Symmetry as a Compositional

Determinant
copyright Larry J. Solomon, 1973, revised 2002

A description and analysis of the various types of symmetry that occur in music

Abstract
Preface
I. Introduction
II. Definitions
III. Reflection
IV. Translation and Rotation
V. Analytical Methods
VI. Analysis of Unspecialized Works
Bach's Invention No. 1
VII. Analysis of Works with Intensive Applications:
Bartok's Music for Strings, Percussion & Celesta, and Webern's Variations for
Piano, Op. 27
VIII. Quadrate Transformations
IX. Some Psychological Considerations
X. Bibliography

Abstract
Symmetry is shown to be the major determining factor in composition. Some of the
compositional parameters that are demonstrated to be symmetry operations are: all
aspects of serialized composition, all contrapuntal operations (including imitation,
canon, rounds, cancrizans, melodic inversion, invertible counterpoint, augmentation,
and diminution, and cantus firmus composition), all musical forms (including all
sectional, contrapuntal forms, and arch forms), isorhythm and isomelos, ostinati and
passacaglia, mirror chords, planing and fauxbourdon, vibrato, scale formation, invertible
counterpoint, meter and pulse, timbre, trills and other ornaments, Alberti bass and other
accompaniment figurations, antiphony, the circle of fifths, and pitch itself.
Definitions, descriptions, and mathematical formulations of the different types of
symmetry are provided, and each of the major types is explored with examples.
Parallels are shown in nature and other art forms. An analytical methodology is
developed, and specific works are examined to demonstrate intensive applications.

These include Bartok's Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta and Webern's
Variations for Piano, Op. 27.
Some new transformations are developed, called the Quadrate transformations, which
are 90 degree rotations of a basic set, exchanging the time and pitch dimensions. An
essay on these also appeared in Perspectives of New Music, 1973, under the title "New
Symmetric Transformations". Chapter II (on Definitions of musical symmetry) was also
published in the Journal of Transfigural Mathematics (Berlin) Vol. 3/3 (1997-98). A
chapter is also devoted to the possible psychological effects of musical symmetry.

Preface
The first edition was originally published as a dissertation for completion of a PhD in
music at West Virginia University in 1973. The original title was Symmetry as a
Determinant of Musical Composition. This new edition preserves the original ideas and
adds some new materials and discoveries. The New Transformations names have been
transposed so that the Quadrate Prime (QP) is the form that reflects around an ascending
diagonal, thereby switching time and pitch axes. This makes the Quadrates more
consistent with their own transformations and with the Prime form. Mathematical
descriptions of these forms have been added.

Chapter I. Introduction
To understand the very nature of creation one must acknowledge that there was no light before the Lord said: "Let there be Light". And since
there was not yet light, the Lord's omniscience embraced a vision of it which only His omnipotence could call forth.... A creator has a vision
of something which has not existed before this vision. And a creator has the power to bring this vision to life. . . . {Arnold Schoenberg,
"Composition with Twelve Tones" from Style and Idea}
The essential uncertainty of quantum behavior might create the uneasy suspicion that anything goes in this world. But since the Universe has
(on all observed scales of length, time, mass and so forth) a very definite structure, it seems extremely unlikely that everything is allowed.
There must be some things that are more allowed than others. . . . As it happens, there are many things that are forbidden (in the sense that
they are unlikely in the extreme), and it is the forbidding rules that give structure to the world. We will discuss quite a few of these rules, and
it is important to to bear in mind that the origin of these is essentially not understood. It is not known why the rules must be as they are; some
day we may attain a deeper level of understanding, which will provide insight into the rules that govern the rules, as it were. But we are not
at that stage yet, and for the moment all rules that have been discovered seem arbitrary and highly non-obvious. If you were to design your
own universe, it might not occur to you to do it in the way our world is, and we know of no reason why you should impose all the
experimentally observed rules in order to obtain a working universe. . . .
Symmetry forbids. Forbidding imposes order, but many different things that possess a certain order may derive from the same symmetry....
That is why physicists believe that the underlying symmetry, which forbids whole classes of occurrences at one stroke, is, in a sense, more
fundamental than the individual occurrences themselves, and is worth discovering. {Vincent Icke (1995), The Force of Symmetry, 100-103}

The creation of music is called composition, as it is in the other arts. But, what exactly
is a "composition"? It is "the organization of forms and colors in a work of art" {The New
Columbia Encyclopedia, 617}, "the arrangement into specific proportion or relation, and especially
into artisic form." {Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 236} Synonyms associated with
composition include: structure, form, organization, harmony, proportion, and balance.
A question that naturally follows is: Is there any general principle that is used to
compose music, i.e., to organize the parts of music into a whole? The thesis proposed
here is that symmetry, as defined, is a predominant principle of such organization found
in musical composition, crossing international boundaries of style, history, and
ethnicity; i.e., in fact, most of the relationships found in music are based on symmetry.

Although the examples used in this study are from Western musical literature, the
general musical features cited are found throughout the world.
Symmetry is not a concept that is restricted to music or the arts, but it is now recognized
as the very foundation of mathematics and physics. The laws of symmetry are general
laws that determine a relationship. Mathematical symmetry is defined as "a relation with
the following property: if one thing is in a given relation to another, then the second is
necessarily in the given relation to the first." {Karush, 263}. E.g., Cindy is a sibling of
Michael, therefore Michael is a sibling of Cindy. Or, if triangle A is congruent to
triangle B, then triangle B is necessarily congruent to triangle A. A relation fails to be
symmetric if there is at least one instance where the condition fails; e.g., if John is the
son of Mary, it does not follow that Mary is the son of John; or, if Jim likes Jane, it does
not necessarily follow that Jane likes Jim. Similarly, if Jim is a Christian, it does not
necessarily follow that a Christian is Jim.
A mathematical operation or transformation that results in the same figure as the
original or its mirror image is called a symmetry operation. These operations include
reflection, rotation, and translation, which will be defined. The set of all operations that
leave a figure unchanged is called the symmetry group for that figure.
The purpose here is to demonstrate that symmetry is a general determinant of musical
composition; a composition being an arrangement of parts to form a whole. Musical
symmetry will be mathematically defined as a congruence that results from the
operations of reflection, rotation, or translation. These may be applied to any parameter
of a musical composition. Stated in another way, the purpose is to demonstrate how
postoperative congruences define the arrangement and combination of the parts of
musical works.
Symmetry can be recognized in the human body, in snowflakes, in beehives, and in
geometric figures. It is an object of scientific study in botany and crystallography. Such
study has led to a complex but important system of classifying and relating organisms
and structures. How does a flower, a seashell, or a millipede relate to music, if at all?
How diverse, related, and pervasive are manifestations of symmetry in existing music?
Can they be defined and classified? Is there a method or procedure for recognizing this
type of organization? What may be the psychological effects or reasons for employing
symmetry in a composition? The answers to these and other questions are posed herein.
The word "symmetry" has a common root of origin with "syndicate;-namely the Greek
prefix syn-, meaning together, or from sympiptein, to fall together. One of the first
English uses of the word in print occurs in a book on architecture by Shute-in 1563:
"Concerning ye proportion and simetry to vse the accustomed terme of the arts of the
forenamed columbes. {Murray, J., 366} It was applied then to mean the "mutual relation of the
parts of something in respect of magnitude and position." Later, in 1624, Wotton, in his
Architecture remarks that, "Man is...as it were the Prototype of all exact
Symmetrie,"{Murray, J., 366} and Buliver in Anthopomet of 1650 states: "True and native
beauty consists in the just composure and symmetrize of the parts of the body." {Murray, J.,
366} Subsequently, the term came to have additional, more specific meanings.
"Symmetry is a word used to express...the fact that one half of an animal is usually an
exact reversed copy of the other."{Murray, J.,366}

