Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ureteral Calculi
Ureteral Calculi
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European Association of Urology
Ureteroscopy............................................................................................................................. 42
Percutaneous Antegrade Ureteroscopy..................................................................................... 44
Laparoscopic and Open Stone Surgery..................................................................................... 45
Special Considerations.............................................................................................................. 46
Pregnancy ................................................................................................................. 46
Pediatrics .................................................................................................................. 47
Cystine Stones ........................................................................................................... 48
Uric acid Stones ........................................................................................................ 49
Research and Future Directions .................................................................................................... 49
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc. and
European Association of Urology
Introduction
The American Urological Association (AUA) Nephrolithiasis Clinical Guideline
Panel was established in 1991. Since that time, the Panel has developed three guidelines
on the management of nephrolithiasis, the most recent being a 2005 update of the original
1994 Report on the Management of Staghorn Calculi.1 The European Association of
Urology (EAU) began their nephrolithiasis guideline project in 2000, yielding the
publication of Guidelines on Urolithiasis, with updates in 2001 and 2006.2 While both
documents provide useful recommendations on the management of ureteral calculi,
changes in shock-wave lithotripsy (SWL) technology, endoscope design, intracorporeal
lithotripsy techniques, and laparoscopic expertise have burgeoned over the past five to
ten years.
Under the sage leadership of the late Dr. Joseph W. Segura, the AUA Practice
Guidelines Committee suggested to both the AUA and the EAU that they join efforts in
developing the first set of internationally endorsed guidelines focusing on the changes
introduced in ureteral stone management over the last decade. We therefore dedicate this
report to the memory of Dr. Joseph W. Segura whose vision, integrity, and perseverance
led to the establishment of the first international guideline project.
This joint EAU/AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel (hereinafter the Panel)
performed a systematic review of the English language literature published since 1997
and a comprehensively analyzed outcomes data from the identified studies.
Based on their findings, the Panel concluded that when removal becomes
necessary, SWL and ureteroscopy (URS) remain the two primary treatment modalities for
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Methodology
The Panel initially discussed the scope of the guideline and the methodology,
which would be similar to that used in developing the previous AUA guideline. All
treatments commonly employed in the United States and/or Europe were included in this
report except for those that were explicitly excluded in the previous guideline or newer
treatments for which insufficient literature existed. In the analysis, patient data were
stratified by age (adult versus child), stone size, stone location, and stone composition.
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Later, however, the data were found to be insufficient to allow analysis by composition.
The outcomes deemed by the Panel to be of particular interest to the patient included the
following: stone-free rate, number of procedures performed, stone-passage rate or
probability of spontaneous passage, and complications of treatment. The Panel did not
examine economic effects, including treatment costs.
Outcomes were stratified by stone location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and
by stone size (dichotomized as 10 mm and >10 mm for surgical interventions, and 5
mm and >5 mm for medical interventions and observation where possible; exceptions
were made when data were reported, for example as <10 mm and 10 mm). The mid
ureter is the part of the ureter that overlies the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter
that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter
is below. Treatments were divided into three broad groups:
1. Observation and medical therapy
2. Shock-wave lithotripsy and ureteroscopy
3. Open surgery, laparoscopic stone removal, or percutaneous antegrade
ureteroscopy.
The review of the evidence began with a literature search and data extraction.
Articles were selected from a database of papers derived from MEDLINE searches
dealing with all forms of urinary tract stones. This database was maintained by a Panel
chair. The abstract of each paper was independently reviewed by an American and a
European Panel member, and articles were selected for data extraction if any panel
member felt it might have useful data. Additional articles were suggested by Panel
members or found as references in review articles. In total, 348 citations entered the
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methods for analyzing data from studies that are not randomized controlled trials (RCTs).
The Fast*Pro computer software4 was used in the analysis. This program provides
posterior distributions from meta-analyses from which the median can be used as a best
estimate, and the central 95% of the distribution serves as a confidence interval (CI).
Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level (two-tailed) was inferred when zero was not
included in the CI.
Because of the paucity of controlled trials found on literature review, however,
the outcome for each intervention was estimated by combining single arms from various
clinical series. These clinical series frequently had very different outcomes, likely due to
a combination of site-to-site variations in patient populations, in the performance of the
intervention, in the skill of those performing the intervention, and different methods of
determining stone-free status. Given these differences, a random-effects, or hierarchical,
model was used to combine the studies.
Evidence from the studies meeting the inclusion criteria and reporting a given
outcome was combined within each treatment modality. Graphs showing the results for
each modality were developed to demonstrate similarities and differences between
treatments.
The available data for procedures per patient would not permit a statistical
analysis using these techniques. Unlike the binary outcome of stone-free status (the
patient either is or is not stone free), the number of procedures per patient is a discrete
rate. In some cases discrete rates can be approximated with a continuous rate, but in order
to meta-analyze continuous rates, a measure of variance (e.g., standard deviation,
standard error) is needed in addition to the mean. Unfortunately, measures of variance
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were rarely reported in the studies reviewed. As a result, numbers of procedures per
patient were evaluated by calculating the average across studies weighted by the number
of patients in each study. Procedures per patient were counted in three totals: primary
procedures, secondary procedures, and adjunctive procedures. Primary procedures were
all consecutive procedures of the same type aimed at removing the stone. Secondary
procedures were all other procedures used to remove the stone. Adjunctive procedures
were defined as additional procedures that do not involve active stone removal. One
difficulty in estimating the total number of procedures per patient is that secondary and
adjunctive procedures were not reported consistently. Since the Panel had decided to
analyze primary, secondary, and adjunctive procedures separately, only studies that
specifically reported data on a type of procedure were included in estimates for that
procedure type. This approach may have overestimated numbers of secondary and
adjunctive procedures because some articles may not have reported that procedures were
not performed.
It is important to note that, for certain outcomes, more data were reported for one
or another treatment modality. While resulting CIs reflect available data, the probabilities
for certain outcomes can vary widely within one treatment modality. In addition, the fact
that data from only a few RCTs could be evaluated may have somewhat biased results.
For example, differences in patient selection may have had more weight in analyses than
differing treatment effects. Nevertheless, the results obtained reflect the best outcome
estimates presently available.
Studies that reported numbers of patients who were stone free after primary
procedures were included in the stone-free analysis. Studies that reported only the
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combined number of patients who either were stone free or had clinically insignificant
fragments were excluded. Many studies did not indicate how or when stone-free status
was determined. The stone-free rate was considered at three time points: after the first
procedure, after all consecutive procedures using the primary treatment, and after the
total treatments.
Initially, the Panel divided complications into three broad categories: acute, longterm, and medical; however, after examining the available evidence, the Panel
determined that this breakdown was not useful. Several factors caused inaccuracy in the
estimates, but did so in opposite directions, thereby reducing the magnitude of
inaccuracy. For example, including studies that did not specifically mention that there
were no occurrences of a specific complication may have led to overestimates of
complication rates when meta-analyzed. By combining similar complications, the Panel
also potentially mitigated the overestimate by making it more likely that a complication
in the class was reported. The probability that a patient will have a complication may
still be overstated slightly because some patients experienced multiple complications.
Since the grouping of complications varies by study, the result of the meta-analysis is
best interpreted as the mean number of complications that a patient may experience rather
than as the probability of having a complication. Moreover, since reporting of
complications is not consistent, the estimated rates given here are probably less accurate
than the CIs would indicate. There were insufficient data to permit meaningful metaanalyses of patient deaths.
Data analyses were conducted for two age groups. One analysis included studies
of patients ages 18 or younger (or identified as pediatric patients in the article without
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specifying age ranges). The adult analysis included all other studies even if children were
included.
After the evidence was combined and outcome tables were produced, the Panel
met to review the results and identify anomalies. From the evidence in the outcome tables
and expert opinion, the Panel drafted the treatment guidelines.
In this guideline the standard, recommendations, and options given were rated
according to the levels of evidence published from the U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, Public Health Service, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research:5
Ia.
Ib.
IIa.
IIb.
Evidence obtained from at least one other type of well-designed quasiexperimental study
III.
IV.
As in the previous AUA guideline, the present statements are graded with respect
to the degree of flexibility in application. Although the terminology has changed slightly,
from the original AUA reports, the current three levels are essentially the same. A
"standard" is the most rigid treatment policy. A "recommendation" has significantly less
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rigidity, and an "option" has the largest amount of flexibility. These terms are defined as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
Option: A guideline statement is an option if: (1) the health outcomes of the
interventions are not sufficiently well known to permit meaningful decisions,
or (2) preferences are unknown or equivocal.
The draft was sent to 81 peer reviewers of whom 26 provided comments; the
Panel revised the document based on the comments received. The guideline was
submitted first for approval to the Practice Guidelines Committee of the AUA and the
Guidelines Office of the EAU and then forwarded to the AUA Board of Directors and the
EAU Board for final approval.
The guideline is posted on the American Urological Association website,
www.auanet.org, and on the European Association of Urology website,
www.uroweb.org. Chapter 1 will be published in The Journal of Urology and in
European Urology.
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blockers (280 patients); the meta-analysis yielded a stone-passage rate of 81% (95% CI:
72% to 88%).
The second method was a standard Bayesian hierarchical meta-analysis of the
available RCTs that compared either nifedipine or alpha blockers to control therapies.
The results for nifedipine showed an absolute increase of 9% in stone-passage rates (95%
CI: -7% to 25%), which was not statistically significant. Meta-analysis of alpha blockers
versus control showed an absolute increase of 29% in the stone-passage rate (95% CI:
20% to 37%), which was statistically significant.
The Panel also attempted to determine whether alpha blockers provide superior
stone passage when compared to nifedipine. Two randomized controlled trials were
identified. When hierarchical meta-analysis was performed on these two studies,
tamsulosin provided an absolute increase in stone-passage rate of 14% (95% CI: -4% to
32%) which was not statistically significant. When nonhierarchical methods were used,
the stone-passage improvement increased to 16% (95% CI: 7% to 26%) which was
statistically significant. Finally, the Panel used the results of the meta-analyses versus
controls (second method above) to determine the difference between alpha blockers and
calcium channel blockers. This method allows the use of more data but is risky since it
depends on the control groups having comparable results. The analysis yielded a 20%
improvement in stone-passage rates with alpha blockers, and the 95% CI of 1% to 37%
just reached statistical significance.
13
situ SWL as well as differences between lithotripters. Most differences were minimal and
did not reach statistical significance. For that reason, the data presented in this Chapter
compare the meta-analysis of all forms of SWL to the meta-analysis of all forms of URS.
The Panel also attempted to differentiate between flexible and rigid ureteroscopes.
Details of the breakdowns by type of SWL and URS are given in Chapter 3. Data were
analyzed for both efficacy and complications. Two efficacy outcomes were analyzed:
stone-free rate and procedure counts. Complications were grouped into classes. The most
important classes are reported herein. The full complication results are in Appendix 10.
Analyses were performed for the following patient groups where data were
available.
1. Proximal stones 10 mm
2. Proximal stones >10 mm
3. Proximal stones regardless of size
4. Mid-ureteral stones 10 mm
5. Mid-ureteral stones >10 mm
6. Mid-ureteral stones regardless of size
7. Distal stones 10 mm
8. Distal stones >10 mm
9. Distal stones regardless of size
Analyses of pediatric groups were attempted for the same nine groups, although
data were lacking for many groups.
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Efficacy Outcomes
Stone-free rates
The Panel decided to analyze a single stone-free rate. If the study reported the
stone-free rate after all primary procedures, that number was used. If not and the study
reported the stone-free rate after the first procedure, then that number was used. The
intention of the Panel was to provide an estimate of the number of primary procedures
and the stone-free rate after those procedures. There is a lack of uniformity in the
literature in reporting the time to stone-free status, thereby limiting the ability to
comment on the timing of this parameter.
The results of the meta-analysis of stone-free data are presented for the overall
group in Table 1 and Figure 1. The results are presented as medians of the posterior
distribution (best central estimate) with 95% Bayesian CIs (credible intervals [CIs]).
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Table 1. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
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Figure 1. Stone-Free Rates for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
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This analysis shows that overall, for stones in the proximal ureter (n=8,670), there
was no difference in stone-free rates between SWL and URS. However, for proximal
ureteral stones <10 mm (n=1,129), SWL had a higher stone-free rate than URS, and for
stones >10 mm (n=523), URS had superior stone-free rates. This difference arises
because the stone-free rate for proximal ureteral stones treated with URS did not vary
significantly with size, whereas the stone-free rate following SWL negatively correlated
with stone size. For all distal stones, URS yields better stone-free rates overall and in
both size categories. For all mid-ureteral stones, URS appears superior, but the small
number of patients may have prevented results from reaching statistical significance.
Unfortunately, RCTs comparing these treatments were generally lacking, making
an accurate assessment impossible. However, the posterior distributions resulting from
the meta-analysis can be subtracted, yielding a distribution for the difference between the
treatments. If the CI of this result does not include zero, then the results may be
considered to be statistically significantly different. This operation is mathematically
justifiable but operationally risky: if the patients receiving different treatments are
different or if outcome measures are different, results may be meaningless. Nonetheless,
the Panel performed the comparison and found that URS stone-free rates were
significantly better than SWL rates for distal ureteral stones 10 mm and >10 mm and for
proximal ureteral stones >10 mm. The stone-free rate for mid-ureteral stones was not
statistically significantly different between URS and SWL. The results with URS using a
flexible ureteroscope for proximal ureteral stones appear better than those achieved with
a rigid device, but not at a statistically significant level.
