Cumulative Damage in Fatigue By MILTON A. MINER, SANTA MONICA, CALIF ‘The phenomenon of cumulative damage under repeated loads was assumed (o be related to the net work absorbed by a specimen. The number of loading cycles applied expressed as a percentage of the number to failure at a slven stress level would be the proportion of useful life expended. When the total damage, ar defined by this concept, reached 100 per cent, the fatigue specimen should fail, Experimental verification of this concept for an aluminum alloy, using different types of specimens, ¥ fous stress ratios, and vatious combinations of loading cycles is presented, These data are also analyzed to pro- ‘ide information on different stress ratios when an S-N curve for any one ratio ia known. Results of a sample analysie based on experiments are given. It is con: luded that a simple and conservative analysis is possible ‘using the concept of cumulative fatigue damage. Inmaoouertox A YROGRESS with methods of fatigue anslysis has been slow 1B. F. Zanger* presente! a method fo estimating the elects of Toading cycles of differnt stross amplitudes in 1037, ‘The ‘propagation of a erack is related to a damage ourve, obtained 23 in-work at Battlle Institsto,or tothe start of @erac, Langer also suggested certain experimenta to verify the proposed ealea lation. “A discursiont of the work of Thum and Fedor, Bellen rath, Nisen;-Snd Kaul indicated crends of thought. wat eablshing a cemulative damage approach to fatigue failure "Thum and Bouts alzo discussed somo of the agpects of this problem. Consideration of these various approaches led to an atlerapt to simplify the various phases of the damago problem ia fatigue Sinoe aircraft structures ars mainly made of alumina alloys, this material was chosen forthe teats although allay stecls are stil important, Also, the appearance of a crak in an sirplace structural member has roquired repair or replacement befere further operation was posible; thus a crack can be considered ‘asa failure in an aircraft structural component. 'To account for the effect of atest eyes above sme arbitrary lower lit (forpAUGNECO win MIEHIOUs OF IBUgUe BMAIYSIS DAS Ooo SOW because of lack of basi information on material behsvior and, moreimportant, because no method of handling any ‘but the simplest problem has been available. Any solution r= quizee several toole before other than simple comparative ‘sualysie based on tests can be made. (Bven in compare- ‘tivo tects the experiment ray easly be oversimplified to the ex- tent that significant effects are complataly lost.) "These tools must provide the folowing 1 nformstion on the loading conditions to be encountered Coumber of eye, frequency of occurrence of gusts, et.). ‘2. Taformatioa regarding the number of oyeles to Tulare of tho smatesial or part at various etre, jc, SAN carves, ‘3. Means for evalusting the cumulative effots of eyeles of stress at various lresslovels, ‘4 A method of relating various loading ayes (1.0, eyshs of treo with difrontratioa of mininsum to maize stress) {tom 1 of this list iso gonoral problem of a magnitude bayond the scope of the laboratory experimenter, the designer, or the sivess gnalyet. ‘They must rely on service information where availble or otherwise make conservative louding estimates. ‘This problem is important and mast be undertaken on a larger seale than is posible inthe laboratory. ‘tem 2 ia obtainable experimentally in most eaams, and data ‘can be augmented with instrumentation of pars in service and ‘carefully prepared servis records ‘Tho principal purpose of this paper deals with item 8, # means for evaluating the eamalative effects of cycles of stress at various sees lovels, Item 4 is supplemental to item 3 and is also dealt ‘with since it is very necessary in most practical problems. 