhjet(f)
but njzet,dyzet
-qind(m) (-ra)
+mij (f )(pl. -a/-ra)
+milion(m.pl. -/a)
+miliard(m.pl. -/a)
(num.=-; disa=-[r]a)
insert e
between
each word
dyzet e dy

e Enjte
e Premte
e Shtun

Koht e Ngrnies
Mealtimes
mngjes
mesdit
paradite(/)
paradreke(/)
dark

Numror
Numbers
Themelor
nj
dy (f. dy )
tre (f. tri)
katr
pes
gjasht
shtat
tet
nnt
dhjet
(zero)

Korriku
Gushti
Shtatori
Tetori [Shmitr]
Nndori [Shmhill]
Dhjetori [Shnndre]

sill
drek (rucek)
pasdite (adv)
pasdrek/-e
pasdark/-e

Pjesza
particles
Rendor (i,e,t)
1st=par
3rd=tret
4th=katrt
elsewhere,
add -t
-,-t >
insert e
& write as
one word
dyzetedyt
i njjt'same'

Thyesa
fem. card'l + fem. ord'l
nj e katrta
nj e dyta/dy t tretat
tri t katrta
tri t tetat
gjysm 'one half'
eyrek 'one fourth'
qindare 'one hundredth

Aritmetik
+ dhe/plus
- pa [heq nga]
x her
ndar pr
= bjn/mbeten

a = interrogative
po, sigurisht
s', mos, nuk, jo
mbase, ndofta, ndoshta
vall = [acaba]
bash = pikrisht = mu
ja = voil
substantivized bil 'even'
4-> = f (katra)
sidoms 'especially'
(po)thuajse,gti 'almost'
X-sh = 'the number X'
dy/dyja
dot, fre 'at all'
njsh 'unity',tresh'trinity tre/tria
emphatic: dhe,sa,q,vetm q
njsi'unit'
njse 'anyway. . .'

pa (-less, un-)
masc. dim. njerith 'uvula', qiellz 'palate', babush, vllako, bire
fem. dim. kmbz 'trigger', , rrugic 'alley', upk, derik 'back door [kapicik]', qepushk 'seedling onion'

Structure of Albanian

11

Folja
the verb
PRES STEM
e tashme
present indicative
(V)
[C]
j
jm
im
n ni
ni
n jn
in

<M>
em emi
esh eni
et en

AORIST STEM <U->

e kryera e thjesht
aorist
(v)a
[]m{}
(v)e
[]t{}
([i/u])<> []n{}

e pakryera
lidhore
imperfect
subjunctive
(V)/[C]
<M>
=dftore
ja
nim esha eshim (V)[C]
je
nit
eshe eshit 2s = []sh
(n)te nin ej/esh eshin 3s = (j)

mnyra dshirore
optative
(f)sha (f)shim sh>/n_
(f)sh (f)shi nj_, sh_
(f)t (f)shin s_ (opt'l)

Foljet Ndihmse
the auxiliary verbs
have
e tashme
kam
kemi
ke
keni
ka
kan

jam
je
sht

e pakryera
kisha
kishim
kishe
kishit
kishte/kish kishin

isha
ishim
ishe
ishit
ishte/ish ishin

lidhore
kem
kesh
ket

jem
jesh
jet

jemi
jeni
jen

ji

jini

kemi
keni
ken

urdhrore
ki
kini

Urdhrore
Imperative
{j} ([]) <u> / <u([ni])>
{} = diphth-impv / mono-aor, pt

but s[h]>:
pjesorja
drsin'sweat'
participle
vendos'decide' [u]r{}
ngjesh'knead'
prish'spoil'

habitorja (H)
pres admirative impf
kam kemi ksha
ke
keni kshe
ka
kan
ksh/kej

kshim
kshit
kshin

ZGJEDHIMI J O V E P R O R

be
jemi
jeni
jan

have
e kryera
pata
pate
pati/pat

be
e thjesht
patm
qesh
patt
qe
patn
qe

dshirore
paa
paim
pa
pai
past
pain

qofsha
qofsh
qoft

qem
qet
qen
qofshim
qofshi
qofshin

pjesorja / habitorja
pasur / paska
qen / qenka
joveprore (ta., pakr., kr. e th.)
kihet kihej
u pat
kihen kihshin u patn

