electric field is away from +ve charge and towards the -ve charge.

E=F/q
Definition[edit]
The electric field \mathbf{E} at a given point is defined as the (vectorial) for
ce \mathbf{F} that would be exerted on a stationary test particle of unit charge
by electromagnetic forces (i.e. the Lorentz force). A particle of charge q woul
d be subject to a force \mathbf{F}=q.\mathbf{E}.
Its SI units are newtons per coulomb (NC1) or, equivalently, volts per metre (Vm1),
which in terms of SI base units are kgms3A1.
Sources of electric field[edit]
Causes and description[edit]
Electric fields are caused by electric charges or varying magnetic fields. The f
ormer effect is described by Gauss's law, the latter by Faraday's law of inducti
on, which together are enough to define the behavior of the electric field as a
function of charge repartition and magnetic field. However, since the magnetic f
ield is described as a function of electric field, the equations of both fields
are coupled and together form Maxwell's equations that describe both fields as a
function of charges and currents.
In the special case of a steady state (stationary charges and currents), the Max
well Faraday inductive effect disappears. The resulting two equations (Gauss's l
aw \nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \frac{\rho}{\varepsilon_0} and Faraday's law with n
o induction term \nabla \times \mathbf{E} = 0), taken together, are equivalent t
o Coulomb's law, written as \boldsymbol{E}(\boldsymbol{r}) = {1\over 4\pi\vareps
ilon_0}\int d\boldsymbol{r'} \rho(\boldsymbol{r'}) {\boldsymbol{r}
\boldsymbol
{r'} \over |\boldsymbol{r} \boldsymbol{r'}|^3} for a charge density \mathbf{\r
ho}(\mathbf{r}) (\mathbf{r} denotes the position in space). Notice that \varepsi
lon_0, the permittivity of vacuum, must be substituted if charges are considered
in non empty medium.
Continuous vs. discrete charge repartition[edit]
Main article: Charge density
The equations of electromagnetism are best described in a continuous description
. However, charges are sometimes best described as discrete points; for example,
some models may describe electrons as punctual sources where charge density is
infinite on an infinitesimal section of space.
A charge q located in \mathbf{r_0} can be described mathematically as a charge d
ensity \rho(\mathbf{r})=q\delta(\mathbf{r r_0}), where the Dirac delta function
(in three dimensions) is used. Conversely, a charge distribution can be approxim
ated by many small punctual charges.
Superposition principle[edit]
Electric fields satisfy the superposition principle, because Maxwell's equations
are linear. As a result, if \mathbf{E}_1 and \mathbf{E}_2 are the electric fiel
ds resulting from distribution of charges \rho_1 and \rho_2, a distribution of c
harges \rho_1+\rho_2 will create an electric field \mathbf{E}_1+\mathbf{E}_2; fo
r instance, Coulomb's law is linear in charge density as well.
This principle is useful to calculate the field created by multiple point charge
s. If charges q_1, q_2, ..., q_n are stationary in space at \mathbf{r}_1,\mathbf
{r}_2,...\mathbf{r}_n, in the absence of currents, the superposition principle p
roves that the resulting field is the sum of fields generated by each particle a
s described by Coulomb's law:
\mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}) = \sum_{i=1}^N \mathbf{E}_i(\mathbf{r}) =
\frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \sum_{i=1}^N q_i \frac{\mathbf{r} \mathbf{r}_i}{|\ma
thbf{r} \mathbf{r}_i|^3}

Electrostatic fields[edit]
Main article: Electrostatics
Illustration of the electric field surrounding a positive (red) and a negative (
blue) charge.
Electric field between two conductors
Electrostatic fields are E fields which do not change with time, which happens w
hen charges and currents are stationary. In that case, Coulomb's law fully descr
ibes the field.
Electric potential[edit]
Main article: Conservative vector field Irrotational vector fields
By Faraday's law, the electric field has zero curl. One can then define an elect
ric potential, that is, a function \Phi such that \mathbf{E} = \nabla \Phi .[1
] This is analogous to the gravitational potential.
Parallels between electrostatic and gravitational fields[edit]
Coulomb's law, which describes the interaction of electric charges:
\mathbf{F}=q\left(\frac{Q}{4\pi\varepsilon_0}\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}}{|\mathbf{r}
|^2}\right)=q\mathbf{E}
is similar to Newton's law of universal gravitation:
\mathbf{F}=m\left( GM\frac{\mathbf{\hat{r}}}{|\mathbf{r}|^2}\right)=m\mathbf{g}
(where \mathbf{\hat{r}}=\mathbf{\frac{r}{|r|}}).
This suggests similarities between the electric field E and the gravitational fi
eld g, or their associated potentials. Mass is sometimes called "gravitational c
harge" because of that similarity.[citation needed]
Electrostatic and gravitational forces both are central, conservative and obey a
n inverse square law.
Uniform fields[edit]
A uniform field is one in which the electric field is constant at every point. I
t can be approximated by placing two conducting plates parallel to each other an
d maintaining a voltage (potential difference) between them; it is only an appro
ximation because of boundary effects (near the edge of the planes, electric fiel
d is distorted because the plane does not continue). Assuming infinite planes, t
he magnitude of the electric field E is:
E = \frac{\Delta\phi}{d}
where is the potential difference between the plates and d is the distance separa
ting the plates. The negative sign arises as positive charges repel, so a positi
ve charge will experience a force away from the positively charged plate, in the
opposite direction to that in which the voltage increases. In micro and nanoap
plications, for instance in relation to semiconductors, a typical magnitude of a
n electric field is in the order of 10^6\ V.m^{ 1}, achieved by applying a volta
ge of the order of 1 volt between conductors spaced 1 m apart.
Electrodynamic fields[edit]
Main article: Electrodynamics
Electrodynamic fields are E fields which do change with time, for instance when
charges are in motion.
The electric field cannot be described independently of the magnetic field in th
at case. If A is the magnetic vector potential, defined so that \mathbf{B} =