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Stone-free results for pediatric patients are shown in Table 2 and Figure 2. The
very small number of patients in most groups, particularly for URS, makes comparisons
among treatments difficult. However, it does appear that SWL may be more effective in
the pediatric subset than in the overall population, particularly in the mid and lower
ureter.
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20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
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Procedure Counts
Procedure counts were captured as three types:
1. Primary procedures the number of times the intended procedure was
performed.
2. Secondary procedures the number of times an alternative stone removal
procedure(s) was performed.
3. Adjunctive procedures additional procedures performed at a time other than
when the primary or secondary procedures were performed; these could
include procedures related to the primary/secondary procedures such as stent
removals as well as procedures performed to deal with complications; most
adjunctive procedures in the data presented represent stent removals. It is
likely that many stent-related adjunctive procedures were underreported, and
thus the adjunctive procedure count may be underestimated.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, it was not possible to perform a meta-analysis or to
test for statistically significant differences between treatments due to the lack of variance
data, and only weighted averages could be computed. The procedure count results for the
overall population are shown in Table 3 and Figure 3. Figure 3 results are presented as
stacked bars.
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Table 3. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
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Figure 3. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Overall Population
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Procedure count results for pediatric patients are shown in Table 4 and Figure 4.
Again, the numbers of patients with available data were small and did not support
meaningful comparisons among treatments.
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Table 4. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Pediatric Population, All Locations
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Figure 4. Procedure Counts for SWL and URS in the Pediatric Population, All
Locations
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
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Complications
The articles were extracted for various complications; however, the Panel believes
the following are the most relevant:
1. Sepsis
2. Steinstrasse
3. Stricture
4. Ureteral injury
5. Urinary tract infection (UTI)
Serious complications, including death and loss of kidney, were sufficiently rare that data
were not available to estimate their rates of occurrence. Other complications are listed in
Chapter 3.
The complication rates for the overall population by treatment, size, and location
are shown in Table 5.
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Table 5. Complications Occurrence Rates with SWL and URS, Overall Population
SWL
Groups/Patients Med/95% CI
Distal Ureter
Sepsis
6
2019
3%
(2 - 5)%
Steinstrasse
1
26
4%
(0 - 17)%
Stricture
2
609
Ureteral Injury
UTI
URS
Groups/Patients Med/95% CI
7
1954
2%
(1 - 4)%
0%
(0 - 1)%
16
1911
1%
(1 - 2)%
1
45
1%
(0 - 5)%
23
4529
3%
(3 - 4)%
3
87
4%
(1 - 12)%
3
458
4%
(2 - 7)%
2
398
5%
(0 - 20)%
4
199
4%
(1 - 11)%
Steinstrasse
1
37
8%
(2 - 20)%
Stricture
1
43
1%
(0 - 6)%
7
326
4%
(2 - 7)%
10
514
6%
(3 - 8)%
Mid Ureter
Sepsis
Ureteral Injury
UTI
1
37
6%
(1 - 16)%
1
63
2%
(0 - 7)%
5
704
3%
(2 - 4)%
8
360
4%
(2 - 6)%
Steinstrasse
3
235
5%
(2 - 10)%
1
109
0%
(0 - 2)%
Stricture
2
124
2%
(0 - 8)%
8
987
2%
(1 - 5)%
Ureteral Injury
2
124
2%
(0 - 8)%
10
1005
6%
(3 - 9)%
UTI
5
360
4%
(2 - 7)%
2
224
4%
(1 - 8)%
Proximal Ureter
Sepsis
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Table 6 summarizes complications for all pediatric groups. Since there are few
groups and patients, it was not possible to stratify data by stone size or location. The
reported frequencies of pain may be inaccurate because of inconsistent reporting.
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with that therapeutic approach and that there is no obvious advantage of immediate active
stone removal.
Standard: Patients should be counseled on the attendant risks of MET
including associated drug side effects and should be informed that it is
administered for an off label use.
[Based on Panel consensus/Level IV]
Standard: Patients who elect for an attempt at spontaneous passage or MET
should have well-controlled pain, no clinical evidence of sepsis, and adequate
renal functional reserve.
[Based on Panel consensus/Level IV]
Standard: Patients should be followed with periodic imaging studies to
monitor stone position and to assess for hydronephrosis.
[Based on Panel consensus/Level IV]
Standard: Stone removal is indicated in the presence of persistent
obstruction, failure of stone progression, or in the presence of increasing or
unremitting colic.
[Based on Panel consensus/Level IV]
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small size of the pediatric ureter and urethra favors the less invasive
approach of SWL.
[Based on review of data and Panel consensus/Level III]
Discussion
There are two significant changes in treatment approach that distinguish the
present document from the guideline published by the AUA in 1997. The most
significant change is the use of retrograde URS as first-line treatment for middle and
upper ureteral stones with a low probability of spontaneous passage. This change reflects
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both the vast technological improvements that have been made during the last decade and
the experience and facility that surgeons now have with the procedure. The other change
is the establishment of effective MET to facilitate spontaneous stone passage. These
advances, the current status of other technologies and procedures, issues related to
nonindex patients, and future directions and research germane to this condition will be
subsequently discussed.
38
1.85) and 1.90 (1.51 to 2.40).7 The benefit of adding corticosteroids was reported to be
small.7, 37 Tamsulosin has been the most common alpha blocker utilized in these studies.
However, one small study demonstrated tamsulosin, terazosin, and doxazosin as equally
effective in this setting.39 These studies also demonstrated that MET reduces the stonepassage time and limits pain. The beneficial effects of these drugs are likely attributed to
ureteral smooth muscle relaxation mediated through either inhibition of calcium channel
pumps or alpha-1 receptor blockade. Further prospective and randomized studies are
warranted to determine the patients who best respond to MET. A large, multicenter,
randomized, placebo-controlled study has recently been funded in the United States for
this purpose. Patients with ureteral stones in all segments of the ureter will be randomized
to tamsulosin or placebo.
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
Shock-wave lithotripsy was introduced to clinical practice as a treatment for
ureteral stones in the early 1980s. Today, even with the refinement of endourologic
methods for stone removal such as URS and PNL, SWL remains the primary treatment
for most uncomplicated upper urinary tract calculi. The meta-analysis published by the
AUA Nephrolithiasis Guideline Panel in 1997 documented that the stone-free rate for
SWL for proximal ureteral stones overall was 83% (78 studies, 17,742 patients). To
achieve this result, 1.40 procedures were necessary per patient. The results were very
similar in the distal ureter, with a stone-free rate of 85% (66 studies, 9,422 patients)
necessitating 1.29 primary and secondary procedures per patient. There was no
significant difference between various SWL techniques (SWL with pushback, SWL with
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stent or catheter bypass, or SWL in situ). Consequently, the Panel suggested that the use
of a ureteral stent to improve stone-free rates was not warranted. This observation is also
confirmed by the present analysis. However, there may be circumstances such as when
the stone is small or of low radiographic density where a stent or ureteral catheter
(sometimes using a contrast agent) may help facilitate localization during SWL. The
Panel considered complications of SWL for ureteral stones to be infrequent.
The current meta-analysis analyzed SWL stone-free results for three locations in
the ureter (proximal, mid, distal). The SWL stone-free results are 82% in the proximal
ureter (41 studies, 6,428 patients), 73% in the mid ureter (31 studies, 1,607 patients), and
74% in the distal ureter (50 studies, 6,981 patients). The results in the 1997 guideline,
which divided the ureter into proximal and distal only, reported SWL stone-free results of
83% and 85%, respectively. The CIs for the distal ureter do not overlap and indicate a
statistically significant worsening of results in the distal ureter from the earlier results. No
change is shown for the proximal ureter. The cause of this difference is not clear.
Additional procedures also were infrequently necessary (0.62 procedures per patient for
proximal ureteral stones, 0.52 for mid-ureteral stones, and 0.37 for distal ureteral stones).
Serious complications were again infrequent. As expected, stone-free rates were lower
and the number of procedures necessary were higher for ureteral stones >10 mm in
diameter managed with SWL.
The outcomes for SWL for ureteral calculi in pediatric patients were similar to
those for adults, making this a useful option, particularly in patients where the size of the
patient (and ureter/urethra) may make URS a less attractive option.
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The newer generation lithotriptors with higher peak pressures and smaller focal
zones should, in theory, be ideal for the treatment of stones in the ureter but instead have
not been associated with an improvement in stone-free rates or a reduction in the number
of procedures needed when this treatment approach is chosen. In fact, the SWL stone-free
rates for stones in the distal ureter have declined significantly when compared with the
1997 AUA analysis. The explanation for the lack of improvement in SWL outcomes is
unknown.
Although ureteroscopic stone removal is possible with intravenous sedation, one
clear advantage of SWL over URS is that the procedure is more easily and routinely
performed with intravenous sedation or other minimal anesthetic techniques. Therefore,
for the patient who desires treatment with minimal anesthesia, SWL is an attractive
approach.
Shock-wave lithotripsy can be performed with the aid of either fluoroscopy or
ultrasound (US). While some stones in the proximal and distal ureter can be imaged with
US, this imaging modality clearly limits SWL application in the ureter when compared to
fluoroscopy. However, a combination of both fluoroscopy and US can facilitate stone
location and minimize radiation exposure.
As documented in the 1997 AUA report, there appears to be little, if any,
advantage to routine stenting when performing SWL for ureteral stones.
Concerns have been raised, too, regarding the use of SWL to treat distal ureteral
calculi in women of childbearing age because of the theoretical possibility that
unfertilized eggs and/or ovaries may be damaged. To date, no objective evidence has
been discovered to support such concerns, but many centers require that women age 40 or
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younger be fully informed of the possibility and give their consent before treatment with
SWL.40-44
Ureteroscopy
Ureteroscopy has traditionally constituted the favored approach for the surgical
treatment of mid and distal ureteral stones while SWL has been preferred for the less
accessible proximal ureteral stones. With the development of smaller caliber semirigid
and flexible ureteroscopes and the introduction of improved instrumentation, including
the holmium:YAG laser, URS has evolved into a safer and more efficacious modality for
treatment of stones in all locations in the ureter with increasing experience worldwide.45, 46 Complication rates, most notably ureteral perforation rates, have been reduced
to less than 5%, and long-term complications such as stricture formation occur with an
incidence of 2% or less.47 Overall stone-free rates are remarkably high at 81% to 94%
depending on stone location, with the vast majority of patients rendered stone free in a
single procedure (Figure 1 and Chapter 3).
In 1997, the AUA Nephrolithiasis Clinical Guideline Panel recommended SWL
for <1 cm stones in the proximal ureter and either SWL or URS for >1 cm proximal
ureteral stones.9 With improved efficacy and reduced morbidity currently associated with
ureteroscopic management of proximal ureteral stones, this modality is now deemed
appropriate for stones of any size in the proximal ureter. Indeed, the current analysis
revealed a stone-free rate of 81% for ureteroscopic treatment of proximal ureteral stones,
with surprisingly little difference in stone-free rates according to stone size (93% for
stones <10 mm and 87% for stones >10 mm). The flexible ureteroscope is largely
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc. and
European Association of Urology
42
responsible for improved access to the proximal ureter; superior stone-free rates are
achieved using flexible URS (87%) compared with rigid or semirigid URS (77%). These
stone-free rates are comparable to those achieved with SWL.
The middle ureter poses challenges for all surgical stone treatments; the location
over the iliac vessels may hinder access with a semirigid ureteroscope, and identification
and targeting of mid-ureteral stones for SWL has proved problematic due to the
underlying bone. Despite the limitations, ureteroscopic management is still highly
successful; a stone-free rate of 86% was demonstrated in the current analysis, although
success rates declined substantially when treating larger stones (>10 mm) compared with
smaller stones (78% versus 91%, respectively).
Ureteroscopic treatment of distal ureteral stones is uniformly associated with high
success rates and low complication rates. An overall stone-free rate of 94% was achieved
with either a rigid or semirigid ureteroscope, with little drop off in stone-free rates when
treating larger stones. On the other hand, flexible URS was less successful than rigid or
semirigid URS for distal ureteral stones, particularly those >10 mm, likely due to
difficulty maintaining access within the distal ureter with a flexible ureteroscope.
A number of adjunctive measures have contributed to the enhanced success of
ureteroscopic management of ureteral calculi. Historically, stones in the proximal ureter
have been associated with lower success rates than those in the mid and distal ureter, in
part because the proximal ureter is more difficult to access and stone fragments often
become displaced into the kidney where they may be difficult to treat. Improved flexible
ureteroscopes and greater technical skill, along with the introduction of devices to
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European Association of Urology
43
prevent stone migration48, 49 have improved the success of treating proximal ureteral
stones.
Although the efficacy of URS for the treatment of ureteral calculi has been amply
shown, the need for a ureteral stent with its attendant morbidity has biased opinion
towards SWL in some cases. Clearly, SWL is associated with fewer postoperative
symptoms and better patient acceptance than URS. However, a number of recent
prospective, randomized trials have shown that for uncomplicated URS, the ureter may
be left unstented without undue risk of obstruction or colic requiring emergent medical
attention.10, 14-19
Ureteroscopy can also be applied when SWL might be contraindicated or illadvised. Ureteroscopy can be performed safely in select patients in whom cessation of
anticoagulants is considered unsafe.50 In addition, URS has been shown to be effective
regardless of patient body habitus. Several studies have shown that morbidly obese
patients can be treated with success rates and complication rates comparable to the
general population.51, 52 Finally, URS can be used to safely simultaneously treat bilateral
ureteral stones in select cases.53-55
44
rate was low, acceptable, and not specifically different from any other percutaneous
procedure.