Mnyra Dftore
Indicative Mood
Koha e tashme: present tense
Koha e shkuar: past tense
e pakryera: imperfect (synthetic)
e kryera e thjesht: aorist
e kryera: kam + pt.
m se e kryera: kisha + pt.
e kryera e tejshkuar (aor-2): pata + pt.
e kryera e dyt: kam pas + pt. (Geg perf.)
m se e kryera e dyt: kisha pas + pt. (Geg plup.)
koha e ardhme: future tense
e ardhmja: do t + conj. / (Geg) kam + inf.
e ardhmja e prparme: do t kem + pt.
Mnyra Kushtore
Conditional Mood
e tashme = e ardhmja e s shkuars (1)
e kryera = e ardhmja e prparme e s shkuars (2)
do t + impf (1) do t + plup (2)
(kisha + inf) (kisha + past inf does not exist)

(psor - vetvetor)
mediopassive conjugation
(impers'l, pass'v, reflx'v)
1. (V) verbs insert -h2. Aorist stem = active BUT
preposed u & - in 3sg
3. Analytics substitute
jam for kam
N D RRIME F ONETIKE :
[1] 2p pres, impf, impv, <M>
[2 ] 23s pres indic'v (sbj=1s)
[3] aor
a. k,g,h ; a,e,i ,y +u ; other+i
b. -a/sh,-e,-a (p, l,r, dh, th)
[4 ] Pt - Adm, Opt
a. [u] r () >
b. other >

Mnyra Dshirore
Optative Mood
e tashme = optative
e kryera = past + pt
Mnyra Urdhrore = imperative
Mnyra Lidhore = t + pres, perf(conj.), impf, plup
Jussivi : le t + lidhore
habitore : pres, impf(pt - stem + H); perf=paska+pt;
plup=pasksh+pt
Lidhore - habitore : t + habitore
Pjesorja
Participle
paskajorja (pohore): pr t/me + pt (short pt)
(supine)
absolutivi: me t + pt [='upon/having']
forma e pashtjelluar mohore: pa + pt
[='without/before']
prcjellorja: duke/tue + pt (also dyke, tyke, tuj, tu,
ture)
e kryera: particle (t) pas + pt (<M> = qen w/out u)

Structure of Albanian
I.1.A
a) punoj 'work'
kthej 'turn'
b) rruaj 'shave'
lyej 'paint,smear'
I.1.B
laj 'wash'
fshij 'wipe'
I.2.A
arrij
gogsij
krcllij
mbrrij
prcllij
teshtij

pjek
rjep
rrjedh
shtjerr
sjell
tredh
vjedh
vjel
vjell

'bake,meet'
'flay'
'leak,drip'
'unfurl'
'bring'
'castrate'
'steal'
'gather, harvest'
'vomit'

NOT
ngredh 'incite'(=II.1.A)
'arrive'
'yawn'
'gnash
'arrive,reach'
'sing'
'sneeze'

I.2.B
(pr)buj
bzaj
brej
gjuaj
huaj
kruaj
luaj
mbaj
mbroj
mbuj
quaj
rrej
rroj
ruaj
truaj
vrrej
vlej
yej

'sojourn'
'call'
'gnaw'
'hunt'
'lend'
'scratch'
'play','dance','move'
'hold'
'defend'
'knead'
'call'
'lie'
'live'
'watch over'
'dedicate'
'observe'
'be worth'
'have insomnia'

II.1.A
hap
mat
vendos

'open'
'measure'
'decide'

II.1.B
ikechip-

'go away'
'walk'
'mount'