Currently, the term "symmetry" is used in all of the sciences and arts. It has similar
meanings in geometry and biological science, namely the arrangement of pairs of parts
which when joined by a line can be bisected by a line or a
Figure 1. A drawing by Leonardo da Vinci showing symmetry in the human body

plane. This type is called bilateral symmetry and is evidenced in the human form.
The same type of symmetry is found in the morphology of many animals and plants,
both living and extinct.
Figure 2. Bilateral symmetry in an oak leak and an extinct trilobite

Radial symmetry also occurs in nature as a form whose features are equidistant from a
point, and thereby can be rotated.
Figure 3. Radial symmetry in the pine cone and flower

Another type of symmetry occurs as reiterating parts as those in fern leaves and
beehives.
Figure 4. Translational symmetry in leaf arrangement, the millipeded, and a beehive

These forms do not have axes but are translational along a line.
Symmetry occurs not only in the direct creations of nature, but in man's own. It is
especially apparent in the visual arts, including architecture. From the Parthenon of
Ictinus to Raphael's School of Athens to Le Corbusier's Ronchamp Church, symmetry is
a strong organizational feature and has been the object of considerable study in art
history. Hermann Weyl's book on Symmetry describes its various manifestations in art,
mathematics, and in nature. Weyl's book serves as a model for the extensions into music
that are the subject of this study.
In music, the word "symmetry" is most often used in its application to phrases and the
dimensions of musical forms. Although Hugo Leichtentritt does not define the term, he
implies that equal lengths are symmetrical {Leichtentritt, 225}. Wallace Berry uses it in the
following way: "Binary form in which the second part is longer than the first is termed
asymmetrical binary as opposed to symmetrical binary form, in which the two parts are
of equal length."{Berry, 39} Elie Siegmeister similarly uses the term, without defining it, to
mean equal phrase lengths. {Siegmeister, 280-282}. Symmetrical meters are normally defined as
those that are either divided into equal parts or are indivisible; e.g., 6/8 is 3 + 3, 9/8 is 3

+ 3 + 3. Simple triple is a symmetrical meter because it is not divisible. Asymmetrical

meters would include 5/8 (divided into 3 + 2, or 2 + 3), 7/8, etc.
Paul Fontaine offers a very different use of the word: "The word symmetric is arbitrarily
used to describe a phrase equal in length to an even number of measures. The reference
is to length only and not to melodic balances or imbalances within a phrase." {Fontaine, 17}
According to this statement, phrases of equal length would be symmetric only if each
contained an even number of measures, and a single phrase would be symmetric if it
contained an even number of measures.
Another meaning of "symmetry" is the correspondence of parts or elements across a
dividing line or axis. George Perle, Colin Mason, and others have used it in this sense
for analyses of special works. The most well known example of reflective symmetry, as
it will be called, is the so-called "arch form", such as A B C B A. Colin Mason, Mosco
Carner and others have shown the use of this form in Bartok's Fourth String Quartet.
Example 1. Relationship of the movements of Bartok's Fourth String Quartet {Robertson, 140}
_____________________________________________________
|
|
Allegro Prestissimo non troppo
Lento
Allegretto
Allegro Molto
|___________________________|

George Perle has pointed out the use of reflective pitch structures in the same work and
other Bartok quartets.
Example 2. Reflective harmonic structure in Bartok's Fourth String Quartet {Perle, 1955, 310}.

Related notions of symmetry occur in the literature. Leichtentritt states that inversion is
intended to have the "effect of symmetry in opposite directions." {Leichtentritt, 226}
Retrogrades are a type of inversion, he says, "retracing the melody's path from the
positive plus direction, geometrically speaking, to the opposite, negative, minus
direction," thus, also having a symmetrical effect. He goes on to relate invertible
counterpoint to melodic inversion in the same way.
Another meaning for "symmetry" is synonymous with shape or form itself. It is used as
such by Stewart MacPherson in his book Form in Music. {MacPherson, 2} He states that

"music can never be formless; it must always possess that sense of symmetry and fitness
for its purpose without which it must inevitably fail as a work of art."
Still another implication for the word "symmetry" is given by Walter Piston in the text
Harmony, concerning sequence: "It is generally agreed that a single transposition of the
pattern does not constitute a sequence, the systematic transposition not being established
until the third appearance of the initial group. On the other hand, it is remarkable that
composers seldom allow the symmetry to extend beyond the third appearance of the
pattern without breaking it up by variation or abandoning it altogether." {Piston,
233}Although he does not define symmetry, Piston's use seems closest to our translational
variety.
What can we gather from all these statements about symmetry? We can guess that it
must be a part of form, that it involves equivalences, that it may occur as mirrorlike
correspondences across an axis, that it has something to do with sequence or repetition,
and it may involve contrary motion or exchange of parts. A definition of symmetry in
music is needed, and this is proposed in Chapter II, along with original definitions (in
italics) of the various classes of symmetry and the principles by which they operate.
Chapters III-IV classify, clarify, and demonstrate, in detail, the three principal classes of
symmetry with numerous examples of manifestations in the standard repertoire and
theory of music. Following this, in Chapter V, a method for discovering musical
symmetry is formulated and discussed with examples and a table of operations.
Chapters VI-VII comprise analyses of sample works from the literature. Those in
Chapter VI are "unspecialized"; that is, they were not known to possess any special
applications or degree of symmetry before the analysis. Those of Chapter VII were
known to contain special characteristics of symmetry, but the full extent of the
symmetry was not known before analysis was undertaken. These analyses should reveal
symmetry as a generally important builder of musical structure.
Chapter VIII demonstrates a possible new extension of the principles of symmetric
operations, used therein to generate new thematic variants. This is followed by a
speculative chapter on the psychology of musical symmetry (Chapter IX).
One of the most important aspects of this dissertation is the demonstration of a common
relationship among musical structures, that of symmetry. All of the following will be
shown to have symmetry as a common denominator:
timbre identity
isorhythmic motets
imitation
sonata rondo
mirror chords
cancrizans
parallel organum
antiphony
vibrato
fauxbourdon
scale formation