Percutaneous antegrade removal of ureteral stones is an alternative when SWL is
not indicated or has failed58 and when the upper urinary tract is not amenable to
retrograde URS; for example, in those with urinary diversion29 or renal transplants.59
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European Association of Urology
45
Special Considerations
Pregnancy
Renal colic is the most common nonobstetric cause of abdominal pain in pregnant
patients requiring hospitalization. The evaluation of pregnant patients suspected of
having renal colic begins with ultrasonography, as ionizing radiation should be limited in
this setting. If the US examination is unrevealing and the patient remains severely
symptomatic, a limited intravenous pyelogram may be considered. A typical regimen
includes a preliminary plain radiograph (KUB) and two films, 15 minutes and 60 minutes
following contrast administration. Noncontrast computed tomography is uncommonly
performed in this setting because of the higher dose of radiation exposure. Magnetic
resonance imaging can define the level of obstruction, and a stone may be seen as a
filling defect. However, these findings are nonspecific. In addition, there is a paucity of
experience with using this imaging modality during pregnancy.62
Once the diagnosis has been established, these patients have traditionally been
managed with temporizing therapies (ureteral stenting, percutaneous nephrostomy), an
approach often associated with poor patient tolerance. Further, the temporizing approach
typically requires multiple exchanges of stents or nephrostomy tubes during the
remainder of the patient's pregnancy due to the potential for rapid encrustation of these
devices.
A number of groups have now reported successful outcomes with URS in
pregnant patients harboring ureteral stones. The first substantial report was by Ulvik,
et al63 who reported on the performance of URS in 24 pregnant women. Most patients had
stones or edema, and there were no adverse sequelae associated with ureteroscopic stone
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European Association of Urology
46
removal. Similar results have been reported by Lifshitz and Lingeman64 and Watterson et
al65 who found that the ureteroscopic approach was both diagnostic and therapeutic in
pregnant patients with very low morbidity and the need for only short-term ureteral
stenting, if at all, afterwards. When intracorporeal lithotripsy is necessary during
ureteroscopic treatment of calculi in pregnant patients, the holmium laser has the
advantage of minimal tissue penetration, thereby theoretically limiting risk of fetal injury.
Pediatrics
Both SWL and URS are effective treatment alternatives for stone removal in
children. Selection of the most appropriate treatment has to be based on the individual
stone problem, the available equipment and the urologists expertise in treating children.
Children appear to pass stone fragments after SWL more readily than adults.66-71
Ureteroscopy may be used as a primary treatment or as a secondary treatment
after SWL in case of poor stone disintegration. Less efficient SWL disintegration might
be seen in children with stones composed of cystine, brushite and calcium oxalate
monohydrate or when anatomic abnormalities result in difficulties in fluoroscopic or
ultrasonographic visualization of the stone.72-74
One of the main problems with pediatric URS is the size of the ureteroscope
relative to the narrow intramural ureter and the urethral diameter. This problem has lately
been circumvented by the use of smaller ureteroscopes, for example, mini or needle
instruments as well as small flexible semirigid or rigid ureteroscopes and pediatric (6.9
Fr) cystoscopes. With the availability of 4.5 and 6.0 Fr semirigid ureteroscopes, a 5.3 Fr
flexible ureteroscope and a holmium:YAG laser energy source, instrument-related
complications have become uncommon.73-75 However, the utilization of proper technique
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European Association of Urology
47
remains the most important factor for generating successful outcomes in this population.
Percutaneous stone removal is also possible in pediatric patients with comparable
indications to those in adults. Such an approach might be considered for stone removal in
children with a malformation of the lower urinary tract.
Cystine Stones
Individuals with cystinuria are considered nonindex patients by the Panel for a
variety of reasons. There are limited data regarding treatment outcomes in this group.76-83
In vitro studies also show that these stones are commonly resistant to SWL, although the
degree of resistance may be variable.77, 78 The structural characteristics of these stones are
thought to contribute to their decreased SWL fragility. In addition, some of these stones
may be barely opaque on standard imaging or fluoroscopy, potentially compromising
shock-wave focusing. In contrast to SWL, technology currently utilized for intracorporeal
lithotripsy during URS, including the holmium laser, ultrasonic and pneumatic devices,
can readily fragment cystine stones.81
Certain imaging characteristics may predict SWL outcomes for this patient group.
Bhatta and colleagues reported that cystine stones having a rough-appearing external
surface on plain film imaging were more apt to be fragmented with shock-wave energy
than those with a smooth contour.82 Kim and associates reported that the computed
tomography attenuation coefficients of the latter were significantly higher than the roughtype stones.83 Other types of stones with higher attenuation values have also been
demonstrated to be resistant to shock-wave fragmentation.84
Patients with this rare genetic disorder typically have their first stone event early
in life, are prone to recurrent stones, and are consequently subject to repetitive removal
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European Association of Urology
48
procedures. In addition, patients with cystinuria are at risk for developing renal
insufficiency over time.85, 86 Prophylactic medical therapy and close follow-up can limit
recurrence.
49
venture should provide the foundation for future collaborative efforts in guideline
development.
The Panel encountered a number of deficits in the literature. While the
management of ureteral stones remains commonly needed, few RCTs were available for
data extraction. The data were inconsistent, starting from the definition of stone sizes and
ending with variable definitions of a stone-free state. These limitations hinder the
development of evidence-based recommendations.
To improve the quality of research, the Panel strongly recommends the following:
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European Association of Urology
50
determining the safety of each technique with respect to acute and long-term
effects
addressing issues such as patient preferences, quality of life, and time until the
patient completed therapy when evaluating treatment strategies. To date, only
a few studies have addressed patient preference.90-92
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European Association of Urology
51
Chapter 2: Methodology
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 2
Problem Definition.......................................................................................................................... 2
Literature Search and Data Extraction............................................................................................ 3
Evidence Combination.................................................................................................................... 4
Stone-free Analysis..................................................................................................................... 7
Procedures per Patient ................................................................................................................ 8
Complications ............................................................................................................................. 8
Analyses of Data from Adults and Children............................................................................... 9
Guideline Generation and Approvals............................................................................................ 10
Dissemination ............................................................................................................................... 10
Introduction
This guideline was developed using an explicit approach to address the relevant factors
for choosing among alternative interventions. These factors include outcomes of the
interventions, patient preferences, and the relative priorities of interventions given limited health
care resources. The guideline Panel used scientific evidence to estimate outcomes of treatment
modalities as accurately as possible. Panel members themselves served as proxies for patients in
considering preferences with regard to health and economic outcomes.
The steps taken to develop this guideline are summarized in Chapter 1 and described in
detail in the present Chapter. Steps included problem definition, literature search, data extraction,
systematic evidence combination, guideline generation, approval, and dissemination.
Problem Definition
This guideline was the first joint guideline effort of the American Urological Association
(AUA) and the European Association of Urology (EAU). Initial discussions included
methodology and the scope of the guideline. It was decided that the methodology for problem
definition, data collection, and initial analysis would be similar to that used in the previous AUA
guideline. All treatments commonly performed in the United States and/or Europe were
included in this update except for treatments that were explicitly excluded in the previous
guideline or newer treatments for which insufficient literature exists. The Panel initially desired
to stratify patient data by age (adult versus child), stone size, stone location, and stone
composition. Later, however, the data were found to be insufficient to allow analysis by
composition. The outcomes deemed by the Panel to be of particular interest to the patient
included stone-free rate, number of procedures performed, stone-passage rate or probability of
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
spontaneous passage, and complications of treatment. The Panel did not examine economic
effects, including treatment costs.
Outcomes were stratified by stone location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and by stone
size (dichotomized as 10 mm and >10 mm for surgical interventions, and 5 mm and >5 mm
for medical interventions and observation where possible; exceptions were made when data were
reported, for example as <10 mm and 10 mm). The mid ureter is the part of the ureter that
overlies the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the
proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter is below. Treatments were divided into three broad
groups:
1. Observation and medical therapy
2. Shock-wave lithotripsy and ureteroscopy
3. Open surgery, laparoscopic stone removal, or percutaneous antegrade ureteroscopy.
(Microsoft, Redmond, WA) database. The Panel scrutinized the entries, reconciled the
inconsistencies in recording, corrected the extraction errors, and excluded some articles from
further analysis for the following reasons:
1. The article was included in the previous guideline.
2. The article did not provide usable data on the outcomes of interest.
3. Results for patients with ureteral stones could not be separated from results for those
with renal stones.
4. The treatments used were not current or were not the focus of the analysis.
5. The article was a review article of data reported elsewhere.
6. The article dealt only with salvage therapy.
A total of 244 of the articles were initially accepted, although some were later rejected
from inclusion in both the efficacy and complications analyses. For example, some articles were
not included in the efficacy analysis but were included in the safety analysis for certain
complications in which there was clarity as far as reported data. A complete list of these articles
is presented in both Appendix 6, ordered by primary author, and Appendix 7, ordered by
reference number. Articles excluded from evidence combination remained candidates as
references to support the discussion in the text of the Guideline.
Evidence Combination
The analytic goal was to generate outcome tables comparing estimates of outcomes
across treatment modalities. To generate an outcome table, estimates of the probabilities and/or
magnitudes of the outcomes are required for each intervention. Ideally, these are derived from a
synthesis or combination of the evidence. Such a combination can be performed in a variety of
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
ways depending on the nature and quality of the evidence. For example, if there is one wellconducted randomized controlled trial, the results of that trial alone may be used in the outcomes
table while findings of other studies of lesser quality are ignored. Alternatively, if there are no
studies of satisfactory quality for certain outcomes tables or if available studies are not
commensurable, expert opinion may be used to complete the table. Finally, if a number of
studies have some degree of relevance to a particular outcome or outcomes, then meta-analytic
mathematical methods may be used.
A variety of specific meta-analytic methods are available, and selection of a particular
method depends on the nature of the evidence. For this 2007 Guideline for the Management of
Ureteral Calculi, the Panel elected to use the Confidence Profile Method, which provides
methods for analyzing data from studies that are not randomized controlled trials. The Fast*Pro
computer software was used in the analysis. This program provides posterior distributions from
meta-analyses from which the median can be used as a best estimate, and the central 95% of the
distribution serves as a confidence interval. Statistical significance at the p<0.05 level (twotailed) was inferred when zero was not included in the confidence interval.
Because of the paucity of controlled trials found on literature review, however, the
outcome for each intervention was estimated by combining single arms from various clinical
series. These clinical series frequently had very different outcomes, likely due to a combination
of site-to-site variations in patient populations, in the performance of the intervention, in the skill
of those performing the intervention, and different methods of determining stone-free status.
Given these differences, a random-effects, or hierarchical, model was used to combine the
studies.
A random-effects model assumes that there is an underlying true rate for the outcome
being assessed for each site. It further assumes that this underlying rate varies from site to site.
This site-to-site variation in the true rate is assumed to be normally distributed. The method of
meta-analysis used attempts to determine these underlying distributions.
The results of the confidence-profile method are probability distributions that are
described using the median of the distribution with a confidence interval. In this case, the 95%
confidence interval indicates that the probability (Bayesian) of the true value being outside the
interval is 5%. These Bayesian confidence intervals are sometimes called credible intervals.
The Bayseian method of computation assumes a prior distribution that reflects
knowledge about the probability of the outcome before the results of any experiments are known.
The prior distributions selected for this analysis are among a class of noninformative prior
distributions, which means that they correspond to little or no prior knowledge. The existence of
such a prior distribution can cause small changes in results, particularly for small studies. The
prior distribution for all probability parameters is Jeffereys prior (beta distribution with both
parameters set to 0.5). The prior for the variance for the underlying normal distribution is gamma
distributed with both parameters set to 0.5.
Three of the four outcomes identified as important to patients receiving treatment for
ureteral calculi were analyzed using these methods; insufficient data were available to use these
techniques for the outcome procedures per patient. Evidence from the studies meeting the
inclusion criteria and reporting a given outcome was combined within each treatment modality.
Graphs showing the results for each modality were developed to demonstrate similarities and
differences between treatments.
It is important to note that for certain outcomes more data were reported for one or
another treatment modality. While resulting confidence intervals reflect available data, the
probabilities for certain outcomes can vary widely from study to study within one treatment
modality. In addition, the fact that data from only a few randomized controlled trials could be
evaluated may have somewhat biased results. For example, differences in patient selection may
have had more weight in analyses than differing treatment effects. Nevertheless, the results
obtained reflect the best outcome estimates presently available.
Stone-free Analysis
Studies that reported numbers of patients who were stone free after primary procedures
were included in the stone-free analysis. Studies that reported only the combined number of
patients who either were stone free or had clinically insignificant fragments were excluded.
Many studies did not indicate how or when stone-free status was determined.