5 Stone Teat Kaginer, Dousan Alvaalt Compaty, In, convenience say the stress at N’ = 16) a simple concept of damm sige was frst considered. ‘This concept held that the damage could be expresed in terms of the number of eyeles applied divided by tho number to produce failure at a given stress lval ‘When the summation of these “increments of damage’ at several stress Ievels bocame unity, failure occurred, Asswurrions avo Leattasions oP Conse ‘The complexity of loadings enoountered in wireraft makes any approach toa fatigue analysis npproximate at best. Therefore, plifying assumptions must be made so that a start is possible, ‘To this end the following assumptions sre made: 1 The lading cycois sinusoidal. 2 The total amount of work that can be absorbed produces failure (under the farther assumption that no work-hardening ‘ceurs). 3 The rlationship between various stress ratios (ratio of ‘minimum stress to maximum) i approximately as shown in Figs 1a) and 10) 4 The Inception of « crack, when observed, is considera to conetiuate fale, ‘These assumptions for thesuka of experimental brevity arwalza subject to the following limitations: 41. Only aluminum alloys azo to bo stadod 2, Only maximum stresses abovo the steest at which fetigue failire oscars st 10 eyoles azo to be coasidered. + “Patigu Paiiur From Stress Cycles of Varying Amplitude” by B. Rr Lnoger, Jovusas or Avruise Mrcnaiey Tras ASAE val. 89, 7p. AO. ia ei a chs Mlb Mika Tic iat MsiPresented at mesting of the Avistion Division, Lor Angeles, (a Sone 871915 f Tan Anca Socio oF Macuanont DDiswarion of this paper should be addramed to the Ssorotary, ASIN, 20 Wort hh Street, New York, Ne ¥., and wil bo ae- ‘apted ute Oct. 10, 1048.” Dissuasion vossived ‘afer the elosing Site wll bo vataran "Nom: Statomonts ard opinions adeaneod in papers are 40 be ‘understood as inividnal exprossions of their ashore snd ot those ot the Sonat + “Prevention of the Failure of Metals Under Repeated Stress,” Battle Merril Tnvutute Stall, John Wiley & Sota, Toe, ‘York, N.Y. 1911, pp. 92-06 and pp. 188-208. ‘Tia, 205, * Diosiution of Langor's paper * by Thum snd W.Buuts, Joon vat. op Apri Mueanios, Tras. ASME, val 60, 1938, p- aia, Buen of Strong of Materila" by S. Timoshenko and G. FE: MacCulouoh D. Van Notrard Ca fats Now Yor N.Y 399, ps Ants sin JOURNAL OF APPHED MECHANICS a Ne rhe al ‘This exyreiniaetly demnonatratntl 10 lili love exnerieiasaiteaes ne eae eatin Fra, 1 f@) Moptrime Gooostax Draciese ——— Fie, 1 () Pion ov Starse Viesus H Shown Aoneewaire Bee ‘twas Stanton Line Paow Fe. 1a) xo Tier Reauces Nowavcusrues Rerenaey ro Pies. 2) ao 2(0) = cithor maximum or minima stress S, = ultimate static tonsil strength Si; = maximum stres in a londing epele (Le, the stress of ‘eater magnitude rgardies of whether it is tension ‘or compression) 1, = number of stress eyeles to fail at stress, 8, 22 CAYEUSION Is AeINONSETALED 10 hold Hue Experimenta ‘within the nite ofthe asuptions. should he noted that che significant festuncof the emmudative darnagr concept lias in the hypathees that failare occurs wit 22 In Fig. 8 are shown the typos of specimens eaployed in the cxpenments. IL showkrbe notod that all specimens were made from Alelad 245-7 sheet wnat Fia.2 (6) Tenican SLY Conve Tusommustive Nowexetaromsim = nuunber of eyes applied at, WY = work done to flare my = work done at my evoles ‘Soin = minimum stross in given losding eyele (may be aty ‘value loss than 8, either tension or compression) 1W = ratio of minimum stees to maximum stress in lending DeveLormmsr oF Dassen Coscarr Voaetestioss ap Exramncesrst LEW represents the not work absorbed at failure, then mn wo Piette Bat a1 and cubstivuting values of Equation [1] 1) ‘The uipmont wi oper show ast was etl the ‘ani tat shows in Pig, and inthe ne agama Posie dyna led conel was mattaned trough th a elcrcimatnce sin gag ene i san wih the te spesinen and inating ‘mf Dunfont pe 308 Since Citas lessor, Fig Sap 80). ‘hbase 2 ares archon in Fig, 7, Sissratio valu , (AEE of 4080, 0.20; nt 020 carn experimentally are preseted, Fg Siva mproduton of a po Gon of Fi 7 wth reste pote for tree tea eto irom Table. Fig Si pled Uitte grabaly te eae ingeycles cpap an the arco of tel nae tho ‘snes downge coon "Thomo of ptlng te cuultive eyes ia Fg, 9, and 10 is teed om the proportion, = At any ratio of Za per ® contage of wscfal life has been consumed, This proportion is ted to deturmino tho starting point of ne at @ diferent stres. ‘Thus specimen $19 was