trills
compound rondo
compound ternary
invertible counterpoint
ostinati, chaconne
cantus firmus composition
melodic inversion
meter and pulse
augmentation
arch forms
Alberti bass
serial operations
canon, rounds
pitch identity
circle of fifths and sequence
In all of these elements and characteristics, therefore, symmetry, as defined herein, will
appear as the common generator of structure, perhaps the most significant determinant
of musical composition.

Chapter II. Definitions and Principles

A dictionary defines symmetry as "beauty of form arising from balanced proportions. 2.
corresponding in size, shape and relative position of parts on opposite sides of a
dividing line or median plane or about a center or axis. {Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 1194}
Often the term is meant to be synonymous with balance, proportion, or a pleasing
arrangement of the parts to the whole, especially in the arts and music. In order to arrive
at a systematic treatment of symmetry we need a more rigorous definition and one
which, at the same time, is most generally applicable.
Symmetry is here to be defined as a congruence which results from the operations of
reflection, rotation, or translation.
One of the important types of symmetry, and one familiar in everyday life, is called
bilateral or reflective. A figure in two dimensions said to possess such symmetry can be
reflected about a linear axis and made to correspond point for point with its original
image. The following geometric figure is an example.
Figure 5. Illustration of the Reflection Operation.

If figure 5a is reflected, or flipped, about the vertical axis, y, 5b results. Point x1, y1 of
figure 5a is projected into -x1,y1 in 5b, and x2,y2 is projected into -x2,y2. Figure 5b is
congruent to 5a. The operation is mathematically defined as:
T(x,y)= (-x,y)
meaning a transformation upon (x,y) such that it becomes (-x,y). The figure is symmetric
only with respect to one axis, the one bisecting it vertically. The same figure is not
symmetric about an axis such as:
Figure 6. An asymmetric axis.

The following is asymmetric with respect to any axis.

Figure 7. An asymmetric figure.

A test for symmetry involves an operation upon a subject, such as reflection about an
axis, which makes it congruent with the original form. A musical figure such as the one
in the following example is symmetric with respect to an axis of time in a pitch-time
context. The axis is vertical with respect to the notation.
Example 3. Temporal reflection in a musical figure

The axis falls on the fourth sixteenth note. In musical notation, time is represented
horizontally. If the entire figure is reflected about this axis, the result is congruent with
the original, and therefore satisfies the condition for reflective symmetry. In three
dimensions (or three variables such as pitch, time, dynamics) the axis of reflection
becomes a plane. Most musical manifestations, however, will be confined to two
variables. We may refer to their graphic representation in two-dimensional space.
Musical figures may also be symmetric with respect to a tonal axis, or, an axis of pitch.
Pitch is represented vertically in musical notation.
Example 4. Tonal reflection in musical figures.

Example 4a is a reflective chord with an axis of pitch, A4. All the tones sounding above
the A4 have corresponding tones sounding the same distance' below A4 (distance =
interval). If the chord is reflected about the axis tone A, the same chord will result.
Example 4b is a melodic figure sounded with its exact inversion. If the entire example is
flipped about the axis tone A4, an identical figure will result. The following is an
analogous visual example with symmetry about a horizontal axis.
Figure 7. A visual form reflective about the x axis

Reflection again results in an identical figure. The general transformation is:

T(x,y)= (x,-y)
The same principles may be applied to most of the parameters of music which can be
ordered and controlled, e.g., dynamics, texture, tension, tempo, form, etc.

Example 5. Temporally reflective musical figures.

a. p < f > p

b. a tempo ---- accel.---- decel.---- a tempo

c. A B A
All of the above figures are common symmetrical forms encountered in music, all of
which are reflective about a temporal axis.
Another possible symmetry operation is a rotation around a point, or a line in three
variables, exhibited by the letter Z. This letter may be rotated 180 degrees around a
point to create an image identical to the original.
Figure 8. Symmetry by rotation

This letter is said to have an axis of two-fold symmetry since it duplicates itself twice in
a complete revolution. An analogous musical figure is:
Example 6. A rotational figure equivalent to the previous graphic representation

The operation which transforms both of these figures into themselves may be defined as
the 180 degree rotation.
T (x, y) = (-x, -y )
Another example of this type is:
Example 7. Another rotational figure

These figures have an axis of two-fold symmetry. The last is similar to the fugue subject
of The Well Tempered Klavier, Volume I in g minor (the exception being the third
eighth).
A notable rotational form is the retrograde inversion. The 180 degree transformation is
identical to the combined reflection operations; this points out their fundamental
relationship.
There may be occurences of 90 degree rotations in music which result in an axis of fourfold symmetry. Consider the following visual form:
Figure 9. A visual form having 90 degree, four fold symmetry

If we revolve this about the point 0, the figure goes into itself four times, once every 90
degrees of rotation. The transformations may be defined as follows for 90, 180 and 270
degree positions respectively.
T (x,y) = (y -x)
T(x,y) = (-x,-y)
T (x,y) = (-y,x)
The use of this operation upon the variables of pitch and time results in the mutual
exchange of their functions. This creates new transformations which are reserved for
discussion in a later chapter.

Many other types of rotational symmetry occur in nature but seem to have little
application in music. Notable among these are the hexagonal six fold symmetry of
snowflakes, flowers, and the cells of beehives. In three dimensions this principle is
strikingly represented in the science of crystallography where complex systems of
nomenclature and classification have been developed for various levels and
manifestations of symmetry in natural crystals.
Another symmetry operation is exemplified by what some artists call "infinite rapport"
and what will here be called translation. The following ornamental figure will serve as
an example:
Figure 10. Translational symmetry in an ornament

&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
&&&&&&&&&&&
There is a pattern in this which is repeated at a regular spatial rhythm. Similar
manifestations which are common in nature are called metamerisms by zoologists. The
legs of a centipede or the leaflets of a fern are examples. Of course the pattern does not
continue infinitely in its physical manifestation in any of these examples, but one may
call them potentially infinite. An exact image may be moved linearly upon the original
and result in congruences at regular intervals. This operation may be precisely defined.
T(x,y) = (x+na,y) for horizontal translation
T(x,y)= (x,y+na) for vertical translation
Since the operations are iterative, i.e., an operation performed upon itself yields a
similar expression, they may be expressed:
T (x, y) = (x+a, y)
T (x, y ) = (x, y + a)
Translational symmetry is often combined with reflective symmetry in music.
Example 8. Figures with translational and reflective symmetry

a.

b.