The stone-free rate was considered at three time points: after the first procedure, after all
consecutive procedures using the primary treatment, and after total treatments. After considering
the data and the way they were reported, the Panel ultimately decided to report only a single
number. That number would be based on the stone-free rate after all consecutive primary
treatments if available for a given group of patients within an article. If not, then the number
would be based on the number of patients stone free after the first primary treatment. If only the
total stone-free rate was available, it would not be used. The Panel elected to use this method
since the ultimate total stone-free rate is expected to be nearly always 100 % in subjects with
ureteral stones. The procedure count data could be used to show how many primary procedures,
on average, would be needed to get the stone-free rate reported.
breakdown was not useful. Complications were variably reported and only studies that
specifically reported data concerning occurrences of complications were included in the analysis.
Transfusions and a composite category of all other acute complications were meta-analyzed.
Several factors caused inaccuracy in the estimates, but did so in opposite directions, thereby
reducing the magnitude of the inaccuracy. For example, including studies that did not
specifically mention that there were no occurrences of a specific complication may have led to
overestimates of complication rates when meta-analyzed. By combining similar complications,
the Panel also potentially mitigated the overestimate by making it more likely that a complication
in the class was reported. The probability that a patient will have a complication may still be
overstated slightly because some patients experience multiple complications. Since the grouping
of complications varies by study, the result of the meta-analysis is best interpreted as the mean
number of complications that a patient may experience rather than as the probability of having a
complication. Moreover, since reporting of complications is not consistent, the estimated rates
given here are probably less accurate than the confidence intervals would indicate. There were
insufficient data to permit meaningful meta-analyses of patient deaths. The estimates of death
rates provided in the guideline are the Panel's expert opinion based on the limited data available.
Analyses of Data from Adults and Children
Data analyses were conducted for two age groups. One analysis included studies of
patients age 18 or younger (or identified as pediatric patients in the article without specifying age
ranges). A separate adult analysis was rejected since many studies included both adults and
children or werent clear about whether children were included. An overall analysis was done
which included all studies including those including children. This overall analysis is primarily
adult patients. The Panel considered the number of children in these cases to be too small to
significantly influence the results.
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
Dissemination
The guideline is posted on the American Urological Association website,
www.auanet.org, and on the European Association of Urology website, www.uroweb.org.
Chapter 1 will be published in The Journal of Urology and in European Urology.
10
Introduction
The underlying purpose of data extraction from the literature by the Panel was to
develop estimates of the outcomes of interest to the patient for each of the relevant
treatments. The data were meta-analyzed to yield estimates of these outcomes. Where
possible and relevant, attempts also were made to determine whether differences among
treatments reached statistical significance. The results of the analysis described in this
chapter provide most of the evidentiary basis for the guideline statements in Chapter 1.
Relevant treatments may vary depending on the patients general condition and
the size, location, and composition of the stone. The Panel initially intended to produce
outcomes tables stratified by each of these variables. However, lack of sufficiently
stratified data constrained the analysis, and outcomes were stratified only by stone
location (proximal, mid, and distal ureter) and by stone size (dichotomized as 10 mm
and >10 mm for surgical interventions and 5 mm and >5 mm for medical interventions
and observation where possible; exceptions were made when data were reported, for
example, as <10 mm and 10 mm). The mid ureter is the part of the ureter that overlies
the bony pelvis, i.e., the position of the ureter that corresponds to the sacroiliac joint; the
proximal ureter is above and the distal ureter is below. Treatments were divided into
three broad groups:
1. Observation and medical therapy primarily for patients with smaller stones
2. Shock-wave lithotripsy (SWL) and ureteroscopy (URS) for patients with
larger stones
Analysis of medical therapies was complicated by the fact that treatments were
not standardized and control groups, where present, may or may not have received
steroids or other therapies. Two medical therapies had sufficient analyzable data:
nifedipine and alpha-1 adrenergic blockers. Analysis of stone-passage rates were done in
three ways. The first combined all single arms evaluating the therapies. Using this
approach, meta-analysis of four studies of nifedipine (160 patients) yielded an estimate of
a 75% passage rate (95% CI: 63% to 84%). Six studies examined alpha blockers (280
patients); the meta-analysis yielded a stone-passage rate of 81% (95% CI: 72% to 88%).
One study compared three alpha blockers (tamsulosin, terazosin, and doxazosin) and
found no differences in passage rates among them (ref 18204).
The second method was a standard Bayesian hierarchical meta-analysis of
available randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that compared either nifedipine or alpha
blockers to control therapy. The results for nifedipine showed an absolute increase of 8%
in stone-passage rates (95% CI: -7% to 25%) which was not statistically significant.
Meta-analysis of alpha blockers versus control showed an absolute increase of 29% in the
stone-passage rate (95% CI: 20% to 37%) which was statistically significant.
The Panel also attempted to determine whether alpha blockers provide superior
stone passage when compared to nifedipine. Two randomized controlled trials were
identified. When hierarchical meta-analysis was performed on these two studies,
tamsulosin provided an absolute increase in stone-passage rate of 14% (95% CI: -4% to
32%) which was not statistically significant. When nonhierarchical methods were used,
the stone-passage improvement increased to 16% (95% CI: 7% to 26%) which was
statistically significant. Finally, the Panel used the results of the meta-analyses versus
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
controls (second method above) to determine the difference between alpha blockers and
calcium channel blockers. This method allows the use of more data but is risky since it
depends on the control groups having comparable results. The analysis yielded a 20%
improvement in stone-passage rates with alpha blockers, and the 95% CI of 1% to 37%
just reached statistical significance.
Stone-free rates
Stone-free rates were determined initially in several ways. The Panel defined
stone free as completely stone free without residual fragments. If the author used the term
stone free and did not indicate that it could include residual fragments, the panel
assumed that patients were completely stone free. Stone-free data were extracted at three
time points:
1. After the first procedure
2. After all primary procedures (procedures of the same type, i.e., either all SWL or
all URS)
3. After all procedures
The initial analysis was performed separately for each time point. However,
because most studies did not give data for all time points, the panel decided to use one
time point from each study. If the study gave the stone-free rate after all primary
procedures, that number was used. If not, and the study gave the stone-free rate after the
first procedure, then that number was used. The stone-free rate after all procedures was
never used. The intention of the Panel was to provide an estimate of the number of
primary procedures and the stone-free rate after those procedures. Because many studies
only provided stone-free rates after the first procedure, the estimates of stone-free rates
may be a little low. However, since most patients are stone free after the first procedure,
this error should be rather small.
The results of the analysis of stone-free data are presented for the overall group in
Table 1. The Table shows the number of patient groups (G) and total number of patients
(P) that contributed to the analysis. A patient group frequently represents patients from a
single study. However, a study may have contributed multiple groups if the patients were
different in some way and the results were stratified in the article, e.g., if the article
compared two types of rigid scopes, it might provide data for patients treated with each
scope type. This would yield two groups in the group count even though it represented
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
only one study. It should be noted that there are relatively small numbers of patients and
groups for which mid ureter stone data are available. There are also small numbers of
patients for the categories SWL-bypass, SWL-pushback, and URS-flexible.
Table 1. Stone-Free Rates for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Overall Population
Proximal Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
41/642
(79 - 85)%
82%
28/476
1/59
12/160
83%
83%
80%
(79 - 87)%
(72 - 91)%
(72 - 86)%
G/P
14/886
1/67
5/578
1/59
7/182
46/224
4/40
18/691
28/155
81%
89%
87%
77%
(77 - 85)%
(75 - 97)%
(82 - 91)%
(71 - 83)%
9/243
1/1
5/134
4/109
Size <10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(85 - 93)%
90%
(84 - 97)%
92%
(89 - 98)%
94%
(72 - 91)%
83%
(67 - 91)%
80%
G/P
11/293
1/23
4/186
Size >10mm
Media
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(55 - 79)%
68%
(59 - 91)%
78%
(59 - 92)%
78%
6/84
53%
(39 - 67)%
8/230
79%
(71 - 87)%
3/58
5/172
81%
81%
(63 - 93)%
(71 - 88)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Mid Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
(73 - 85)%
(15 - 100)%
(74 - 89)%
(66 - 85)%
80%
84%
83%
77%
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
Size <10mm
Size >10mm
G/P
31/160
1/14
19/115
Median
73%
71%
77%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(66 - 79)%
(45 - 89)%
(69 - 84)%
G/P
5/44
Median
84%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(65 - 95)%
G/P
2/15
Median
76%
CI (2.5 97.5)%
(36 - 97)%
2/14
91%
(67 - 99)%
1/6
96%
(67 - 100)%
11/442
65%
(51 - 77)%
3/30
77%
(47 - 95)%
1/9
66%
(35 - 90)%
30/102
2/14
11/262
19/762
86%
88%
88%
85%
(81 - 89)%
(53 - 99)%
(79 - 94)%
(79 - 89)%
5/80
91%
(81 - 96)%
5/73
78%
(61 - 90)%
1/9
4/71
87%
92%
(59 - 99)%
(82 - 97)%
1/5
4/68
60%
80%
(21 - 91)%
(66 - 90)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Distal Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
50/698
(73 - 75)%*
74%
G/P
17/168
42/649
75%
(73 - 75)%*
14/164
86%
(79 - 92)%
9/965
74%
(56 - 88)%
8/486
71%
(57 - 82)%
3/35
90%
(75 - 98)%
1/1
84%
(15 - 100)%
59/595
1/2
9/431
50/552
94%
10%
93%
94%
(93 - 95)%
(0 - 67)%
(89 - 96)%
(93 - 96)%
13/162
97%
(96 - 98)%
8/412
93%
(88 - 96)%
1/38
12/158
97%
98%
(88 - 100)%
(96 - 99)%
1/10
7/402
79%
94%
(50 - 96)%
(90 - 97)%
Size <10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(80 - 91)%
86%
G/P
10/966
Size >10mm
CI (2.5 Median
(57 - 87)%
74%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Total Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Size <10mm
Size >10mm
G/P
37/562
1/67
24/380
1/59
11/196
Median
86%
92%
85%
83%
88%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(82 - 89)%
(84 - 97)%
(79 - 90)%
(72 - 91)%
(81 - 93)%
G/P
27/2348
1/23
16/1627
Median
67%
78%
65%
CI (2.5 97.5)%
(59 - 75)%
(59 - 91)%
(53 - 76)%
10/698
70%
(57 - 82)%
25/259
1/1
7/206
18/239
93%
84%
87%
95%
(90 - 95)%
(15 - 100)%
(81 - 92)%
(92 - 97)%
19/928
87%
(83 - 90)%
5/94
14/834
81%
88%
(67 - 92)%
(85 - 91)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
10
treatments difficult. However, it does appear that SWL may be more effective in the
pediatric subset than in the overall population, particularly in the mid and distal ureter.
11
Table 2. Stone-Free Rates for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy, Pediatric Population
Proximal Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
7/1
81%
(69 - 90)%
5/43
89%
(72 - 98)%
G/P
3/1
4/6
85%
(65 - 96)%
1/19
99%
(88 - 100)%
3/3
78%
(56 - 93)%
4/24
85%
(59 - 97)%
5/1
57%
(25 - 85)%
1/3
4/1
6%
67%
(0 - 54)%
(38 - 90)%
G/P
Size <10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
Size >10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
63%
(21 - 94)%
1/1
98%
(81 - 100)%
2/4
36%
(5 - 81)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
Mid Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Size <10mm
Size >10mm
G/P
6/3
Median
82%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(63 - 94)%
G/P
4/16
Median
80%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(41 - 98)%
G/P
1/6
Median
96%
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
(67 - 100)%
4/3
88%
(70 - 97)%
2/14
91%
(67 - 99)%
1/6
96%
(67 - 100)%
2/3
56%
(8 - 96)%
2/2
50%
(6 - 94)%
3/1
80%
(52 0 96)%
1/5
78%
(37 - 99)%
3/1
80%
(52 - 96)%
1/5
78%
(37 - 99)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Distal Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
8/2
80%
(68 - 90)%
G/P
5/13
6/2
77%
(63 - 87)%
3/11
84%
(68 - 94)%
1/2
87%
(71 - 97)%
2/2
95%
(79 - 100)%
2/16
93%
(72 - 100)%
1/1
84%
(15 - 100)%
9/1
92%
(86 - 96)%
2/29
89%
(72 - 98)%
1/7
8/1
84%
93%
(50 - 98)%
(87- 96)%
2/29
89%
(72 - 98)%
Size <10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
86%
(78 - 92)%
G/P
2/2
Size >10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
83%
(58 - 97)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Total Ureter
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary/First Treatments
Size <10mm
G/P
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
7/19
87%
(80 - 93)%
G/P
4/6
3/15
86%
(70 - 96)%
1/4
93%
(83 - 98)%
4/47
88%
(72 - 97)%
3/1
55%
(26 - 81)%
3/72
91%
(81 - 97)%
1/5
78%
(37 - 98)%
3/72
91%
(81 - 97)%
1/5
78%
(37 - 98)%
Size >10mm
Median
CI (2.5 - 97.5)%
73%
(52 - 89)%
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
12
Procedure counts
Procedure counts were captured as three types:
1. Primary procedures the number of times the first removal procedure was
performed.
2. Secondary procedures the number of times an alternative stone removal
procedure(s) was performed.
3. Adjunctive procedures additional procedures performed at a time other than
when the primary or secondary procedures were performed; these could
include procedures related to the primary/secondary procedures such as stent
removals as well as procedures performed to deal with complications; most
adjunctive procedures in the data presented represent stent removals. It is
likely that many stent-related adjunctive procedures were underreported, and
thus the adjunctive procedure count may be underestimated..