run at 89,800 pal for 135,000 eyeles. ‘ny _ 135,000 ~ 29,000 eles, 2 oy lower stres.of 29,000 psi, this was eruivalent to 0.55. Ne '= 0.55 X 830,000 = 181,000 ey les whieh ithe point from which vm sturis in Fig, 8. Now since ny = 141,000 eycles at failure, me _ 141,000 A 200 = 0.45, and the value of 2 = 0488. ‘This same opp 7 0A andthe valu of = = 0.98 Since = 0055, sind at the:LL MINER-CUMULATIVE DAMAGE 1 FATIGUE sein Fe. ay Puree Fyoue Spores er neta Sal mt Na aera Fis. 8 @) Dawene-Freen-Sousw Famave Soro ie Fro, 6 (@) Lave Discnas oF Tyetoxt Famous Macmtsi ten | fe OPS]a Fis. (0). Laws Disawas oF Loxo-Conraou Cincorr Sy 5 5 i Rio. 7 S:¥ Conves a7 Vamous & Vaexs vow 28. Aver procedure is used to plot the other points serving st exemple ‘Table gis the reslts ofa number of experiments all of whicFro. # Axaicboine Farays Macme Srets-Gaae Rove Nor Sows) REAR Fue. cress Tascs ov Seauss‘Tante Wave Fou Faout Osc1-10- ‘cura Reconons Acts JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANTSS ‘wore run ut {wo oF moro iross lovele at a streseretio of +0.20. “Th ava tt vale or is 098, Te maxim an wi mum values ave 1.45 and 0.61, If only the last oye of lout fs plotted for these tle (assuming that only this final sts cycling cased the fare), she average value of 2 is 0.87, thus x Indicating that the damage from the other loading eycles be ignored Fig. @ is representative of a more complex type specimen {in this ease a dimpled fash serow Jolt) in which tho Su¥’ eurve lise hon established and tivo Usts have been run at different str levels, {eshould be pointal out at this point that the author beliew= ‘that “‘stresemisers” or strostconoentrations are best handled in SEPTEMBER, 1045,YANLE 1 MESULTS OF EXPRRIMENTS RON AT TWO OR MORR STW STEVE 1008 x sce at ° % ia ocr 10) co ara RB 15 om WIS i 8, 2 i Ba = Ge ho og & oo RR 8B RB iendytetee i, gee oe penn ges os oa i knlgtem i. Gen as ag if vest 2 2500 1330 3000, Odd Faltwe ° ogee —_ Se RE TT pty co ge a wows aa te Rak Teter SHA (pam 18 a 3 7 Yee decrommed for ee a ee << Gel ow oe 18 HE # RESiER Gos Ne OSB ico SEA i) 35000 2 HE ae * retcermedte (3) 27500 320 420, 0.66 aa ee “Ue oe og ae o 2 8 gests Nore: Stree rato (HRA BIER) oo. feral specimens Specimen type Ais snad ln Fp Sa), and type Bin Fe, 30 Average eal of 2 = 098i Table ee8 1 Saas Fea. § Parmar, Reronvcvion ov Tio. 7, Grvmma 4 Gaapmoun Parsewranon oF Comvuartvn Dawaen Concare ton Twice ‘Skene {atigue by experimentally establishing S-N curves on specimens oF parts which contain the actual concentrationé wherever pombe, “Applying factors or eorzoations dow not seem feasible atthe recent tase, ‘Mumioo o? Retna Vantovs Sranse Razioa OEE SRE Max. TENSION LOAD ON JOINT-I485) Fie. § Loan-Creue Cosve rom "Yavin: FuomSeaew Daur Jobe in 218-7 kes characteristics of amateria or part ean be comparvd oven though ‘he information available hss bean obtained for varying ratios of nninimum to maximum stress, Experiments with Alelad 248-7 ‘sluminam-afloy specimens do not result in a straight line such ae ‘that in Fig. (a); however, the variation i not great. Tn Fig 1(), the lowerlimit curve, bounding the shaded afea, has heen ‘obtained from the modified Goodman diagram in Fig. 1a). This ‘useful in presenti a orase-plot of stress (ceprossed ara porsent- tage of the ultima! tensile strength) against stress ratio R, for aified Goodman diner, Fig Ce}, the fatigue given mimber of cys, ‘The tppor eure of te shaded ea MINER—CUMULATIVE DAMAGE IN FATIGUE. Aa 1X WITCH PERCENTAGE OF DAMAGE WAS I31Posco) Ho 'Snb bab ChiaNceD UNTIL Pateone oucuMMED “= gimp "gfe S84 0.20 Bae my at 9.08 “ie Hope iporeeeed for co SOA =o. 1) 9 48 oe 7° pes BEG 8 8 OS eB! easanis hal tered essA 0.00 ys ta.HE BER OE sw. 38 QE Ae ar ae so. 83 GER Be son 8B BOB to. 88 GER ORs toe 8B GHB Be so. 82 BER ‘Soom: Avecage von for = 1.05 Table 2 represents the maximum deviation of test values of various exe perimeters including some unpublished data on Alclad 24ST ‘material. "Ths i is apparent that the lower eurve is in fair agreement sith experiments and gives conservative stress values. Also the expense and simplicity of handling of pertienlar