Both examples 8a and 8b exhibit translational symmetry at an interval of four eighths,

i.e., T(x,y)= (x+4,y). While example 8b has reflective symmetry as shown by the axes,
example 8a does not.
Of course, it is possible to employ the translation operation in the tonal dimension as
well as the temporal dimension. Such translations are normally combined, i.e., both
tonal and temporal translation simultaneously, as in the following.
Example 9. Translational symmetry in Chopin's Etude, Op. 10, No. 12

The combined iterative transformation may be expressed:

T(x,y)= (x+a,y+b)
Spatial dilation or contraction is a special type of symmetry transformation which will
here be called an automorphism. Two photographs of the same image in different sized
prints have a point for point correspondence. In geometry they would be called similar
figures. A musical idea maintains a similarity if it undergoes a temporal or tonal
automorphism. Augmentation and diminution are traditional examples of this operation.
Relativity of size is a well known phenomenon in the art of perspective and is a
phenomenon of our perception. {Gregory, 147-163} An object may be made to look distant by
making it smaller on a flat surface. In some kinds of space it would be impossible to tell
if an object is smaller or more distant than another.
Automorphisms are linear and multiplicative in function. Consider the following:
Figure 11. A diagram of a horizontally grown branch of maple showing automorphic sizes of leaves.

This figure shows the vertical-horizontal orientation of growth in maple leaves. Notice
the difference in the size of the leaves 11a and 11d, but they are similar in shape. This
illustrates automorphism across a horizontal axis. If leaf 11a is made larger by the
proper amount, or leaf 11d smaller, their symmetry can be shown by reflection. Leaves
11b and 11c grow larger on the bottom than on the top half, and their symmetry can be
shown after a similar automorphism across a horizontal axis. In fact, symmetry can be
demonstrated for the entire figure if an automorphism is performed on one side of the
horizontal axis. If any point above the axis, x1,y1, is expanded by the proper multiplier,
x1,y2 will result. The transformation may be generalized to:
T(x,y)=(x,c1y) where y < 0, (x,c2y) where y >= 0; c1,c2>0
In our example, c2= y1/y2. The transformation can also apply to x, a horizontal dilation.
T (x, y) = (c1x,y) where x<0, (c2x,y) where x>=0; c1,c2>0
A musical example of the last transformation would be:
Example 10. Reflective symmetry by horizontal dilation.

Time is halved, in this example, after the vertical axis and may be expanded by the
multiplier 2.
T(x,y)= 2x,y where x=time and y=pitch

Symmetry is then demonstrated by reflection about the axis. If y=pitch, the following is
also illustrative:
Example 11. Reflective symmetry after a vertical dilation.

Expanding the intervals after the axis by a factor of 2 will yield symmetry by reflection
again.
Automorphisms are not enough by themselves to confirm symmetry. They must be
combined with some previously described operation, such as reflection or translation.
Automorphisms are, therefore, called auxiliary transformations. The operation is
normally carried out before an accompanying primary transformation, i.e., those
previously described.
A striking non-linear type of automorphism occurs in the form of shells of the
chambered nautilus and other animals and plants which can leave a record of their
growth patterns.
Figure 12. Diagram of the structure of the nautilus. shell.

The symmetry here is rotational combined with an automorphism. Each chamber is an

exact copy of another except for size. Similarly, in music, such dilations exist in the
equal tempered scale since the semitone becomes increasingly expanded with respect to
frequency difference the higher we go in pitch.
Figure 13. Automorphic rotation in the equal tempered scale.

All of these symmetry operations, then, can be combined to form our general definition
of symmetry. The reflection and 180 degree rotation are both of the form:
T (x, y ) = (+-x, +-y )
In order to include automorphisms on either side of the vertical axis we need:
(c1x, c2y) where x>0, y>0
T(x,y)= c1, c2, c3, c4>0
(c3x, c4y) where x>0, y<=0
This is our auxiliary transformation which may be further generalized for
automorphisms in all four quadrants.
(b1x, c1y) where x, y > 0
(b2x, c2y) where x <= 0< y ; b1,b2,b3,b4>0
T (x, y ) = (b3x, c3y) where x, y <= 0 ; c1,c2,c3,c4>0
(b4x, c4y) where y <= 0 < x
The primary transformations may be generalized to include the 90 degree rotations.
S1 (x, y) = (+-x+al, +-y+a2)

S2 (x, y ) = (+-y+a1, +-x+a2)

Symmetry exists, therefore, if a congruence results after at least one of the primary
operations or after a combination of auxiliary and primary operations.
By this definition, the following figure can be shown to possess svmmetry.
Figure 14. A figure having some symmetry.

First, the automorphism transformation is applied to the four quadrants independently to

give:
Figure 15. An automorphism of figure 14.

S1 is then applied to reflect this about an axis, yielding a congruence. Although figure l4
is symmetric, its order of symmetry is low.
The order of symmetry is proportional to the number of primary transformations that
can result in a congruence and is less than this amount by an increment for each partial
transformation necessary for congruence.
The automorphism performed above is an example of such a partial transformation. In a
musical ABA, the order of events in the da capo section is normally not the reverse of
the first section. In this respect it is similar to the symmetry of the word DAD as distinct
from that of MOM. Notice that MOM possesses point for point symmetry after the
operation of reflection about an axis of vertical bisection, but DAD does not. Although
DAD is less symmetric than MOM, it is more symmetric than "fly," because a partial
transformation can be performed on DAD before it may be reflected, namely a 180
degree rotation of one of the D's.

The word MOM has a symmetry of order one, whereas DAD is less than one. The word
"fly" has a symmetry order of zero. If no partial transformation is performed on DAD,
one out of three of its letters will be congruent upon reflection. Its degree of symmetry
is said to be 33 per cent, or just 33. The degree of symmetry is determined by the
proportion of congruent points or parts after an operation. Therefore, after both the
partial and reflective transformations of DAD previously mentioned, the degree of
symmetry is 100. The tabulation of DAD's symmetry may be represented:

OPERATIONS

ORDER

DEGREE

33

Reflection
Partial rotation and reflection

<1

100

SAD, however, has only a symmetry order 1, degree 33.