II.2.A
bjerr
bredh
djeg
dredh
hedh
heq
kredh
mbjell
mbledh
ndell
ndjek
nxjerr

'lose'
'run,stroll'
'burn'
'twist'
'throw'
'pull'
'dip'
'sow'
'gather'
'call,coax'
'follow'
'extract,publish'

II.2.B
fsheh 'hide'
ngjesh 'knead',apply,gird'
ndez 'light,kindle'
NOT (=II.1.A)
ngreh 'wind',build'
ndesh 'meet, encounter'
II.2.C
dal 'go out'
njoh 'know'
marr 'take'
shoh 'see'
rrah 'beat'
II.3.A
a) buas
okas
grgas
grhas
grthas
mrdhas
rrshqas
sprkas
trokas

'echo'
'knock'
'annoy'
'snore'
'shout'
'feel cold'
'slip'
'spray'
'knock'

b) brtas (brit)
kllas (kall)
klthas (klith)
krcas (kris)
plcas (plas)
pllas (pall)
prkas (prek)
thrras (thirr)
vrras (virr)
c)

'shout'
'insert'
'shout'
'bang'
'explode'
'moo'
'touch'
'call'
'bleat'

humbas (humb) 'lose'

flas
(fol)
'speak'

II.3.B
shes 'sell'
zbres 'descend'
pres
'wait'
II.3.C
a) vras
shkas
ngas
ngjas

'kill'
'slide'
'run'
'happen'

b)

12

pres 'cut'
dhjes 'shit'

III
bie
bie
di
dua
fle
ha
jap
l
ngre
nx
prz
pi
rri
shpie
shtie
them
v
vjen
z

carry,bring
fall
know
want
sleep
eat
give
leave,let
lift
study
chase off
drink
sit
send,take,cary
pour.shoot
say
put
come
take

NOTES ON WORD ORDER

m jep = normal
m jepni (pl. normal, sg. formal)
jepm = informal
jepmni = (pl. informal, sg. polite
informal)
nm/ni = impolite or familiar
(mos ma jepni)
Shqipria e shkret wretched Albania
E shkreta Shqipri Poor Albania!
Faiku sht djal i mir F. is a good
boy (subject is topic [what the phrase
is about])
sht djal i mir Faiku Hes a good
boy, F. is (complement is topic,
subject is comment)
(subject is topic, new information is
focus)
Atje sht hoteli The hotel is over
there. or Over there is the hotel
(topic = location, focus = hotel)
Hoteli sht atje The HOTEL is over
there or it is the hotel that is over
there (topic & focus = hotel)
M pret gruaja My wife expects me (if
no object, order = VS)
Gruaja m pret My WIFE expects me
(SV order = emphatic focussed
subject)
When object precedes verb it becomes
topic
E ke at Do you have it
At e ke Do you really have that one
At ke Is it that one that you have
E njeh dyqanxhiun = same idea

Structure of Albanian
I = (V)
I.1.A (diphthong)
Pt=-r, Aor=-m
a) o > ua and e > ye
in [3] pl., [4] & 3sg Aor <M>
but not optv.
impv. = (add -j- w/ V clitic)
b) ua > o/u and ye > e/y
in [3]sg &opt/ <M> not 3sg Aor
impv. = j
c) zej 'boil,' 'simmer,' 'stew'
ndej 'feel,
ie > i <M>
ie > je in [3], & optv.
I 1 B (monopthong)
Pt=-r Aor=-m Impv=-j

shnime
i) incl. dridh 'cause to shake'
ii) prer 'slant, lean, turn'
PT = prir
B. e/je + h, sh, z
> i [1]
C. V > e [2]
V > i [1]
(except marr 'take' V > e)
V > o [3]
(except rrah 'beat')
shnim
shoh > pa - (V) [4]
[3] pash, pe, pa
II.3

shnime
i)
blej 'buy' e>i [1]
ii)
bj 'do, make'
hyj 'enter'
add -r- [3]sg
(but not <M> 3s aor.)
impv = hyr
3s impf = hynt
(cf. III.2)
I.2.A&B (hybrid)
A. -i + -T- [3],[4] (>[C])
B. -V + -jT- [3],[4] (>[C])
shnime
i)
gjej 'find' = gjet<M> = gjendii)
vete 'go' = [C] in pres sg
te > in rest of pres-stem:
ve- mi, ni, n; sh, j
vajt - [3],[4]
(there is no impv, use shko-)
II = [C]
II.1.A