\nabla \times \mathbf{A} , one can still define an electric potential \Phi such
that:
\mathbf{E} = \nabla \Phi
\frac { \partial \mathbf{A} } { \partial t }
One can recover Faraday's law of induction by taking the curl of that equation
[2]
\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \frac{\partial (\nabla \times \mathbf{A})} {\partial
t}=
\frac{\partial \mathbf{B}} {\partial t}
which justifies, a posteriori, the previous form for E.
Energy in the electric field[edit]
If the magnetic field B is nonzero,
The total energy per unit volume stored by the electromagnetic field is[3]
u_{EM} = \frac{\varepsilon}{2} |\mathbf{E}|^2 + \frac{1}{2\mu} |\mathbf{B}|^2
where is th
p
rmittivity of th
m
dium in which th
fi
ld
xists, \mu its magn

tic p
rm
ability, and E and B ar
th

l
ctric and magn
tic fi
ld v
ctors.
As E and B fi
lds ar
coupl
d, it would b
misl
ading to split this
xpr
ssion i
nto "
l
ctric" and "magn
tic" contributions. How
v
r, in th
st
ady-stat
cas
,
th
fi
lds ar
no long
r coupl
d (s

Maxw
ll's
quations). It mak
s s
ns
in th
at cas
to comput
th

l
ctrostatic
n
rgy p
r unit volum
:
u_{ES} = \frac{1}{2} \var
psilon |\mathbf{E}|^2 \, ,
Th
total
n
rgy U stor
d in th

l
ctric fi
ld in a giv
n volum
V is th
r
for

U_{ES} = \frac{1}{2} \var
psilon \int_{V} |\mathbf{E}|^2 \, \mathrm{d}V \, ,
Furth
r
xt
nsions[
dit]
D
finitiv

quation of v
ctor fi
lds[
dit]
S

also: D
fining
quation (physics) and List of
l
ctromagn
tism
quations
In th
pr
s
nc
of matt
r, it is h
lpful in
l
ctromagn
tism to
xt
nd th
notio
n of th

l
ctric fi
ld into thr

v
ctor fi
lds, rath
r than just on
:[4]
\mathbf{D}=\var
psilon_0\mathbf{E}+\mathbf{P}\!
wh
r
P is th

l
ctric polarization th
volum
d
nsity of
l
ctric dipol
mom
n
ts, and D is th

l
ctric displac
m
nt fi
ld. Sinc
E and P ar
d
fin
d s
parat

ly, this
quation can b
us
d to d
fin
D. Th
physical int
rpr
tation of D is n
ot as cl
ar as E (
ff
ctiv
ly th
fi
ld appli
d to th
mat
rial) or P (induc
d f
i
ld du
to th
dipol
s in th
mat
rial), but still s
rv
s as a conv
ni
nt math

matical simplification, sinc
Maxw
ll's
quations can b
simplifi
d in t
rms of
fr

charg
s and curr
nts.
Constitutiv
r
lation[
dit]
Main articl
: Constitutiv

quation
Th
E and D fi
lds ar
r
lat
d by th
p
rmittivity of th
mat
rial, .[5][6]
For lin
ar, homog
n
ous, isotropic mat
rials E and D ar
proportional and consta
nt throughout th
r
gion, th
r
is no position d
p
nd
nc
: For inhomog
n
ous mat

rials, th
r
is a position d
p
nd
nc
throughout th
mat
rial:
\mathbf{D(r)}=\var
psilon\mathbf{E(r)}
For anisotropic mat
rials th
E and D fi
lds ar
not parall
l, and so E and D ar

r
lat
d by th
p
rmittivity t
nsor (a 2nd ord
r t
nsor fi
ld), in compon
nt fo
rm:
D_i=\var
psilon_{ij}E_j
For non-lin
ar m
dia, E and D ar
not proportional. Mat
rials can hav
varying

xt
nts of lin
arity, homog
n
ity and isotropy.