It should be noted that DAD is here examined for point for point symmetry, but if DAD
is regarded as a simple three element figure in which the letters are construed as units
(The shapes of the letters become inconsequential) its symmetry may be generalized as
identical to that of MOM, i.e., order 1, degree 100. Point for point analysis is generally
more thorough, however, and is preferred when possible. Consider the following:
Example 12. Symmetry types in music

a. p < f > p

b. pp < ff > p

Example 12a and d are symmetric by order 1, degree 100. Example 12b is symmetric
after a partial temporal automorphism across the ff axis; the order is <1, degree 100.
Example 12c must have two automorphisms, one of pitch and the other of time, to yield
a lesser order of symmetry than 12b, designated <<1, 100. These may be tabulated as
follows:
PLAY may be reflected about either of the letters A or Y to yield symmetry degree 25.
Note that the degree here is not 50, because separate operations must be carried out for
each letter. OHIO may be reflected about a vertical bisector to yield order 1, degree 50,
or it may'be reflected about a horizontal bisector to yield order 1, degree 100. When two
or more order designations are possible, the one with the highest degree is assigned.
To clarify the preceding exposition the reader may wish to determine the order and
degree of symmetry in the following, point for point:

1. TRAP
2. SOS
3. OHO
4. PRY
5.

6. A B C A
7. p < ff > pp
8.

Answers:
ORDER

DEGREE

OPERATIONS

1. 1
2. 1
3. 3
4. 0
5. 1
6. 1
7. <1
8. <1
reflection.
9. 2
10. 2

25
100
100
0
75
50
100
100

Vertical reflection about T or A

Rotation, 180 degrees
Vertical and horizontal reflection, 180 degree rotation.

100
100

Tonal and temporal reflection

Translation and Temporal reflection.

Translation
Vertical reflection
Partial dynamic automorphism and temporal reflection.
Partial automorphism across second bar and temporal

Some distinction exists between real and tonal congruences, referring to real and tonal
answers in fugue, sequences, and generally in diatonic compensations. A congruence is
to be considered real here if the intervallic correspondences are identical and tonal if
changes are made to conform to a superceding diatonic or similar framework. In either
case, the congruences are strict if there is no departure outside of tonal variation. If, for
example, a canonic voice is in tonal imitation rather than real imitation, it is still
considered in strict congruence. If, however, the canonic voice even briefly breaks the
pattern of imitation, the congruence is no longer strict. In this sense, "strictness"
corresponds to symmetric degree.

Chapter III. Reflection

This chapter is devoted to demonstrating how reflective symmetry is variously
manifested in musical composition and how these manifestations fall into similar and
dissimilar classes. We have seen that the reflection operation involves the turning of a
figure about a linear axis which will result in a congruence. Mathematically, the
operation has been defined as:
T(x,y)= (-x,y) or
T(x,y)= (x,-y)

Tonal Reflection in the Elements of Music

A tonal axis in music, or more specifically an axis of pitch class, may or may not have
temporal dimensions. It is, therefore, appropriate to classify these accordingly. Nontemporal tonal symmetry is especially applicable to unordered pitch class sets, e.g.,
chords and scales and other elements of music. These are notably independent.
"Mirror chords" occur in both modern and traditional styles. The ordinary diminished
triad can be reflected about its central tone to show its symmetry, as in example 13a.
Example 13. Some common chords showing reflective and nonreflective properties

The major chord of example l3b, or a minor chord, cannot be reflected and result in a
congruence as the diminished chord can. The diminished seventh also possesses tonal
symmetry. In example 13c, above, the axis lies between Bb and B. falling outside of the
equal tempered scale. Note that the symmetric properties of these chords are
independent of durations or other aspects of time. Their symmetry is dependent only
upon the arrangement of intervals or tones.
Any pitch set or pitch class set is tonally symmetric if its intervals are all equivalent in
size .
Example 14. Symmetric pitch sets.

Further, any pitch set or pitch class set that switches its interval order across an axis of
pitch is symmetric.
Example 15. Reflective tonal symmetry in pitch sets that switch interval order across an axis of pitch

On this topic it is interesting to note Howard Hanson's theory of involution. In this

theory the intervals of a pitch set are projected in the opposite direction to create a
related sonority. That is, for example, a major chord may be involuted to produce a
minor chord, e.g., C E G --> C Ab F. Hanson classifies the results of this operation as
"simple", "isometric", or "enharmonic".
The first of these results when the operation yields another type of sound, e. g., C E G
--> C Ab F. Isometric involution results in "the same kind of sound," e.g., C E G B -->
Db F Ab C and the enharmonic variety results in the same tones enharmonically, e.g., C
E G# --> a Fb Ab C.

The operation of involution is our reflection operation. It is being used by Hanson to

create new sonorities for composition which are related to the original sonority in a
logical way. It should be noted, however, that a major chord is not "symmetric to a
minor chord"; i.e., a major chord is simply not symmetric. The major and minor chords
are the only asymmetric triads of the standard four. The other two, the diminished and
augmented are built upon single intervals, and are, therefore, tonally symmetric in either
simple or compound forms. The major and minor chords, however, contain mixed
intervals and are not symmetric in themselves, but they are symmetric as a combination.
Example 16. Tonal symmetry " resulting from combinations of major and minor chords.

It can be shown that Hanson's isometric and enharmonic involutions can result only
from operations upon tonally symmetric structures, the enharmonic involutions being
simply special cases of isometric forms. The result after the operation will also
necessarily be symmetric. The involution operation can be considered a reversal of
interval direction. Therefore, if the interval content of the original set is symmetric
about a tonal axis, a reversal of direction (high-low) will result in a congruence having
the "same kind of sound" or even the same tones. A pitch class set which is asymmetric,
however, will not result in a congruence after the same operation since reversal will
change the distribution of intervals.
An automorphism may result from an expansion of the intervals in a set on either side
of the tonal axis .
Example 17. Automorphisms in tonally reflective structures.

In these examples, the intervals on one side of the axis tone may be expanded or
contracted by an amount that will make them equivalent to those on the opposite side.
With the reflective operation, then, a congruence results. Such a set is used in Bartok's
Fourth String Quartet, both in an ordered and unordered way. This set is properly
divided into two parts labeled x and y.
Example 18. Symmetric pitch class sets from Bartok's Fourth String Quartet (after Perle and others:
George Perle, "Symmetric Formations in the String Quartets of Bela Bartok," Music Review, XVI (1955).