(regular)

II.1.B
1s = -i 23s = -n
II.2 (ablaut)
PT = - / -l, -(r)r___
other (incl -ll) = -ur
rr > r [3]
incls. compounds, e.g. prA. e/je + l(l), r(r), k,g,q, dh
> i [1] > o [3]
k g > q gj [1],[3]; rr > r [3]

A.

(Sigmatic)

13

III.2 V>i [1]

but
impv = V+r (but pl impv = 2pl)
3sg conj = V+r
ie>je impv, 3s conj, 13p pres
V>u [3] +r [3]sg (not 3sg <M>)
V > + n [4]
v 'put'
z 'take'
nx 'study'
prz 'chase off'
shpie 'send, take, carry'
shnime
i)shtie 'put, pour, shoot'
V > i [3],4
(=stem can = (V))
ii)l 'leave, let'
[3] lash
iii) bie 'carry' 'bring'
b > pr [3] pru/r [4]

a) as > it [1],[3],[4]
> et [2]

iv) bie 'fall'

[3] rash, [4] rn

b)=a) OR (as > > a,i

[3],[4], impv, <M>)

III.3 e>i [1] impv=

c)=a) BUT (as > [3],[4])

B. es > it [1],[3],[4]
> et [2]
shnim
pyes>pyet [2],[3],[4]

A.
di
fle
ngre
B.
rri
ha

[3]-[4]
dit-ur
fjet-ur
ngrit-ur

'know'
'sleep'
'lift'

ndenj-ur
[h]ngr-n

C.

III.4.A vij 'come' = (V)

[2] vjen impv=eja(ni)
[3] erdh[4] ardh -ur

b) (j)e > it [1]

-s > =V-stem [3],[4]
je>e 3s aor <M>,PT(+r), adm

III.4.B jap 'give'

a > e [1],[2]
[3] dhash
[4] dhn

a) as > it [1]
> et [2]
-s > = (V) -stem [3],[4]

D. vdes 'die'
e > i [1]
es > iq [3]
s > k [4]
III (V) ~ [C], etj.
pres =
m
ni
n
but > / VV_
III.1 impv =
pi 'drink' (elsewhere = (V))

III.4.C
'say'
them themi
thua
thoni
thot thon

'sit'
'eat'

'love, like, want'

dua
duam
do
doni
do
duan

conj:

thuash thot
duash doj
impf = thosh-, do<M> = --u-impv = --uaj
[3] = thash
[4] =thn-

desh-- (3sg can = )

dash-ur (opt'v daa)