While it would have been desirable to calculate a total procedure count, few studies
reported all three types of procedures. Thus, the three types were computed separately.
While adding them together to obtain a total procedure count is possible, the fact that the
data came from different studies reduces the meaning of such a sum. As mentioned in
Chapter 2, it was not possible to perform a meta-analysis due to the lack of variance data,
and only weighted averages could be computed. It was not possible to determine whether
the procedure count results differed by statistically significant amounts due to a lack of
variance data. The procedure count results for the overall population are shown in Tables
3A-D.
13
Table 3A. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Overall
Population, Proximal Ureteral Stones
Stones All Sizes
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1.31
37/5902
1.55
1/180
1.28
24/4567
1.10
1/59
11/1096
1.43
G/P
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Stones 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
42/1634
5/124
16/447
26/1187
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1.26
16/1243
1.36
1/67
1.28
8/1032
1.10
1/59
6/85
1.04
G/P
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Stones 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Weighted
Mean
1.02
1.00
1.03
1.02
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
0.24
13/1329
1.00
1/180
0.28
6/183
8/416
0.12
12/1715
0.06
6/966
0.09
G/P
G/P
27/1831
Weighted
Mean
0.26
6/197
21/1634
0.04
0.29
Weighted
Mean
0.17
1.00
0.25
0.13
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
5/150
0.14
14/1159
4/104
7/451
7/708
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
0.77
3/114
1.00
1/67
0.45
2/47
3/112
0.15
2/38
0.11
G/P
5/119
Weighted
Mean
0.64
2/18
3/101
0.28
0.70
9/277
Weighted
Mean
1.02
9/701
Weighted
Mean
0.08
3/36
6/241
1.00
1.02
9/701
0.08
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1.49
11/510
2.00
1/23
1.52
4/424
Ureteroscopy
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
20/2131
0.07
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
5/83
0.21
1/41
0.20
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
0.56
4/45
1.00
1/23
6/63
1.14
4/42
0.21
3/22
0.09
G/P
G/P
Weighted
Mean
6/222
Weighted
Mean
0.12
G/P
5/137
Weighted
Mean
1.07
2/30
3/107
1.00
1.09
1/14
5/208
0.07
0.12
14
Table 3B. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Overall
Population, Mid Ureteral Stones
Mid Ureter All Sizes
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
10/291
1.11
1/14
1.07
1/13
1.20
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
3/71
0.06
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/241
0.23
1/14
0.14
3/38
0.13
8/264
1.11
6/245
0.21
3/189
0.26
G/P
Weighted
Mean
1.04
1.02
1.11
1.01
G/P
G/P
15/934
Weighted
Mean
0.07
2/66
13/868
0.21
0.06
Weighted
Mean
0.09
1.00
0.26
0.05
25/686
2/53
10/180
15/506
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
9/316
0.18
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
8/444
1.20
5/416
1.21
3/28
1.00
G/P
7/241
Weighted
Mean
1.02
1/9
6/232
1.00
1.02
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/148
1.52
3/129
1.55
1/19
1.32
G/P
3/18
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/5
2/13
1.00
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/80
0.15
8/357
1/40
3/66
5/291
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/80
0.15
G/P
7/671
Weighted
Mean
0.06
3/99
Weighted
Mean
0.71
7/671
0.06
3/99
0.71
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
3/119
Weighted
Mean
0.18
1/5
Weighted
Mean
0.20
3/119
0.18
1/5
0.20
15
Table 3C. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Overall
Population, Distal Ureteral Stones
Distal Ureter All Sizes
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
48/7117
1.22
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
30/5069
0.12
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
15/3875
0.03
38/5963
1.26
23/4297
0.12
13/3500
0.03
10/1154
1.03
7/772
0.13
2/375
0.02
G/P
Weighted
Mean
1.04
1.00
1.01
1.04
G/P
G/P
25/5124
Weighted
Mean
0.03
24/2848
Weighted
Mean
0.36
25/5124
0.03
24/2848
0.36
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
56/5308
1/2
7/277
49/5031
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
19/2031
1.31
14/1659
1.20
5/372
1.80
G/P
15/1326
Weighted
Mean
1.01
1/38
14/1288
1.00
1.01
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
7/250
0.13
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
7/250
0.13
G/P
11/1131
Weighted
Mean
0.05
6/397
Weighted
Mean
0.83
11/1131
0.05
6/397
0.83
G/P
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
13/1065
1.43
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
3/1026
0.10
11/1045
1.43
3/1026
0.10
2/20
1.30
G/P
G/P
5/231
Weighted
Mean
1.02
2/148
Weighted
Mean
0.14
1/110
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/10
4/221
1.00
1.02
2/148
0.14
1/110
1.00
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
16
Table 3D. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Overall
Population, Total Ureteral Stones
Total Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
29/4577
1.33
1/67
1.36
20/3872
1.24
1/59
1.10
7/579
1.95
G/P
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Total Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
17/1474
1/1
3/83
14/1391
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
21/1860
1.49
1/23
2.00
14/1771
1.50
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
6/152
0.61
1/67
1.00
2/47
0.45
8/282
0.13
3/38
0.11
3/38
0.11
G/P
G/P
8/711
Weighted
Mean
0.05
8/711
0.05
Weighted
Mean
0.78
1.00
0.28
0.81
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
9/1113
0.11
4/1067
0.10
7/381
1/1
2/18
5/363
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
3/45
0.56
1/23
1.00
6/66
1.18
5/46
0.28
2/22
0.09
G/P
G/P
6/234
Weighted
Mean
0.08
G/P
13/494
Weighted
Mean
1.04
3/129
Weighted
Mean
0.89
4/66
9/428
1.02
1.04
1/14
5/220
0.07
0.08
1/14
2/115
0.21
0.97
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Weighted
Mean
1.02
1.00
1.00
1.02
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
11/320
0.13
Procedure count results for pediatric patients are shown in Tables 4A-D. Again,
the numbers of patients with available data were small and did not support meaningful
comparisons among treatments.
17
Table 4A. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Pediatric
Population, Proximal Ureteral Stones
Proximal Ureter All Sizes
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Proximal Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Proximal Ureter10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
5/83
1.28
3/49
1.39
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
3/38
0.05
1/13
0.08
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/5
0.00
2/34
1.12
2/25
0.04
1/5
0.00
G/P
G/P
7/38
Weighted
Mean
0.34
G/P
6/27
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/9
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/3
5/24
1.00
1.00
2/6
5/32
0.50
0.31
1/9
1.00
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
6/69
1.12
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/3
0.00
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/3
0.00
1/19
1.42
5/50
1.00
1/3
0.00
1/3
0.00
G/P
G/P
5/156
Weighted
Mean
0.12
G/P
2/55
Weighted
Mean
1.07
3/101
Weighted
Mean
0.70
2/55
1.07
5/156
0.12
3/101
0.70
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/16
1.38
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/2
0.00
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/2
0.00
1/12
1.50
3/4
1.00
2/2
0.00
2/2
0.00
G/P
Weighted
Mean
G/P
Weighted
Mean
G/P
Weighted
Mean
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
G/P, number of groups/number of patients.
18
Table 4B. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Pediatric
Population, Mid Ureteral Stones
Mid Ureter All Sizes
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/32
1.44
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/9
0.11
3/29
1.48
1/9
1/3
G/P
4/18
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.00
4/18
1.00
G/P
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
5/42
0.67
2/14
0.02
3/28
2/53
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.08
2/53
1.08
G/P
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.33
1/6
0.11
2/12
Weighted
Mean
0.17
2/12
Weighted
Mean
0.75
2/12
0.17
2/12
0.75
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/145
Weighted
Mean
0.09
3/99
Weighted
Mean
0.71
4/145
0.09
3/99
0.71
G/P
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1.33
1/5
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/5
1.00
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/5
Weighted
Mean
0.20
1/5
0.20
G/P
1/5
Weighted
Mean
0.20
1/5
0.20
G/P
19
Table 4C. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Pediatric
Population, Distal Ureteral Stones
Distal Ureter All Sizes
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
7/212
1.38
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
6/188
1.43
4/98
1/24
G/P
10/185
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.05
2/24
8/161
1.00
1.06
G/P
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/98
0.08
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
6/161
1.35
7/190
5/96
1/17
6/173
0.06
0.09
1/17
4/79
0.12
0.85
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/14
0.36
1/14
3/42
G/P
4/109
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.03
1/17
3/92
1.00
1.04
3/25
1.44
1/1
1.00
Weighted
Mean
G/P
0.07
Weighted
Mean
0.72
1.48
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/26
1.42
2/43
Weighted
Mean
0.09
3/119
G/P
0.08
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/43
0.07
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
0.36
8/269
Weighted
Mean
0.10
4/143
Weighted
Mean
0.71
1/17
7/252
0.06
0.10
1/17
3/126
0.12
0.79
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
Weighted
Mean
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
G/P
Weighted
Mean
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
G/P, number of groups/number of patients.
20
Table 4D. Procedure Counts for Shock-wave Lithotripsy and Ureteroscopy in the Pediatric
Population, Total Ureteral Stones
Total Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Total Ureter 10 mm
Shock-wave Lithotripsy
All forms
Bypass
In situ
Pushback
Other
Ureteroscopy
All forms
Flexible
Mixed flexible
Rigid
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
7/196
1.37
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
3/17
0.30
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/3
0.00
3/152
1.48
1/14
0.36
4/44
2/3
3/75
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.05
5/167
0.00
Weighted
Mean
0.09
3/109
0%
Weighted
Mean
0.58
1/17
2/58
1.00
1.07
1/17
4/150
0.06
0.09
1/17
2/92
0.12
0.67
G/P
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
3/48
1.39
G/P
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/2
0.00
1//43
1.44
2/5
G/P
1/5
1.00
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1/5
1.00
G/P
1/2
2/3
G/P
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/2
0.00
1/2
G/P
1/5
0.00
Weighted
Mean
0.20
1/5
0%
Weighted
Mean
0.20
1/5
0.20
1/5
0.20
21
7. Ureteral injury
8. Ureteral obstruction
9. Urinary tract infections (UTI)
10. Overall significant
The last category included data from articles that did not specify the nature of the
complications but simply provided a count of significant complications. This most
frequently occurred when the study indicated that there were no significant
complications. The numbers of specific complications listed in an article were not
summed and counted as overall significant complications. Thus, the estimates for this
category are probably substantially underestimated and are included to show that there
were studies that specified that no complications occurred.
The Panel made no inferences about the nonoccurrence of complications. If an
article did not mention a complication, even if other complications were listed, no
assumption was made that the complication did not occur. This decision may have
caused the presented data to be overestimated because studies where the complication
occurred and was reported were more likely to be included. However, since many studies
did not report complications or may have omitted complications, the complication rates
may be underestimated. It is not known to what extent these competing sources of
inaccuracy counteract each other. For very rare events, such as death, for which the few
recorded instances are probably reported, the estimates given are significant
overestimates.
The complication rate for the overall population by treatment, size, and location
are shown in Table 5. The Panel opted not to compare treatments with regard to
statistically significant differences since articles varied in the complications reported and
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
22
23
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Cardiovascular
Distal Ureter
Death
No. of
Groups
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
1
1
1
1
395
395
32
32
2%
2%
4%
4%
(1 - 3)%
(1 - 3)%
(0 - 14)%
(0 - 14)%
Proximal Ureter
1
1
1
1
111
111
109
109
0%
0%
2%
2%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Distal Ureter
2
2
1,185
1,185
0%
0%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 0)%
Size
Treatment
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
341
341
0%
0%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 1)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
105
105
0%
0%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
2
2
1
1
1
238
238
40
40
40
0%
0%
1%
1%
1%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Mid Ureter
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
44
44
1%
1%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
30
30
1%
1%
(0 - 8)%
(0 - 8)%
24
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Size
Proximal Ureter
Overall
Significant
No. of
Groups
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
2
2
1
1
1
1,143
1,143
84
84
84
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
(0 - 0)%
(0 - 0)%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 3)%
Treatment
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
151
151
0%
0%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
117
117
0%
0%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
11
9
2
18
3
15
2,027
1,974
53
1,902
132
1,770
1%
3%
7%
9%
7%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 11)%
(5 - 10)%
(4 - 16)%
(4 - 10)%
1%
Distal Ureter
Distal Ureter
10 mm
4
3
1
6
6
809
800
9
532
532
1%
0%
2%
6%
6%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 24)%
(3 - 12)%
(3 - 12)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
2
2
3
3
197
197
177
177
1%
1%
16%
16%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 3)%
(5 - 35)%
(5 - 35)%
25
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Overall
Significant
Stone
Location
Mid Ureter
Size
Treatment
SWL - all types
SWL - in situ
SWL - other
URS - all types
URS - flexible
URS - mixed flexible
URS - rigid
Mid Ureter
10 mm
Mid Ureter
10 mm
Proximal Ureter
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
No. of
Groups
4
2
2
9
1
3
6
No. of
Pts
149
125
24
126
1
27
99
Med.
Prob.