Score: Copyright 1939 by Boosey and Hawkes, Inc.

The y set is an automorphism of x, and both are symmetric in themselves or in

combination, i.e., the total set, A. These sets are transposable.
Scales are also unordered pitch class sets which may have symmetric tonal content.
Essential to a scale is the order of tones and the scale's intervallic content. Scale does
not necessarily carry the implication of tonality either, e. g., the chromatic scale and the
whole tone scale, although some do; e. g., the C major scale. A tonal center may serve as
an axis of reflective symmetry, an in the Dorian mode, which has an axis of the pitch
class D.
Example 19. Tonal reflection in the Dorian mode.

The "alternating" scale, a synthetic scale, has similar properties, but it has no axis as
part of the scale.
Example 20. Tonal reflection in the "alternating" octatonic scale, with an axis outside of the scale.

The axis shown above is only one of the many possible in this scale; that is, an axis may
be placed between any two notes of the scale, and it will retain symmetry. The choice of
a tonal center here is not a requisite. A scale such as this also possesses a high degree of
translational symmetry. The intervallic order repeats after every two tones. Every scale
which repeats its intervallic order will have some degree of translational symmetry.
Polymodality can lead to interesting symmetric forms. Although C major is not
reflective in itself, if it is combined with Phrygian on C, the result is symmetric. Lydian
may be combined with Locrian and Aeolian with Mixolydian to obtain similar results. It
is inconsequential that the finals be held in common but are shown as follows for
simplicity.
Example 21. Combinations of modes resulting in symmetric pitch class sets.

Tonal Reflection in Composition

Canons in contrary motion exhibit tonal reflection in the highest degree. Examples are
numerous, but to name a few, they occur in Bach's Musical Offering, the Goldberg
Variations and the Art of Fugue. Some of the greatest tour de forces utilizing symmetric
operations are found in the works of J.S. Bach.
Bach was fond of generating entire works through the use of these operations. The
following is a spectacular example.
Example 22. "Trias Harmonica" in J.S. Bach's handwriting, an eight part puzzle canon in contrary motion.

This eight part canon in contrary motion is notated in its most concise form in Bach's
script, shown in the above example, and it contains all the necessary information, with
its description, for its realization.
Example 23. A realization of "Trias Harmonica" by symmetric operations.

The axis of tonal reflection here is E/Eb, outside of the scale, dividing the tonal motion
between the two choirs. Translation is also performed at a time interval of two quarters
within each choir and at an interval of one quarter at the fifth between choirs. Another
example is a canon from The Musical Offering, notated and realized as follows:
Example 24. Puzzle canon as notated in J.S. Bach's handwriting, from The Musical Offering, and its
realization (in part). Note the upside down treble clef.

Normally, this type of canon is written out fully, but the above examples illustrate that
the full notation is not essential. Most of these shorthand notations directing the
performer to carry out symmetric operations have become obscure, but a few remain
with us. A repeat sign, for instance, eliminates the need for notating large sections of
music repeatedly, and it directs the performer to carry out a large scale temporal
translation.
Dallapicolla's Quaderno di Annalibera contains a fully notated canon in contrary
motion in the twelve tone style. One of the most straightforward uses of contrary motion
as tonal reflection is the concluding statement of the first movement of Bartok's Music
for Strings, Percussion and Celesta.
Example 25. Tonal reflection in the concluding statement of the first movement of Bartok's Music for
Strings, Percussion and Celesta. Copyright 1939 by Boosey and Hawkes.

The following are from Bartok's Fifth String Quartet.

Example 26. Excerpts from Bartok's Fifth String Quartet showing their axes of tonal reflection. Copyright
1939 by Boosey and Hawkes, Inc.
a. Third movement, measure 41.
measure 217.

b. First movement,

These examples are limited in that the inversions are stated simultaneously. Melodic
inversions of any transposition and temporal placement will contain an axis of tonal
symmetry.
Example 27. Temporally displaced inversion, showing tonal reflection, from Bartok's Fourth String
Quartet. Copyright 1939 by Boosey and Hawkes, Inc.

All of these examples are restricted in being of fixed registration. It is entirely possible
to mirror register changes, too. Therefore,it is necessary to make some distinction
between the mirroring of pitches and that of pitch classes.

Chord progressions may also be mirrored tonally. In this case a group of chords centers
on a single or multiple axis.
Example 28. Tonally reflective harmonic progressions with single and multiple axes.

Mirror progressions may also be regarded as more complex examples of melodic

inversion. It is possible, however, that voices may change their positions in the
harmony.
Middleground and background level structures can also exhibit tonal centering. This
centering may occur in melodic turning points, climaxes, voice entries, cadences, etc.
An entire work may be organized symmetrically in several levels of its structure,
including that of registration. An example is the second movement of Webern's
Variations for Piano, Op. 27. The following is a background graph by Peter Westergaard
showing the structure of the whole movement as tonally reflective on the pitch A4,
although, curiously, the graph was not constructed with this purpose in mind, and the
central or axis tone, A, is missing. Notice that the graph is consistent with the actual
registrations in the music.
This work is analyzed further in Chapter VII, and a score is included at the end of that
chapter.
Example 29. Graph showing the background level structure of Webern's Variations for Piano, Op. 27,
second movement. From: Peter Westergaard,"Webern and Total Organization...," Perspectives of New
Music, I (1963), p. 120.

Rudolph Reti has abstracted large scale key changes and relates them to motivic cells.
His analysis of the key structure in the movements of Beethoven's "Pathetique" sonata is
apropos..
Example 30. Tonal reflection in the key structure of "parallel" movements of Beethoven's "Pathetique"
sonata, after Rudolph Reti, Thematic Patterns in Sonatas of Beethoven (N.Y.: MacMillan, 1967),69.

Spatial Reflection
The various forms of symmetry in music may be classified according to their type of
axis and operation. Axes ordinarily occur in time, space, or pitch; they may occur in
other dimensions, but the three most common classes of reflective symmetry, defined by
their axes, are temporal, tonal (pitch), and spatial. The first two of these have been most
important compositionally.