Albanian Grammar

Victor A. Friedman
14 1 4
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GEG AND TOSK
Victor A,. Friedman
The two major dialect groups of Albanian are Geg (north) and Tosk (south). A significant bundle of
isoglosses dividing the two dialect regions runs through the area south of the course of the river
Shkumb in central Albania and then along the the river Drin through the middle of Struga in the
Republic of Macedonia. The overwhelming majority of Albanian speakers in former Yugoslavia speak
one or another of the varieties of Geg, the only exception being the Tosk speakers of the Ohrid-Prespa
region in southwestern Macedonia.1
1. Phonology
1.1 Stress
The stress patterns of Albanian dialects do not show significant variation (Gjinari 1970: 26). In
general, Albanian stresses the final syllable of the stem, although there also exist certain classes of
exceptions (see Newmark, Hubbard and Prifti 1982:15-18). One major difference between Tosk and
Geg stress is in the treatment of Turkish loans in original final stressed -a or -e. In Tosk, Turkish
loans are treated like other Albanian words with a final stressed vowel, hence bab 'father' , babi 'the
father' , teneq 'tin' , teneqja 'the tin' , like native vll 'brother' , vlli 'the brother' , rruf
'lightning' , rrufja 'the lightning' . In Geg, however, the stress is shifted back and Turkish loans are
adapted to the pattern of nouns in final schwa or original short -e, hence hllv 'sweetmeat' , hllva 'the
sweetmeat' , penxhre 'window' , penxhrja 'the window' , like native p 'girl' , pa 'the girl' ,
dle 'ewe' , dlja 'the ewe' . In the standard language, the solution has been to adapt a mixture of
these. Thus both Tosk bab 'father' and Geg bb 'father' are acceptable, but Geg tenqe 'tin' and
Tosk penxher 'window' and hallv 'sweetmeat' are all excluded (Kostallari 1976).2
1.2 Vowels
In Albanian, stressed schwa is characteristic of Tosk (and of the standard language) as opposed to
Geg, which lacks it. Also, Geg drops unstressed schwa in many positions (with compensatory
lengthening of preceding vowel in some cases), a feature that is represented in Standard Geg
orthography, e.g. Geg vllezr 'brothers' ~ Tosk vllezr 'brothers'; Geg pla@k. 'old woman' ~ Tosk
plak.
Geg dialects all have phonemic length and nasality and as a result have between 14 and 19 vocalic
phonemes.3 By contrast, Tosk lacks nasality and most Tosk dialects, including those of the region of
Kor that serve as the basis of the standard language, lack both length and nasality. These Tosk
dialects of the Kor region have seven phonemes: /a, e, i, o, u, , /.4 It should be noted, however,
that intellectuals of Kosova and Macedonia insist that phonemic length is a legitimate feature of the
Kosovar variant of Standard Albanian, i.e. this is one of those features that is a subject of variation
within Standard Albanian, at least for speakers living outside of Albania (cf. Zymberi 1991).
As indicated above, Geg lacks stressed schwa (Albanian orthographic <>). One area of important
variation in this regard is the correspondence of Geg nasal /e)/ (orthographic <>) to Tosk /e/ or //, the
distribution of which is complex, with southern Tosk being most consistent in the use of // (cf. Byron
1976b:102). Pre-War Standard Tosk had //, but the post-War Standard has codified /e/, e.g. zemr
'heart' vs the dialectal variants zmr and zmr. Most of the Albanian dialects of Macedonia have
fourteen vowels, viz. /a, e, i, o, u/ long, short, and nasal except nasal /o)/, which does not occur in any
Albanian dialect. The // of other dialects here corresponds to /i/. The Central Geg dialects of Albania
1For the most part, the dialects of Montenegro belong to Northwestern Geg, those of Kosov@ to Northeastern Geg, and those of
Macedonia to Central Geg. The dialects of Central Albania (Southern Geg and Transitional) are spoken in some villages between
Debar and Struga (Gjinari 1989:53-57 ).
2 It should be noted that given the stress pattern in the Turkish source, it is Geg that uses stress shift and not Tosk, pace Pipa
(1989:9). There are a few other lexical items where Tosk oxytone corresponds to Geg paroxytone, e.g. Geg vri Tosk ver
'north', etc. In such words, Southern Geg (Central Albania) patterns with Tosk. In clusters of two vowels such as /a/, /e/, /y!e/,
some northern Tosk dialects shift the stress onto the second vowel and treat the sequence as a rising diphthong (see Gjinari
1975:91-95). In all these instances, Standard Albanian follows Tosk (or southern Tosk).
3 The dialects of Debar (Albanian Dibr) in Macedonia and Ulcinj (Albanian Ulqinj) in Montenegro are unique among Geg
dialects in their lack of nasality.
4The Southernmost Tosk dialects of Labri in Albania and amri in Greece (Greek Epiros) have phonemic length. All Albanian
dialects except those without phonemic high front rounded // (Albanian orthographic <y>) have these seven vowels as their
unstressed inventory.