problems using the straight line are greatly improved, since the large numbers of tects necessary io establish several SN curves oan thus be ‘voided. For the purposes of this paper, S-V eurves at various FR values have been experimentally eatablished, Fig. 7, 60 that sianged: Sota Inrenced 3 ie 2 Rugg tect a satay 8 Eafaye td cent & aiey ug Agee nos & Sefagr at ert “3 Saige nr 48 Baits fond & Sefer trate “ 2 shaaaeds toad incr fughsgrs toad nore the snecimen (oeltig Uae of worchaneing) would ‘peat at et lace obo dprovedy cover previo ‘Meminum al However, data by lohan aad Oberg! when reat vo anaverage rate of 2 f 1.08. ‘Thine done by simply shifting the basic S-V curve slightly (entirely within the rein of mea Cot vals.‘ sgl tt rn presed by Benycanot be choked without seo Wh orepndng 5. eure; sve, ia ly hase 3% = 200 bod 00‘he accuracy of ti damage concep! can be ascertainod. “Table 2 gives results of experiments in which a pereentage of damage was imposed upon a specimen at one stress ratio then jn meet easee tho strest ratio and load were changed and the specimen tested until faire oecurred, In several ences, three diferent tress ratios were employed both in the positive and negative range (.e, both tensen-tension and tonion-compression Toads). As in the case of tests rum ata constant stress ratio, the ‘value of 2 is taken directly from the S-N curves tho diforence there being that S-N curves are required for each stress ratio. ig, 10 pricents several ofthe resultefeom Table 2in graphieat form. It is to bo noted that the average value of 2 is 1.05 or there experiments, The maximum and minimom values aro 149 and 080, Dascussion ov Resvas Although only twenty-two tests are prevented in the resus of| ‘Tobles 1 and 2, othor date are available which further tend to confirm the ress herein presented. ‘The concept that damage in fatigue ie cumulative and is proportional to the work done on the lowest stress for the materiel, a value of not ovor 1.50 would be reasonsble if the mean strass value were used. "The practice of overstreaing specimens for eome number of cycles then running to failure (or “Tunaing out”) at the endorance limit is usally used to prove the presence or laek of damage > ‘This procedure obscures the reults quantitatively in torms of the cumulative damage concept because of the wide seattor of test ‘Points in the gion of tho enduranco limit, For this reszon no ‘aeourate pieturo enn be drawn a to the validity of the concept for materials other than Alelad 266-7 aluminum alloy because of lack of test data Some investigaiors have had individual vst specimeas run beyond th S-V earvo during the “overstresing” ran and sill not fail when “wun out” at the enduranoo limit ‘The normal scator in fatiguo-tsting, howevor, acount for this behavior in opeasional specimens. ‘Tho accuracy of test reculls is pariculaly important in at- lami o eta damage information, tal astra ob ""Bheundon, Proordlge of ke ALTA, Oy G. W. Sickle, vol 48, 1985, p. 703 °A164 ; frifine owe |) 5 i Fic. 10. Parral Repgoouctox ov Fi. 7, Suowina Guat Fuluve Pores soe ‘Temes Soscnacys Wen Skea, Sos ‘eemo (A), ano Nona op Creti Aiu Vans JOURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS SEPTEMBER, 1935, [Nov rom au 8-3" env for the asain in question (rae hs assumed foe thisexsnupe) Ny = 1,000,000 excles 10 (suze at 834000 pal and # = + 0.30 Xy = "215,000 eyelet fun st 83.000 poi and He =f 020 Now $4 B= 28 = porion of ale conned por minute of operation, oF 2 8 os Too x toe * aS sap 01 IP and since falyep oestfe st 2 1, tho pressure unit ean be pected to Fail ia 1 oa 340 br 00 ‘continuous operation under these acoslersted conditions, OF course for an actual case, there are several problems which ariso to maks tho dotannination of fatigue life anything but simple, such as the example tha is llustrated. ‘Tho deternins- tion of the working stress and munabor of eyces of opsration is usually a difeult mattor involving precise instrumentation and caroful experimertal work or a vary earaul evaluation of serview ‘experience and‘ e other factors that can be determined. ‘Thon,in loading (which are not so likely in