Spatial reflection was exploited early in the antiphonal tradition of Syriac Chant. This
took the form of groups of singers in opposite locations. The reflection was temporal as
they responded antiphonally to one another. Ambrose apparently developed a special
method of composition for this spatial music. The clear division in space is often held as
essential to antiphonal chant.
The Venetian polychoral school later continued this tradition. Willaert and the Gabrielis
developed compositional procedures utilizing cori spezzati. The principles of imitative
counterpoint were abstracted to spatial imitation employing the translation operation.
This was continued into the Baroque with the development of the concerto, but the
spatial dimension then became less significant.
Many contemporary composers have become interested in spatial composition,
foreshadowed by such works as Varese's Deserts and Ives's The Unanswered Question.
Henry Brant and Karlheinz Stockhausen have tried to formulate compositional methods
for the use of space. Many of these employ symmetric divisions.
Example 31. Spatial plans by contemporary composers having reflective symmetry; a. placement of
performers in relationship to an audience by Henry Brant,"Space as an Essential Aspect of Musical
Composition," in Contemporary Composers on Contemporary Music (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and
Winston,1967),229; b. placement of sound sources to correlate with binaural perception by Karlheinz
Stockhausen, "Music in Space," in Die Reihe, V (1959), 77.

Space may also be used to divide music which is polytonal into distinct tonal choirs.
Such a division is used in Ives's "Putnam's Camp" from Three places in New England,
as well as in The Unanswered Question and other of his orchestral works. A section in
"Putnam's Camp" alludes to Ives's childhood recollection of the marching bands of local
rival football teams, each playing their own march and trying to outplay the other as
they converged on the village green. The two bands were playing in different keys,
speeds and rhythms. Space is used in "Putnam's Camp" to separate the simultaneous
tonalities of reflected timbres.
The recent interest in the compositional resources of timbre have led to its alliance with
spatial divisions and symmetry. Simple examples of this are found early in the history of
music, e.g., in responsorial chant. In the nineteenth century Berlioz employed spatial
divisions of timbre in his Requiem and other works, and more recent examples are
found in Vaughan Williams's Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis and Bartok's Music
for Strings, Percussion and Celesta, the last of which is discussed in detail in a later
chapter.

Temporal Reflection
Temporal organization is critical for music, and the principles of temporal organization
have been highly developed. Reflective relationships are among the most common.
Consider the movement of tones in time.
Example 32. Reflective patterns in time: a. from Stravinsky's Petroushka, second tableau; b. from
Chopin's Etude, Op. 10, No. 12.

The second halves of 32a and 32b are retrogrades of their first halves. Note, however,
that non-pitch symmetry is preserved after the operation of reflection of 32a only with
respect to the order of notes, rather than in real time.
The order of the tones is the principle aspect of symmetry here. Many similar examples
may be found throughout the literature. One of the most dramatic occurs at the climax
of the third movement of Bartok's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta across bar
48.
Example 33. Temporal reflection at the climax of Bartok's Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta,
third movement. Copyright 1939 by Boosey and Hawkes.

This bar also acts as an axis of symmetry on a large scale of the four movement
structure. Compared to a simple ABA, the order of symmetry in the above retrograde is
higher, namely order 1. The degree of symmetry, however, is the same in both, 100.

Historically, the use of cancrizans, or retrograde, is usually connected with medieval/

early renaissance (14th-15th centuries) styles or with modern music, and almost
exclusively so. However, this is somewhat of a misconception since this operation was
used throughout the history of music. To illustrate, let us begin with Machaut's Ma fin
est mon commencement et mon commencement ma fin. The upper two voices are in
retrograded invertible counterpoint with an axis of reflection at bar 21, and the
countertenor is reversed from its midpoint at the same bar; these reversals are meant to
enhance the meaning of the text. The degree of symmetry for the entire piece is the
highest possible, 100, but the order is less than one due to the necessary partial
reflection of the upper two voices after the complete reflection about bar 21.
Example 34. Temporal reflection in Machaut's Ma fin est mon commencement

The Diliges Dominum of William Byrd's Cantiones Sacrae (1575) is an eight voice
cancrizans. Analyzing this work for any unusual restrictions which may be the result of
the imposed cancrizans, we find the following. Despite its use of imitation, the piece is
strongly homophonic. Simple triads are used without exception, most of which are in
root position, and the number of different simultaneous pitches generally does not
exceed four. Root movement is almost exclusively by thirds, fourths and fifths. Note the
absence of seconds, with the exception of the III IV movement before the cadence at the
center, bar 16. Curiously, there are no non-harmonic tones. From the harmonic point of
view, then, the work is quite simple and greatly restricted. The main interest should lie
in the counterpoint, but this is obscured by the rich texture and simple harmonic
structure.

The precompositional cancrizans is probably most responsible for the severe restrictions
on harmonic and rhythmic motion. The lines do not change register after the axis, and,
therefore, preserve the position of the bass line. Both this example and the Machaut
exhibit harmonic retrograde, i.e., the cancrizans is effected in the harmonic progression
as well as in the individual lines.
Example 35. A harmonic reduction of Byrd's Diliges Dominum, central portion, showing temporal
reflection across the central axis.

A retrograde canon occurs in J.S. Bach's The Musical Offering, again using a condensed
form of notation which requires one of the performers to flip the page and read
backwards, a reflection operation. Note the backward facing symbols at the end.
Example 36. The original notation of Bach's retrograde canon from The Musical Offering, requiring a
performer to carry out a time reflection.

From the classical era, in Haydn's Sonata No. 4 for Violin and Piano, the Menuetto at
rovescio, the entire movement can be played forward or backward with equal results.
This is due to the cancrizans' structure, and it is particularly interesting because such
devices are not normally associated with the style.
Example 37. Temporal reflection in Haydn's Menuetto al rovescio, from the Sonata No. 4 for Violin and
Piano: piano part only, showing two parts which are mirrored. Axis is measure 11.

In Beethoven's "Hammerklavier Sonata", Op. 106, retrograde motion is frequent in the

last movement. What is remarkable is the length of the fugue subject and the
corresponding length of the retrograde form.
Example 38. Retrograde in Beethoven's "Hammerklavier Sonata", Op. 106, last movement.

Retrograde motion is common in twelve tone music, both in terms of row variation and
in compositional construction. However, even before the development of the twelve
tone method, Schoenberg used symmetrical constructs compositionally. One of the most
striking examples is the four part double canon from Pierre Lunaire, No. 18. The canon
is reversed, a cancrizans, from the tenth measure. The complexity of this piece is
compounded by the piano part (not a part of the canon).
The classic examples of symmetry in the serial style are found in the late works of
Webern.
Example 39. Reflective orderings of pitch class sets in two of Webern's rows as analyzed by Pierre
Boulez, Boulez on Music Today (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard,1971),71.

Reflective tonal landmarks are found in most works to some degree. Any work which
starts and ends in the same key has some symmetry, but not all do so. Franz Liszt's
Hungarian Rhapsodies are asymmetric in this respect. It is remarkable, however, that so
many works in the literature have this type of symmetry in common. Some will even
retrace the intermediate steps of modulation, for example:

In this case, the keys are arranged in retrograde.