Albanian Grammar

Victor A. Friedman

15 1 5
also lack // but add to this inventory mid front rounded // and /)/ thus having the same number but not
the same inventory of phonemes as Northeastern Geg including Kosova and Southern Geg including
the villages between Struga and Debar (Albanian Dibr) in Macedonia, which all have // and nasal /)/
(Gjinari 1989:102-106).5
1.3 Consonants
Standard Albanian has a phonemic contrast between strident palatal affricates /c#, Z#/ and mellow
palatal stops /k!, g!/ (Albanian orthographic <, xh> and <q, gj>, IPA [tS, dZ, c, J]). Most dialects of
Kosova (also parts of Macedonia such as Kumanovo and Debar), however, merge the two into palatal
affricates (Gjinari 1989:156).
In Albanian, original /n/ became /r/ in Tosk but remained in Geg, e.g. Tosk Shqipri 'Albania'
~ Geg Shqipni 'Albania'. In Standard Albanian, rhotacized forms are prescribed with a few lexical
exceptions (e.g. dashnor 'lover', cf. dashuri 'love').
Final devoicing in Albanian is characteristic of Northern Tosk and transitional Southern Geg but not
of the Standard.
2. Morphology
2.1 Verbs
In Albanian, there is a host of variants in verbal morphology. Thus, for example, in Northern Tosk
the ending of the first singular present and subjunctive in vocalic stem verbs contains /n!/, elsewhere 1
sg pres./subj. uses /j/, e.g. Northern Tosk punonj 'I work' (PRES) and (SUBJ) ~ other Tosk punoj 'I
work' (PRES) and (SUBJ).6 The morphologically distinct subjunctive, which occurs only in the
second and third persons singular, is lost through generalization in Kosova and Macedonia. Thus, for
example, Standard Albanian (and the dialect of Kor) opposes punon 'work' (23SG PRES INDIC) to
punosh 'work' (2SG PRES SUBJ) and punoj 'work' (3SG PRES SUBJ).7 In Kosova, however,
the suffix -n is generalized for both persons in both moods while in some dialects of Macedonia, e.g.
Debar, the form in -n is generalized for the third singular in both moods and the suffix -jsh is used for
both second singulars (v. Ajeti 1978:11-17, Barsha 1989:186-190).8 The presence of /s#/ in the
imperfect is characteristic of Geg (except the southeastern Geg of Albania), whereas its absence is
characteristic of Tosk, e.g. Geg punojsha 'work' 1SG IMPF ~ Tosk punonja 'work' 1SG IMPF.9
The shape of the standard variant, -ja e.g. punoja 'work' 1SG IMPF -- is characteristic only of a small
region just north of Southern Tosk, although the suffix /j/ followed by schwa, /e/, or occurs
throughout Southern Tosk as well as in Southeastern Geg (Gjinari 1989:248).
In Albanian, there is signficant variation in the formation of pluperfects and in the shape of the
participle, which is essential for a variety of analytic constructions. Geg has a series of compound
perfects (perfects composed of a perfect or pluperfect auxiliary plus the participle) which are used to
express what I have called pre-anterior taxis (Friedman 1981), i.e. a past resultative event prior to
another past resultative event, as in kam pas shkue, literally '(I) have having gone', kisha pas shkue,
literally '(I) had having gone'; both are translatable as 'I had gone' but with nuances of great distance in
time. The following example illustrates this concept:
(1)
sht e vetmja breng shqiptoi (AOR) m qart ai, pasi kishte folur (PLUP) pr nj
vajz me t ciln e kishin pas fejuar (CPD PLUP) prindt qysh n fmijri
'It is the only trouble he said (AOR) more clearly, after he had spoken (PLUP) about a
5The Albanian dialects of Macedonia and adjacent Central Geg dialects of Albania also have a characteristic diphthongization of
stressed /i/ and /u/ to [ai8, ei8, i8] and [au8, ou8] in many environments, e.g. in Debar [s#!ii8t] for standard shit 'sell!'-IMP, [nou8k] for
standard nuk 'not' (Basha 1989:148-50). On the other hand, Geg in general tends to monophthongize original diphthongs, e.g.
/ue > u@, ie > i@, ye > y@/. As mentioned above, in Tosk there is variation between treating these as diphthongs, which is
characteristic of northern Tosk, or as vowel sequences, which is southern Tosk and standard. (Gjinari 1989:201). In general,
Geg has /vo-/ and Tosk /va-/ from original initial *o-, e.g. votr ~ vatr 'hearth' and /ue/ where Tosk has /ua/, e.g. mue ~ mua
'me'.
6This is part of a larger phenomenon of Geg /j/ ~ Tosk /nj/ (cf. Byron 1976b:99-102).
7 Southern Tosk also has /-j/ for the third singular subjunctive but it has /c#/ for the second singular subjunctive (Gjinari
1970:64-66).