3%
1%
8%
14%
16%
13%
15%
95% CI
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 34)%
(8 - 22)%
(0 - 85)%
(2 - 34)%
(8 - 24)%
2
1
1
1
1
91
90
1
15
15
1%
0%
16%
14%
14%
(0 - 7)%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 85)%
(3 - 36)%
(3 - 36)%
1
1
8
8
14%
14%
(1 - 45)%
(1 - 45)%
6
3
3
13
1
5
8
622
453
169
383
8
190
193
4%
1%
11%
11%
3%
12%
10%
(1 - 12)%
(0 - 5)%
(2 - 34)%
(6 - 17)%
(0 - 26)%
(4 - 26)%
(6 - 17)%
2
1
1
3
2
1
165
151
14
120
98
22
1%
0%
2%
12%
15%
1%
(0 - 7)%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 16)%
(2 - 32)%
(1 - 47)%
(0 - 11)%
26
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Sepsis
Stone
Location
Size
Treatment
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
Distal Ureter
No. of
Groups
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
1
1
4
2
2
117
117
108
42
66
0%
0%
17%
24%
10%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
(6 - 34)%
(2 - 69)%
(3 - 21)%
6
5
1
7
1
6
2,019
2,003
16
1,954
109
1,845
3%
3%
1%
2%
0%
2%
(2 - 5)%
(2 - 5)%
(0 - 14)%
(1 - 4)%
(0 - 2)%
(1 - 4)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
2
1
1
1
1
53
44
9
12
12
4%
3%
2%
2%
2%
(1 - 14)%
(0 - 10)%
(0 - 24)%
(0 - 19)%
(0 - 19)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
342
342
4%
4%
(2 - 6)%
(2 - 6)%
2
1
1
4
1
2
398
396
2
199
40
43
5%
2%
10%
4%
1%
5%
(0 - 20)%
(1 - 4)%
(0 - 67)%
(1 - 11)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 24)%
Mid Ureter
27
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Sepsis
Steinstrasse
Stone
Location
Size
Treatment
URS - rigid
Mid Ureter
10 mm
Proximal Ureter
No. of
Groups
2
No. of
Pts
156
Med.
Prob.
3%
95% CI
(0 - 14)%
1
1
1
1
16%
16%
(0 - 85)%
(0 - 85)%
5
2
3
8
1
4
4
704
499
205
360
84
213
147
3%
3%
2%
4%
0%
3%
5%
(2 - 4)%
(2 - 5)%
(1 - 6)%
(2 - 6)%
(0 - 3)%
(1 - 7)%
(2 - 10)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
1
1
14
14
41
41
2%
2%
1%
1%
(0 - 16)%
(0 - 16)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
41
41
1%
1%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Distal Ureter
1
1
26
26
4%
4%
(0 - 17)%
(0 - 17)%
Mid Ureter
1
1
37
37
8%
8%
(2 - 20)%
(2 - 20)%
Proximal Ureter
3
1
235
50
5%
6%
(2 - 10)%
(2 - 15)%
28
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Stricture
Distal Ureter
Size
Treatment
SWL - other
URS - all types
URS - mixed flexible
No. of
Groups
2
1
1
No. of
Pts
185
109
109
Med.
Prob.
4%
0%
0%
95% CI
(1 - 10)%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
2
2
16
2
14
609
609
1,911
76
1,835
0%
0%
1%
4%
1%
(0 - 1)%
(0 - 1)%
(1 - 2)%
(1 - 14)%
(1 - 2)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
2
2
28
28
125
125
1%
1%
2%
2%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
63
63
0%
0%
(0 - 4)%
(0 - 4)%
1
1
7
1
4
3
43
43
326
1
43
283
1%
1%
4%
16%
8%
2%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
(2 - 7)%
(0 - 85)%
(2 - 22)%
(1 - 6)%
Mid Ureter
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
15
15
1%
1%
(0 - 15)%
(0 - 15)%
Mid Ureter
10 mm
24
1%
(0 - 10)%
29
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Size
Proximal Ureter
Transfusion
No. of
Groups
1
No. of
Pts
24
Med.
Prob.
1%
95% CI
(0 - 10)%
2
1
1
8
1
4
4
124
13
111
987
8
164
823
2%
2%
0%
2%
3%
3%
2%
(0 - 8)%
(0 - 17)%
(0 - 2)%
(1 - 5)%
(0 - 26)%
(1 - 8)%
(0 - 5)%
Treatment
SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
64
64
0%
0%
(0 - 4)%
(0 - 4)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
51
51
0%
0%
(0 - 5)%
(0 - 5)%
1
1
1
1
91
91
109
109
0%
0%
0%
0%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 2)%
(0 - 2)%
Distal Ureter
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
28
28
1%
1%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
63
63
0%
0%
(0 - 4)%
(0 - 4)%
1
1
43
43
1%
1%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
Mid Ureter
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc.
and European Association of Urology
30
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Ureteral Injury
Stone
Location
Size
Treatment
No. of
Groups
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
15
15
1%
1%
(0 - 15)%
(0 - 15)%
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
28
28
1%
1%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
Proximal Ureter
1
1
17
17
1%
1%
(0 - 14)%
(0 - 14)%
Distal Ureter
1
1
23
4
19
45
45
4,529
298
4,231
1%
1%
3%
5%
3%
(0 - 5)%
(0 - 5)%
(3 - 4)%
(3 - 8)%
(2 - 4)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
3
3
215
215
2%
2%
(0 - 5)%
(0 - 5)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
71
71
0%
0%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 3)%
10
1
4
6
514
40
91
423
6%
1%
5%
6%
(3 - 8)%
(0 - 6)%
(1 - 13)%
(3 - 9)%
2
2
31
31
8%
8%
(0 - 39)%
(0 - 39)%
Mid Ureter
Mid Ureter
10 mm
31
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Size
Treatment
Mid Ureter
10 mm
Proximal Ureter
Ureteral
Obstruction
No. of
Groups
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
1
1
33
33
1%
1%
(0 - 7)%
(0 - 7)%
2
1
1
10
1
3
7
124
13
111
1,005
84
200
805
2%
2%
0%
6%
0%
2%
7%
(0 - 8)%
(0 - 17)%
(0 - 2)%
(3 - 9)%
(0 - 3)%
(0 - 6)%
(4 - 12)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
3
3
74
74
9%
9%
(1 - 28)%
(1 - 28)%
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
2
2
92
92
1%
1%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 6)%
5
4
1
2
2
330
314
16
185
185
3%
2%
1%
2%
2%
(1 - 6)%
(1 - 6)%
(0 - 14)%
(1 - 6)%
(1 - 6)%
Distal Ureter
Distal Ureter
10 mm
4
3
1
95
86
9
5%
4%
2%
(1 - 11)%
(1 - 12)%
(0 - 24)%
Distal Ureter
10 mm
1
1
63
63
0%
0%
(0 - 4)%
(0 - 4)%
32
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Size
Mid Ureter
No. of
Pts
Med.
Prob.
95% CI
3
2
1
1
1
64
62
2
25
25
9%
6%
10%
1%
1%
(1 - 24)%
(0 - 25)%
(0 - 67)%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
Mid Ureter
10 mm
2
1
1
16
15
1
11%
1%
16%
(0 - 46)%
(0 - 15)%
(0 - 85)%
Mid Ureter
10 mm
1
1
28
28
1%
1%
(0 - 9)%
(0 - 9)%
4
1
2
1
430
90
320
20
2%
2%
2%
1%
(1 - 4)%
(0 - 7)%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 12)%
1
1
14
14
2%
2%
(0 - 16)%
(0 - 16)%
3
1
2
3
3
87
45
42
458
458
4%
5%
3%
4%
4%
(1 - 12)%
(1 - 14)%
(0 - 13)%
(2 - 7)%
(2 - 7)%
1
1
9
9
2%
2%
(0 - 24)%
(0 - 24)%
Proximal Ureter
Proximal Ureter
No. of
Groups
Treatment
10 mm
Distal Ureter
Distal Ureter
10 mm
33
Table 5. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) by Treatment, Size, and Location in the Overall
Population
Complication
Category
Stone
Location
Size
Mid Ureter
Mid Ureter
10 mm
Proximal Ureter
Proximal Ureter
10 mm
Treatment
URS - all types
URS - rigid
No. of
Groups
1
1
No. of
Pts
12
12
Med.
Prob.
2%
2%
95% CI
(0 - 19)%
(0 - 19)%
1
1
1
1
37
37
63
63
6%
6%
2%
2%
(1 - 16)%
(1 - 16)%
(0 - 7)%
(0 - 7)%
1
1
1
1
16%
16%
(0 - 85)%
(0 - 85)%
5
1
1
3
2
1
1
360
90
65
205
224
109
115
4%
1%
8%
4%
4%
4%
3%
(2 - 7)%
(0 - 5)%
(3 - 16)%
(1 - 8)%
(1 - 8)%
(1 - 8)%
(1 - 7)%
1
1
14
14
2%
2%
(0 - 16)%
(0 - 16)%
34
Table 6 summarizes complications for all pediatric groups. Since there are few groups and patients, it was not possible to
stratify data by stone size or location.
Table 6. Complication Occurrence Rates with Shock-Wave Lithotripsy (SWL) and Ureteroscopy (URS) in the Pediatric Population
SWL Overall
SWL in Situ
SWL - Other
G/P
Median
Bleeding
Overall Significant
Complications
2/206
5%
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
(0 - 24)%
1/38
1%
(0 - 6)%
Pain
3/106
18%
(9 - 30)%
3/106
18%
Retention
(0 - 7)%
1/63
2%
(0 - 7)%
Sepsis
1/63
2/101
2%
4%
(1 - 12)%
1/63
5%
(1 - 12)%
G/P
Median
2/206
5%
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
(0 - 24)%
G/P
Median
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
1/38
1%
(0 - 6)%
1/38
1%
(0 - 6)%
(9 - 30)%
Skin
1/168
0%
(0 - 1)%
1/168
0%
(0 - 1)%
Stricture
1/25
1%
(0 - 9)%
1/25
1%
(0 - 9)%
Ureteral Obstruction
4/283
2/63
2%
(1 - 6)%
(1 - 6)%
1/38
1%
(0 - 6)%
(0 - 9)%
3/245
1/25
3%
2%
1%
(0 - 9)%
1/38
1%
(0 - 6)%
URS Overall
G/P
Median
Bleeding
1/66
17%
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
(9 - 27)%
Infection
Overall Significant
Complications
2/91
6%
5/65
Pain
3/98
1/26
Retention
URS Rigid/Semi-rigid
G/P
Median
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
1/66
17%
CI
(2.5 - 97.5)%
(9 - 27)%
(2 - 13)%
1/25
5%
(0 - 17)%
1/66
5%
(1 - 12)%
5%
(1 - 14)%
2/10
11%
(1 - 41)%
3/55
4%
(0 - 13)%
5%
(1 - 13)%
3/98
5%
(1 - 13)%
4%
(0 - 17)%
1/26
4%
(0 - 17)%
3/73
3%
(0 - 9)%
(2 - 11)%
G/P
Median
Sepsis
3/73
3%
(0 - 9)%
Stent Migration
1/25
5%
(0 - 17)%
1/25
5%
(0 - 17)%
Ureteral Injury
6/216
6%
(3 - 10)%
1/29
4%
(0 - 15)%
5/187
6%
Ureteral Obstruction
1/26
1%
(0 - 9)%
1/26
1%
(0 - 9)%
1/12
2%
(0 - 19)%
1/12
2%
(0 - 19)%
Stricture
5/106
5%
(2 - 11)%
5/106
5%
(2 - 11)%
1/43
12%
(5 - 24)%
1/43
12%
(5 - 24)%
35
36
Table 7. Stone-Free Rates for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population
Proximal Ureter
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Mid Ureter
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Distal Ureter
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Total Ureter
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
Median CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
5/91
84%
(75 - 91)%
4/176
95%
(90 - 98)%
G/P
1/1
Size <10mm
Median CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
84%
(15 - 100)%
G/P
Median
G/P
Median
G/P
2/7
Median
76%
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
1/10
Median
98%
CI (2.5 97.5)%
(78 - 100)%
Median
86%
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
(64 - 97)%
1/122
97%
(92 - 99)%
Median
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
G/P
Median
G/P
Median
G/P
5/37
2/89
Median
85%
97%
Size >10mm
Size <10mm
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
Size >10mm
Median CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
81%
(54 - 96)%
97%
(92 - 100)%
Size <10mm
Primary/First Treatments
Overall
G/P
1/15
G/P
3/13
2/89
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
Size >10mm
Size <10mm
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
(38 - 96)%
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
Size >10mm
CI (2.5 - 9.5)%
(68 - 95)%
(92 - 100)%
37
Table 8A. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population,
Proximal Ureteral Stones
Proximal Ureter All Sizes
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Proximal Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Proximal Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
5/38
1.00
4/176
1.05
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/61
0.18
3/238
0.04
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/2
1.00
5/242
0.73
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/7
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/7
1.00
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
4/19
1.00
2/89
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/12
0.17
1/66
0.02
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/7
1.00
3/155
0.58
Table 8B. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population, Mid
Ureteral Stones
Mid Ureter All Sizes
Other Surgeries
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Mid Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
38
Table 8C. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population, Distal
Ureteral Stones
Distal Ureter All Sizes
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Distal Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/15
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/15
0.13
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/61
1.00
1/122
1.00
Table 8D. Procedure Counts for Other Surgical Interventions in the Overall Population, Total
Ureteral Stones
Total Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Total Ureter 10 mm
Other Surgeries
Laparoscopic Stone Removal
PNL
Open Surgery
Primary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/7
1.00
Secondary Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
1/6
0.17
Adjunctive Treatment
Weighted
G/P
Mean
2/7
1.00
Primary Treatment
Secondary Treatment
Adjunctive Treatment
G/P
5/37
1/89
1/18
Weighted
Mean
1.00
1.00
1.00
G/P
2/12
1/66
Weighted
Mean
0.17
0.02
G/P
4/43
3/155
Weighted
Mean
0.30
0.58
39
A single pediatric report provided procedure counts for two patients who had one open procedure
each. Two studies reported stone-free rates for children with open procedures (N=5 patients); the computed
stone-free rate was 82% (95% CI: 43% to 99%).