A musical ABA is symmetrical in the same way as a cancrizans. The former, however, is
a more general construct. Simple ternary forms are common in music. Only a few types
need be mentioned here: the da capo song form, minuet and trio, scherzo, and certain
sonata-allegros. Chopin's Nocturnes are frequently in simple ternary. Other forms may
show several levels of reciprocity:
a. The simple rondo: A B A B A
Example: Beethoven's Rondos
b. The compound rondo: A B
aba

A B
aba

A
aba

Example: Clementi, piano Sonata No. 5, last movement.

c. Compound ternary:

A
B
A
aba cdc aba
or c

Example: Brahms, Symphony No. 3, third movement.

d. Sonata rondo: A
keys: I

B A
V I

C A B A
R
I
I
I

Example: Mozart's Trio in Bb, K. 502, last mvmt.

All of the above forms are examples of symmetrical forms, synonymous with sectional
retrogrades. Another of this type is A B C B A, not uncommon, which may be found in
Brahm's Rhapsody in Eb, Op. 119, No. 4 and Chopin's Mazurka, Op. 56, No. 2. Slightly
more complex is the "arch" found in Chopin's Waltz, Op. 34, No. 1: A B C D C B A.
Robert Schumann analyzed Berlioz's Fantastic Symphony, first movement, as an arch,
and Edward T. Cone has later expanded upon this.
Example 40. Edward T. Cone's expanded analysis of Robert Schumann's on Berlioz's Fantastic
Symphony, first movement, from: Edward T. Cone, "Schumann Amplified," in Berlioz: Fantastic
Symphony (New York: Norton, 1971), 252.

Theme A
Episode - - - - - - - - - - - - Transition
Theme B :|| {Development of Theme A&B} - - - - - - - - Dev. and Recap of Theme B
Transition with Cadential Phrase - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Recap & (Dev of Th. A)
of Cad. Phr.
||: Theme A - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Recap of Th. A
Introduction - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Coda
mea: 72
234

111
280

150
313

168
331

360

200
412

477

J.S. Bach used large scale reflective symmetry to organize many of his multi-movement
works.
Example 41. The order of pieces in J.S. Bach's The Musical Offering, showing temporal reflection.

ricercar

5 canons
trio sonata
5 canons
ricercar
|_______________________|
|____________________________________________|

The movements of Bach's cantatas are frequently arranged in a similar order.

Example 42. Reflective arrangement of the movements of Bach's Christ lag in Todesbanden, adapted
from Gerhard Hertz, ea., Bach, Cantata No. 4 (New York: Norton, 1967),85.
Sinfonia
+ versus
c.f.:
orch.:

I
chorus
S,A,T,B
full

II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
duet
solo
quartet
solo
duet
chorus
S,A
T
S,A,T,B
B
S,T
S,A,T,B
cor.trb cont,Vl.1-2
cont.
Vl,Vlas, cont. cont.
full
|__________________|
|______________________________________|
|____________________________________________________________|

Other cantatas of similar structure are Nos. 56, 78, 106, and 140, and in other of Bach's
works: the canonic variations on Von Himmel hoch for organ and the motet Jesu, Meine
Freude.
In Hindemith's one act opera Hin und Zuruck (There and Back) the action proceeds to
the midpoint, where the jealous husband shoots his wife, and then all goes in reverse,
not in perfect cancrizans, but, more or less section by section. The music, too, follows
this plan. The Fuga tertia in F of Hindemith's Ludus Tonalis is a cancrizans with an axis
in measure 32. The Praeludium and Postludium of this work are retrograde inversions
of one another, and, on a large scale, the following plan is revealed.
Example 43. A diagram of the order of the parts of Hindemith's Ludus Tonalis showing the overall
reflective pattern; from: Ian Kemp, Hindemith (London: Oxford, 1970),49.
Fugue 6 (arch form)
Fugue 5 (a a b form)
Fugue 4 (double fugue)
Fugue 3 (repeat by retrograde)
Fugue 2 (Stretto fugue)

Fugue 7 (arch form)

Fugue 8 (a a b form)
Fugue 9 (I+R)
Fugue 10 (repeat I)
Fugue ll(canon)

Fugue I (Triple fugue)

Praeludium

Fugue 12 (binary)
Postludium

That these operations are still being used by contemporary composers is evidenced in
the works of such widely different composers as John Cage, Milton Babbitt, Luigi
Dallapiccola and others.
Example 44. Outline of the Reflective plan of John Cage's Sonatas and InterZudes, from: David H. Porter,
"Reflective Symmetry in Music and Literature," Perspectives of New Music,VIII/2 (1970),418.

Sonatas I-IV
Interlude I
Sonatas V-VIII
Interlude II
Interlude III
Sonatas IX-XII
Interlude IV
Sonatas XIII-XVI
The recurrence of a' section normally carries the connotation of related lengths.
However, such a recurrence is not necessarily defined in terms of length. At times this is
stretched considerably to include relationships between sections of like content but of
very different lengths. A separate category is needed to accomodate temporal length for
both sections of related and unrelated content.
The sections of the following example are indicated to be unrelated in content, but the
length of the sections are related reflectively in time about the axis section, C. This
relationship may be appropriately called durational reciprocity.
Example 45. The reflection of durations.

A
No.of measures: 5

B
8

C
10

D
8

E
5

At first glance, the next example may not seem to possess any durational reciprocity.
Example 46. A reflective form with sectional durations specified
.
A
unit length of time: 15

C
5

10

B
4

A
2

However, close inspection reveals an automorphism in the proportional lengths of the

sections across the axis.
Example 47. Proportional lengths of the form in example 46.

A
3

B
: 1 :

|
2

C
|

B
2 : 1

A
: 3

The third movement of Bartok's Fourth String Quartet is an illustration of such an

automorphism. The divisions between sections are clear and may be outlined in
numbers of measures, as follows:
Example 48. A diagram of the durations of sections in measures, of the third movement of Bartok's
Fourth String Quartet.

|
|

A
13 |

|
|

13

B
|

|
|

A' |
|

B' |
|

Sections A and B are related by durational reciprocity after an automorphism:

13 : 8 : 13 ~ 8 : 5 : 8
A' and B' are obviously related in duration without the need for automorphism.
Music may also have reflective temporal relationships in tempos, such as fast-slow-fast
which commonly exist in the movements of a sonata, concerto, etc. Texture is
frequently governed reflectively in time when approaching and receding from climaxes,
in the same way as dynamics.