8 The neutralization of the indicative/subjunctive opposition probably reflects the influence of Macedonian, which epxresses
this distinctinction syntactically, i.e. only with the modal subordinator da (equivalent to Albanian t).
9 There is also considerable variation in the shape of the final syllable: /ja, je, n!a, n!e, n!am, n!!~ j!, j!~j, js#na, js#a, js#e/ (Gjinari
1989:248)

Albanian Grammar
Victor A. Friedman
16 1 6
girl to whom his parents had engaged him (CPD PLUP) in childhood.' (Friedman
1981:278)
Tosk would simply use a pluperfect in both instances. In the participle, Geg has short and long
variants as in shkue ~ shkuem 'going' while Tosk has a single, rhotacized form as in shkuar 'going'.
Also, in dialects where the aorists of the auxiliary verbs 'be' and 'have' are lost, the pluperfects formed
with those auxiliaries in the standard language and other dialects are replaced by the imperfect (Basha
1989).
There is also variation in the expression of aspect. In Albanian, as noted above, the aorists of the
verbs 'be' and 'have' are excluded from some dialects, which in turn affects the formation of
pluperfects.
Morpho-syntactic differences between Geg and Tosk in analytic verbal constructions include the
following: Geg infinitive of the type me shkuem (= 'with' + long participle) Tosk pr t shkuar (= 'for'
+ subordinator + participle) 'to go',10 the Geg use of 'be' as the auxiliary of the perfect of intransitive
active verbs as opposed to the Tosk generalization of 'have' for all active verbs (both dialects use 'be'
for the perfect of medio-passive verbs), e.g. Geg jam shkue 'I am gone' but Tosk kam shkuar 'I have
gone', the Geg future of the type kam me shkue ('have' + infinitive) 'I will go', as opposed to the
Tosk type do t shkoj (particle based on 'want' + subordinator + present subjunctive verb) 'I will go',
the Geg progressive of the type jam kah shkoj (present tense of 'be' + towards + present tense verb)
'I am going' as opposed to the Tosk type po shkoj (progressive marker + present indicative verb) 'I am
going' or jam duke shkuar (present indicative of 'be' + 'while' + participle) 'I am going', and the
formation of gerunds Geg tue shkuem 'while going' ~ Tosk duke shkuar 'while going'. The following
sentence illustrates differences in future constructions and other items:
(2) Nuk kam me mjt me ardh n Shqipni. Jo t tna gjylpnat ishin t lame e t pastrueme.
Tosk: Nuk do t mund t vij n Shqipri. Jo t tra gjilprat ishin t lara e t pastruara.
I will not be able to come to Albania. Not all the needles were washed and cleaned. (after Pipa
1989:16-18)
2.2 Nominals
In Albanian the main variation is the generalization of /-i/ as the definite article for all masculine
nouns in Kosova (or those in /-h/ but not in /-k,-g/ in Macedonia [normally masculines in /h,k,g/ take
/-u/]) (Gjinari 1989:254-56), e.g. bilbil/bilbili 'nightingale/the nightingale' but zog/zogu 'bird/the bird',
krah/krahu 'wing, side/the wing, side'; but in Kosova zogi, 'the bird', krahi ' the wing, side' and in
Macedonia zogu ' the bird', krahi ' the wing, side'. Albanian also has a difference in the indefinite
article (Geg nji 'one, a' Tosk nj 'one, a'), which although phonologically based, was the subject of a
potential, artificial morphological distinction.11
In the expression of reflexive possession, Tosk lacks a morphologically distinct reflexive
possessive pronoun, whereas Geg has i vet 'one's own' for the third person, and this form has been
adopted into the standard language. The use of i vet 'one's own' in some Tosk writers for non-third
persons appears to be a hypercorrection (Byron 1976b:118).
3. Variation and Standardization
Although a Tosk based standard was promulgated in Albania after World War Two and adopted by the
ethnic Albanians of Yugoslavia in a process that lasted from 1968-1972. The lack of standardization before
the publication of the standard reference tools of the 1970s made it extremely difficult for the foreign
learner to know which forms to memorize. The following four examples are illustrative:
(1) Present tense of wait
SG
PL
1 pres
presim
2 pret
pritni OR prisni
3 pret
presin
Imperfect stem is based on second plural, therefore:
prisja, prisje, etc. OR pritja. pritje, etc.
(2) gjen find Four possible third person singular medio-passive aorists:
10 The Tosk type of construction also occurs in the Albanian dialects of Macedonia south of Debar. The Geg infinitive is
permitted in certain expressions that have achieved wide currency, e.g. domethan 'that is to say'.
11Faik Konica proposed that Geg nji be used for feminine nouns and Tosk nj for masculine, but his proposal was not accepted
(Byron 1976a).