rotating-bow snsehines, ‘but are common in axial-loading types) will result i large varia tions in the number of eyeles to fallure. Considering tho usual ‘srge seater, the results cbtainod inthe tast of Tables | and 2 re felt to be both accurate and signiflcant. The average value for 2 hb 1018 forthe two cio The asin a ‘minimum values are 1.45 and 0.61, respectively. Taspestion of ‘an S.N curve on which ate plotied actual test points will show that the scatter of thesp maximum and minimum valuoe is not ‘excosive™ Sum Avan” ‘The problem i o find the expected life in hours of a bydeaulice pressure unit. “Assume thatthe pressure veszel is aade of aluminum alloy and ‘operates from 100 psi to 3000 psi during part ofits operafion and ‘rom 600 to $000 pel during the remainder. Thasyatom oparates ‘ab 20 eycles por min under aocelerated text conditions and 80 per ‘eat of these operating eycas aro of the formes type. At 3000 psi pressure, the mariraum tensile tras s known to bo 35,000 pa in ‘the erica region Now 1300) By = = $0.90 and Als ‘ao, S-¥’ curves are roquired for dhe particular part in question. Honovor, if tho extieal rogion of tho part is mown to have negligible stress concentration, SV curves of the basic material fam bousod. The modified Goodman diagram in Fig. curves in Fig. 1(), provide a ueeful means of ech sites ration at N= 10% but, of cour, test curves are ti preferred for greatar accuracy. It should be nated that when ‘perimental curves are to be established, many aetusl eases are ‘ost eoouoaoslly handled with an S-¥ ourve of constant mean stress (Le, with the stras ratio varying) rathor then x number of ‘SAN eurves for constant values of Aa octal problem involving slumiowm hydraaio-preseire accumulators has beon zuccesstully solved by the procedures outlined. The aceumulators were made of forged 148-T slumi- rum alloy for which basi meatorial SV eurvss wero available, ‘Test runs on the accumulators indicated that a relatively small numberof eyeles ceourting wa lower stress rato but atthe same ‘maximum stress might be eaasing premature failures. Analysis of tho various possibilities for fatigue failure in th diferent tpe ‘systems in which the accumulators were used indicated thst ene syslam was entirely satisfactory while another was not. Actual service experience proved the analysis to bo correct in both eats A long history of satisfactory secvico existed in ono ease while in the other, several fires had occtared ia a relatively sort Coxerverona “From the evidenco available at prseat, itis concluded that the concept of eumulative damage: 1. Holds true for Alclad 248-P aluminun alloy aad probably for tho other high-strength aluminum alloys. 2. Provides ¢ simple, practical (and eonservative) mene for mnshapion fatsanlproltenn,‘8620 eyclea per main under anceerated text conditions and 60 per ‘oat ef theso operating cycles aro of tho former type. At 3000 psi pressure, the maxim tensile stras fa Known fe 35,000 ps in ‘tho eitical rogion. $0.50 and coo pn eo Alwo . Tu ste = 20 eyes per min or effectively, ay = 0.6 % 20 = 12 cyeles por min m= 0.4 X20 = Boyde per min TRet 8, Pa, 188, p. 2 ‘makinum stress mignt be causing premature lauures. Anslysis of the various possibilities for fatigue failure in the diferent type systems in which the acramulatoes wore usod indicated that one system was entirely satisfactory while another was not. Actual ‘service experience proved the analysis to bo corect in both eases A long history of satisfactory secvies existed in one ease whilo in the other, soveral failures bad occurred in a rolatively short time. Coxcuvsions “From the evideuco availablo ak present, its oneluded that the ‘concapt of sumulative damage: 1 Holds true for Alclad 248-P aluminum alloy and probably for tho other high-etrength aluminum alloys. 2 Provides a simple, practical (and eonservative) means for analyzing fatigue problens 8 Should be experimentally investigatod for stels and other ‘materials to dotermine ies rango of usfulness. Acxxowuinours? ‘The author wishes to acknowledge the part that Mr. RH, (Christensen and Mr. P.T. Mahaffey played in the dovelopment ofthis paper.