Albanian Grammar
Victor A. Friedman
17 1 7
u gjet OR u gjind OR u gjnd OR u gjend
(3) rri sit Four possible participles: ndejt-ur OR ndjt-ur OR ndenj-ur OR ndnj-ur
The participle is the basis for both aorist and admirative paradigm, thus leading to four different sets of
paradigms.
(4) ha eat Two third singular aorists and an irregular participle, any of which can form the basis of the
admirative paradigm:
hngri OR hangri, participle ngrn
third singular present admirative: hngrka OR hangrka OR ngrnka
REFERENCES
Ajeti, Idriz. 1978. Vshtrim mbi prdorimin e konjukivit t gjuhs shqipe. Krkime gjuhsore by
Idriz Ajeti, 11-17. Prishtina: Rilindja.
Basha, Naim. 1989. E folmja e qytetit t Dibrs. Studime Gjuhsore II (Dialektologji) ed. by
Shaqir Berani et al., 137-221. Prishtin: Insituti Albanologjik i Prishtins.
Byron, Janet L. 1976a. "Faik Konitza dhe gjuha letrare shqipe" [Faik Konitza and the Albanian
Literary Language"]. In: Edward Licho (ed.), Faik Konitza 1876-1976. New York: Vatra, pp.
49-51.
Byron, Janet L. 1976b. Selection Among Alternates in Language Standardization: The Case of
Albanian. The Hague: Mouton.
Friedman, Victor A. 1981. The Pluperfect in Albanian and Macedonian. Folia Slavica, 4:2/3. 27382.
Gjinari, Jorgji. 1970. Dialektologjia shqiptare. Prishtin: Universiteti i Prishtins.
________.. 1975. Dialektologjia shqiptare. Tiran: Universiteti i Tirans.
________. 1989. Dialektet e gjuhs shqipe. Tiran: Akademia e Shkencave e RPS t Shqipris.
Newmark, Leonard, Philip Hubbard and Peter Prifti. 1982. Standard Albanian. Stanford: Stanford
University.
Pipa, Arshi. 1989. The Politics of Language in Socialist Albania. Boulder: East European
Monographs.
Zymberi, Isa. 1991. Colloquial Albanian. London: Routledge.