40
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc. and
European Association of Urology
53
from that employed for the Food and Drug Adminstration-approved indications, and this
difference should be considered in the risk-versus-benefit assessment.
This document provides guidance only, and does not establish a fixed set of rules
or define the legal standard of care. As medical knowledge expands and technology
advances, this guideline will change. Today it represents not absolute mandates but
provisional proposals or recommendations for treatment under the specific conditions
described. For all these reasons, the guideline does not preempt physician judgment in
individual cases. Also, treating physicians must take into account variations in resources,
and in patient tolerances, needs and preferences. Conformance with the guideline
reflected in this document cannot guarantee a successful outcome.
Copyright 2007 American Urological Association Education and Research, Inc. and
European Association of Urology
54
Appendixes
Table of Contents
Appendix 1: Ureteral Stones Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants (1997) .............1
Appendix 2: EAU Working Group on Urolithiasis ........................................................................3
Appendix 3: Ureteral Stones Guideline Update Panel Members and Consultants (2007) ............4
Appendix 4: Article Status Report..................................................................................................6
Appendix 5: Article Extraction Form .............................................................................................8
Appendix 6: Bibliography of Extracted Articles Sorted by Primary Author................................13
Appendix 7: Bibliography of Extracted Articles Sorted by ProCite Number ..............................33
Appendix 8: Stone Free Rates for Observation Therapies by Size...............................................50
Appendix 9: Stone Free Rates for Medical Therapies by Size .....................................................51
Appendix 10: Complications Graphs............................................................................................52
10
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7096 Cranidis, A.I., Karayannis, A.A., Delakas, D.S., Livadas, C.E., Anezinis, P.E. Cystine stones: the efficacy of
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7100 Deliveliotis, C., Kostakopoulos, A., Stavropoulos, N.J., Koutsokalis, G., Dimopoulos, C. Extracorporeal shock
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7124 Jung, P., Wolff, J.M., Mattelaer, P., Jakse, G. Role of lasertripsy in the management of ureteral calculi:
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7184 Cass, A.S. Comparison of first-generation (Dornier HM3) and second-generation (Medstone STS) lithotripters:
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7260 D'Amico, F.C., Belis, J.A. Treatment of ureteral calculi with an 8.3-Fr. disposable shaft rigid ureteroscope.
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7447 Netto, N.R., Claro, J.A., Esteves, S.C., Andrade, E.F. Ureteroscopic stone removal in the distal ureter. Why
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7469 Kim, S.C., Moon, Y.T. Experience with EDAP LT02 extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy in 1363 patients:
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7599 Teichman, J.M., Rao, R.D., Rogenes, V.J., Harris, J.M. Ureteroscopic management of ureteral calculi:
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8084 Huang, S., Patel, H., Bellman, G.C. Cost effectiveness of electrohydraulic lithotripsy v Candela pulsed-dye
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8307 Tawfiek, E.R., Bagley, D.H. Management of upper urinary tract calculi with ureteroscopic techniques.
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8310 Wong, M.Y. Evolving technique of percutaneous nephrolithotomy in a developing country: Singapore
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8316 Larkin, G.L., Peacock, W.F., Pearl, S.M., Blair, G.A., D'Amico, F. Efficacy of ketorolac tromethamine versus
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8363 Hosking, D.H., McColm, S.E., Smith, W.E. Is stenting following ureteroscopy for removal of distal ureteral
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8376 Turk, T.M., Jenkins, A.D. A comparison of ureteroscopy to in situ extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for the
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8383 Elashry, O.M., Elbahnasy, A.M., Rao, G.S., Nakada, S.Y., Clayman, R.V. Flexible ureteroscopy: Washington
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8472 Knispel, H.H., Klan, R., Heicappell, R., Miller, K. Pneumatic lithotripsy applied through deflected working
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8477 Lopez-Alcina, E., Broseta, E., Oliver, F., Boronat, F., Jimenez-Cruz, J.F. Paraureteral extrusion of calculi after
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8481 Reiter, W.J., Schon-Pernerstorfer, H., Dorfinger, K., Hofbauer, J., Marberger, M. Frequency of urolithiasis in
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8517 Mahmood, N., Turner, W., Rowgaski, K., Almond, D. The patients perspective of extracorporeal shock wave
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8527 Scarpa, R.M., De Lisa, A., Porru, D., Usai, E. Holmium:YAG laser ureterolithotripsy. European Urology. ; 35:
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37
8793 Bendhack, M.L., Grimm, M.O., Ackermann, R., Vogeli, T. Primary treatment of ureteral stones by new
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8812 Menezes, P., Dickinson, A., Timoney, A.G. Flexible ureterorenoscopy for the treatment of refractory upper
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8818 Richter, S., Shalev, M., Lobik, L., Buchumensky, V., Nissenkorn, I. Early postureteroscopy vesicoureteral
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8840 Karod, J.W., Danella, J., Mowad, J.J. Routine radiologic surveillance for obstruction is not required in
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8841 Maheshwari, P.N., Oswal, A.T., ankar, M., Nanjappa, K.M., Bansal, M. Is antegrade ureteroscopy better than
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8956 Kourambas, J., Delvecchio, F. C., Preminger, G. M. Low-power holmium laser for the management of urinary
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9001 Reddy, P.P., Barrieras, D.J., Bagli, D.J., McLorie, G.A., Khoury, A.E., Merguerian, P.A. Initial experience with
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9036 Gnanapragasam, V.J., Ramsden, P.D., Murthy, L.S., Thomas, D.J. Primary in situ extracorporeal shock wave
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9092 Fuselier, H.A., Prats, L., Fontenot, C., Gauthier, A., Jr. Comparison of mobile lithotripters at one institution:
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9127 Virgili, G., Mearini, E., Micali, S., Miano, R., Vespasiani, G., Porena, M. Extracorporeal piezoelectric
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9256 Gross, A.J., Kugler, A., Seseke, F., Ringert, R.H. Push and smash increases success rates in treatment of
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9272 Matsuoka, K., Iida, S., Inoue, M., Yoshii, S., Arai, K., Tomiyasu, K., Noda, S. Endoscopic lithotripsy with the
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9275 Nakada, S.Y., Jerde, T.J., Bjorling, D.E., Saban, R. Selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors reduce ureteral
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9312 Irving, S.O., Calleja, R., Lee, F., Bullock, K.N., Wraight, P., Doble, A. Is the conservative management of
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9422 Yinghao, S., Linhui, W., Songxi, Q., Guoqiang, L., Chuanliang, X., Xu, G., Yongjiang, M. Treatment of
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9464 Nutahara, K., Kato, M., Miyata, A., Murata, A., Okegawa, T., Miura, I., Kojima, M., Higashihara, E.
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9469 Lorberboym, M., Kapustin, Z., Elias, S., Nikolov, G., Katz, R. The role of renal scintigraphy and unenhanced
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9598 Ather, M.H., Memon, A. Therapeutic efficacy of Dornier MPL 9000 for prevesical calculi as judged by
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9608 Elsobky, E., Sheir, K.Z., Madbouly, K., Mokhtar, A.A. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in children:
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9650 Goktas, S., Peukirciolu, L., Tahmaz, L., Kibar, Y., Erduran, D., Harmankaya, C. Is there significance of the
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9782 Pace, K.T., Weir, M.J., Tariq, N., Honey, R.J. Low success rate of repeat shock wave lithotripsy for ureteral
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9924 Li, J., Kennedy, D., Levine, M., Kumar, A., Mullen, J. Absent hematuria and expensive computerized
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9943 Denstedt, J.D., Wollin, T.A., Sofer, M., Nott, L., Weir, M., D'A Honey, R.J. A prospective randomized
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9994 Buchholz, N.P., van Rossum, M. Shock wave lithotripsy treatment of radiolucent ureteric calculi with the help
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10009 Landau, E.H., Gofrit, O.N., Shapiro, A., Meretyk, S., Katz, G., Shenfeld, O.Z., Golijanin, D., Pode, D.
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10124 Singh, I., Gupta, N.P., Hemal, A.K., Dogra, P.N., Ansari, M.S., Seth, A., Aron, M. Impact of power index,
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10182 Hendrikx, A.J., Strijbos, W.E., de Knijff, D.W., Kums, J.J., Doesburg, W.H., Lemmens, W.A. Treatment for
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10284 Kiyota, H., Ikemoto, I., Asano, K., Madarame, J., Miki, K., Yoshino, Y., Hasegawa, T., Ohishi, Y.
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10382 Borboroglu, P. G., Amling, C. L., Schenkman, N. S., Monga, M., Ward, J. F., Piper, N. Y., Bishoff, J. T.,
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10522 Tiselius, H. G., Ackermann, D., Alken, P., Buck, C., Conort, P., Gallucci, M., Working Party on Lithiasis,
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10632 Hussain, Z., Inman, R. D., Elves, A. W., Shipstone, D. P., Ghiblawi, S., Coppinger, S. W. Use of glyceryl
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10828 Coll, D. M., Varanelli, M. J., Smith, R. C. Relationship of spontaneous passage of ureteral calculi to stone
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11002 Picus, D., Weyman, P. J., Clayman, R. V., McClennan, B. L. Intercostal-space nephrostomy for percutaneous
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11176 Martinez Portillo, F. J., Heidenreich, A., Schwarzer, U., Michel, M. S., Alken, P., Engelmann, U. Microscopic
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11200 Sayed, M. A, el-Taher, A..M., Aboul-Ella, H. A., Shaker, S. E. Steinstrasse after extracorporeal shockwave
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11228 Schuster, T. G., Russell, K. Y., Bloom, D. A., Koo, H. P., Faerber, G. J. Ureteroscopy for the treatment of
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11368 Gaur, D. D., Trivedi, S., Prabhudesai, M. R., Madhusudhana, H. R., Gopichand, M. Laparoscopic
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11460 Rodrigues Netto, N., Jr., Longo, J. A., Ikonomidis, J. A., Rodrigues Netto, M. Extracorporeal shock wave
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11472 Chandhoke, P. S., Barqawi, A. Z., Wernecke, C., Chee-Awai, R. A. A randomized outcomes trial of ureteral
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11474 Chen, Y. T., Chen, J., Wong, W. Y., Yang, S. S., Hsieh, C. H., Wang, C. C. Is ureteral stenting necessary after
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11476 Lam, J. S., Greene, T. D., Gupta, M. Treatment of proximal ureteral calculi: holmium:yag laser
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11630 Lingeman, J.E., Preminger, G.M., Berger, Y., Denstedt, J.D., Goldstone, L., Segura, J.W., Auge, B.K.,
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11640 Porpiglia, F., Destefanis, P., Fiori, C., Scarpa, R. M., Fontana, D. Role of adjunctive medical therapy with
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11672 Skrepetis, K., Doumas, K., Siafakas, I., Lykourinas, M. Laparoscopic versus open ureterolithotomy. A
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11760 Bassiri, A., Ahmadnia, H., Darabi, M. R., Yonessi, M. Transureteral lithotripsy in pediatric practice.. Journal of
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11778 Buchholz, N. P., Rhabar, M. H., Talati, J. Is measurement of stone surface area necessary for SWL treatment
of nonstaghorn calculi?.. Journal of Endourology. ; 16: 215-20
11806 Parkin, J., Keeley, F. X., Jr, Timoney, A. G. Re-auditing a regional lithotripsy service.. BJU International. ;
11960 Weizer, A. Z., Auge, B. K., Silverstein, A. D., Delvecchio, F. C., Brizuela, R. M., Dahm, P., Pietrow, P. K.,
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12030 Paryani, J. P., Ather, M. H. Improvement in serum creatinine following definite treatment of urolithiasis in
patients with concurrent renal insufficiency.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology. ; 36: 134-6
12032 Byrne, R. R., Auge, B. K., Kourambas, J., Munver, R., Delvecchio, F., Preminger, G. M. Routine ureteral
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12094 Volkmer, B. G., Nesslauer, T., Kuefer, R., Loeffler, M., Kraemer, S. C., Gottfried, H. W. Evaluation of
disintegration in prevesical ureteral calculi by 3-dimensional endo-ultrasound with surface rendering..
12096 Jermini, F. R., Danuser, H., Mattei, A., Burkhard, F. C., Studer, U. E. Noninvasive anesthesia, analgesia and
radiation-free extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for stones in the most distal ureter: experience with 165
patients.. Journal of Urology. ; 168: 446-9
12404 Lifshitz, D. A., Lingeman, J. E. Ureteroscopy as a first-line intervention for ureteral calculi in pregnancy..
Journal of Endourology. ; 16: 19-22
12452 Azm, T. A., Higazy, H. Effect of diuresis on extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy treatment of ureteric calculi..
Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology. ; 36: 209-12
12508 Aynehchi, S., Samadi, A. A., Gallo, S. J., Konno, S., Tazaki, H., Eshghi, M. Salvage extracorporeal
shockwave lithotripsy after failed distal ureteroscopy.. Journal of Endourology. ; 16: 355-8
12754 Dash, A., Schuster, T. G., Hollenbeck, B. K., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr Ureteroscopic treatment of renal
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12756 Shoma, A. M., Eraky, I., El-Kenawy, M. R., El-Kappany, H. A. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy in the supine
position: technical aspects and functional outcome compared with the prone technique.. Urology. ; 60: 388-92
12758 Watterson, J. D., Girvan, A. R., Beiko, D. T., Nott, L., Wollin, T. A., Razvi, H., Denstedt, J. D. Ureteroscopy and
holmium:yag laser lithotripsy: an emerging definitive management strategy for symptomatic ureteral calculi
in pregnancy.. Urology. ; 60: 383-7
12788 Shiroyanagi, Y., Yagisawa, T., Nanri, M., Kobayashi, C., Toma, H. Factors associated with failure of
extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy for ureteral stones using dornier lithotripter u/50.. International Journal
12882 Portis, A. J., Yan, Y., Pattaras, J. G., Andreoni, C., Moore, R., Clayman, R. V. Matched pair analysis of shock
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13040 Loughlin, K. R., Ker, L. A. The current management of urolithiasis during pregnancy.. Urologic Clinics of
North America. ; 29: 701-4
13042 Perisinakis, K., Damilakis, J., Anezinis, P., Tzagaraki, I., Varveris, H., Cranidis, A., Gourtsoyiannis, N.
Assessment of patient effective radiation dose and associated radiogenic risk from extracorporeal shock-wave
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13190 Hochreiter, W. W., Danuser, H., Perrig, M., Studer, U. E. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for distal
ureteral calculi: What a powerful machine can achieve.. Journal of Urology. ; 169: 878-80
13210 Rizvi, S. A., Naqvi, S. A., Hussain, Z., Hashmi, A., Hussain, M., Zafar, M. N., Sultan, S., Mehdi, H.
Management of pediatric urolithiasis in pakistan: experience with 1,440 children.. Journal of Urology. ; 169:
13218 Hemal, A. K., Goel, A., Goel, R. Minimally invasive retroperitoneoscopic ureterolithotomy.. Journal of
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13256 Lalak, N. J., Moussa, S. A., Smith, G., Tolley, D. A. The Dornier Compact Delta lithotripter: The first 150
ureteral calculi.. Journal of Endourology. ; 16: 645-8
13262 Tan, Y. M., Yip, S. K., Chong, T. W., Wong, M. Y., Cheng, C., Foo, K. T. Clinical experience and results of
ESWL treatment for 3,093 urinary calculi with the Storz Modulith SL20 lithotripter at the Singapore General
Hospital.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology. ; 36: 363-7
13596 Cheung, M. C., Lee, F., Leung, Y. L., Wong, B. B., Tam, P. C. A prospective randomized controlled trial on
ureteral stenting after ureteroscopic holmium laser lithotripsy.. Journal of Urology. ; 169: 1257-60
13620 Lewis, D. F., Robichaux, A. G., 3rd, Jaekle, R. K., Marcum, N. G., Stedman, C. M. Urolithiasis in pregnancy.
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13914 Delvecchio, F. C., Auge, B. K., Brizuela, R. M., Weizer, A. Z., Silverstein, A. D., Lallas, C. D., Pietrow, P. K.,
Albala, D. M., Preminger, G. M. Assessment of stricture formation with the ureteral access sheath.. Urology. ;
14074 Hollenbeck, B. K., Schuster, T. G., Seifman, B. D., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr. Identifying patients who are
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14076 Chow, G. K., Patterson, D. E., Blute, M. L., Segura, J. W. Ureteroscopy: Effect of technology and technique
on clinical practice.. Journal of Urology. ; 170: 99-102
14212 Pietrow, P. K., Auge, B. K., Delvecchio, F. C., Silverstein, A. D., Weizer, A. Z., Albala, D. M., Preminger, G.
M. Techniques to maximize flexible ureteroscope longevity.. Urology. ; 60: 784-8
14256 Sheir, K. Z., Madbouly, K., Elsobky, E. Prospective randomized comparative study of the effectiveness and
safety of electrohydraulic and electromagnetic extracorporeal shock wave lithotriptors.. Journal of Urology. ;
14286 Delakas, D., Karyotis, I., Daskalopoulos, G., Lianos, E., Mavromanolakis, E. Independent predictors of failure
of shockwave lithotripsy for ureteral stones employing a second-generation lithotripter.. Journal of
14292 Klingler, H. C., Kramer, G., Lodde, M., Dorfinger, K., Hofbauer, J., Marberger, M. Stone treatment and
coagulopathy.. European Urology. ; 43: 75-9
14392 Leveillee, R. J., Lobik, L. Intracorporeal lithotripsy: which modality is best?. [Review] [19 refs]. Current
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14424 Zeng, G. Q., Zhong, W. D., Cai, Y. B., Dai, Q. S., Hu, J. B., Wei, H. A. Extracorporeal shock-wave versus
pneumatic ureteroscopic lithotripsy in treatment of lower ureteral calculi.. Asian Journal of Andrology. ; 4:
14430 Arrabal-Martin, M., Pareja-Vilches, M., Gutierrez-Tejero, F., Mijan-Ortiz, J. L., Palao-Yago, F., ZuluagaGomez, A. Therapeutic options in lithiasis of the lumbar ureter.. European Urology. ; 43: 556-63
14432 Tligui, M., El Khadime, M. R., Tchala, K., Haab, F., Traxer, O., Gattegno, B., Thibault, P. Emergency
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) for obstructing ureteral stones.. European Urology. ; 43: 552-5
14500 Deliveliotis, C., Chrisofos, M., Albanis, S., Serafetinides, E., Varkarakis, J., Protogerou, V. Management and
follow-up of impacted ureteral stones.. Urologia Internationalis. ; 70: 269-72
14548 Cervenakov, I., Fillo, J., Mardiak, J., Kopecny, M., Smirala, J., Lepies, P. Speedy elimination of
ureterolithiasis in lower part of ureters with the alpha 1-blocker--tamsulosin.. International Urology &
14560 Hosking, D. H., Smith, W. E., McColm, S. E. A comparison of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy and
ureteroscopy under intravenous sedation for the management of distal ureteric calculi.. Canadian Journal of
14600 Johnson, D. B., Lowry, P. S., Schluckebier, J. A., Kryger, J. V., Nakada, S. Y. University of Wisconsin
experience using the Doli S lithotriptor.. Urology. ; 62: 410-4; discussion 414-5
14620 Knopf, H. J., Graff, H. J., Schulze, H. Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis in ureteroscopic stone removal..
European Urology. ; 44: 115-8
14632 Sharma, D. M., Maharaj, D., Naraynsingh, V. Open mini-access ureterolithotomy: the treatment of choice for
the refractory ureteric stone?.. BJU International. ; 92: 614-6
14766 Nelson, C. P., Wolf, J. S., Jr., Montie, J. E., Faerber, G. J. Retrograde ureteroscopy in patients with orthotopic
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14954 Slavkovic, A., Radovanovic, M., Siric, Z., Vlajkovic, M., Stefanovic, V. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
for cystine urolithiasis in children: outcome and complications.. International Urology & Nephrology. ; 34:
15058 Troy, A., Jones, G., Moussa, S. A., Smith, G., Tolley, D. A. Treatment of lower ureteral stones using the
Dornier Compact Delta lithotripter.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 369-71
15096 Mugiya, S., Ito, T., Maruyama, S., Hadano, S., Nagae, H. Endoscopic features of impacted ureteral stones..
Journal of Urology. ; 171: 89-91
15138 Ege, G., Akman, H., Kuzucu, K., Yildiz, S. Acute ureterolithiasis: incidence of secondary signs on
unenhanced helical ct and influence on patient management.. Clinical Radiology. ; 58: 990-4
15146 Muslumanoglu, A. Y., Tefekli, A., Sarilar, O., Binbay, M., Altunrende, F., Ozkuvanci, U. Extracorporeal shock
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retrospective analysis.. Journal of Urology. ; 170: 2405-8
15156 Dellabella, M., Milanese, G., Muzzonigro, G. Efficacy of tamsulosin in the medical management of
juxtavesical ureteral stones.. Journal of Urology. ; 170: 2202-5
44
15174 Ozgur Tan, M., Karaoglan, U., Sozen, S., Bozkirli, I. Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy for treatment of
ureteral calculi in paediatric patients.. Pediatric Surgery International. ; 19: 471-4
15198 Johnson, G. B., Grasso, M. Exaggerated primary endoscope deflection: initial clinical experience with
prototype flexible ureteroscopes.. BJU International. ; 93: 109-14
15226 Nabi, G., Baldo, O., Cartledge, J., Cross, W., Joyce, A. D., Lloyd, S. N. The impact of the Dornier Compact
Delta lithotriptor on the management of primary ureteric calculi.. European Urology. ; 44: 482-6
15418 Erbagci, A., Erbagci, A. B., Yilmaz, M., Yagci, F., Tarakcioglu, M., Yurtseven, C., Koyluoglu, O., Sarica, K.
Pediatric urolithiasis--evaluation of risk factors in 95 children.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology &
15490 Gronau, E., Pannek, J., Bohme, M., Senge, T. Results of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy with a new
electrohydraulic shock wave generator.. Urologia Internationalis. ; 71: 355-60
15558 Kose, A. C., Demirbas, M. The 'modified prone position': A new approach for treating pre-vesical stones with
extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy.. BJU International. ; 93: 369-73
15572 Abdel-Khalek, M., Sheir, K., Elsobky, E., Showkey, S., Kenawy, M. Prognostic factors for extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy of ureteric stones--A multivariate analysis study.. Scandinavian Journal of Urology &
15606 Aghamir, S. K., Mohseni, M. G., Ardestani, A. Treatment of ureteral calculi with ballistic lithotripsy.. Journal
of Endourology. ; 17: 887-90
15608 Hollenbeck, B. K., Schuster, T. G., Faerber, G. J., Wolf, J. S., Jr. Safety and efficacy of same-session bilateral
ureteroscopy.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 881-5
15612 Srivastava, A., Gupta, R., Kumar, A., Kapoor, R., Mandhani, A. Routine stenting after ureteroscopy for distal
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15616 Cimentepe, E., Unsal, A., Saglam, R., Balbay, M. D. Comparison of clinical outcome of extracorporeal
shockwave lithotripsy in patients with radiopaque v radiolucent ureteral calculi.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17:
15624 Katz, D., McGahan, J. P., Gerscovich, E. O., Troxel, S. A., Low, R. K. Correlation of ureteral stone
measurements by CT and plain film radiography: Utility of the KUB.. Journal of Endourology. ; 17: 847-50
15652 Parekattil, S. J., White, M. D., Moran, M. E., Kogan, B. A. A computer model to predict the outcome and
duration of ureteral or renal calculous passage.. Journal of Urology. ; 171: 1436-9
15748 Fong, Y. K., Ho, S. H., Peh, O. H., Ng, F. C., Lim, P. H., Quek, P. L., Ng, K. K. Extracorporeal shockwave
lithotripsy and intracorporeal lithotripsy for proximal ureteric calculi--A comparative assessment of efficacy
and safety.. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore. ; 33: 80-3
15756 Bultitude, M. F., Tiptaft, R. C., Dasgupta, P., Glass, J. M. Treatment of urolithiasis in the morbidly obese..
Obesity Surgery. ; 14: 300-4
15766 Holman, E., Khan, A. M., Flasko, T., Toth, C., Salah, M. A. Endoscopic management of pediatric urolithiasis
in a developing country.. Urology. ; 63: 159-62
15778 char, E., Achar, R. A., Paiva, T. B., Campos, A. H., Schor, N. Amitriptyline eliminates calculi through urinary
tract smooth muscle relaxation.. Kidney International. ; 64: 1356-64
15788 Tansu, N., Obek, C., Onal, B., Yalcin, V., Oner, A., Solok, V. A simple position to provide better imaging of
upper ureteral stones close to the crista iliaca during extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy using the Siemens
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15796 Jeong, H., Kwak, C., Lee, S. E. Ureteric stenting after ureteroscopy for ureteric stones: a prospective
randomized study assessing symptoms and complications.. BJU International. ; 93: 1032-35
15798 Collins, J. W., Keeley, F. X., Jr, Timoney, A. Cost analysis of flexible ureterorenoscopy.. BJU International. ;
15852 Auge, B. K., Pietrow, P. K., Lallas, C. D., Raj, G. V., Santa-Cruz, R. W., Preminger, G. M. Ureteral access
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45
15862 Jain, P. M., Goharian, N., Weiser, A. C., User, H. M., Kimm, S., Kim, S. C., Stern, J. A., Pazona, J., Wambi,
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15872 Ansari, M. S., Gupta, N. P., Seth, A., Hemal, A. K., Dogra, P. N., Singh, T. P. Stone fragility: its therapeutic
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15976 Beiko, D. T., Beasley, K. A., Koka, P. K., Watterson, J. D., Nott, L., Denstedt, J. D., Razvi, H. Upper tract
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15978 McLorie, G. A., Pugach, J., Pode, D., Denstedt, J., Bagli, D., Meretyk, S., D'A Honey, R. J., Merguerian, P. A.,
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16010 Sozen, S., Kupeli, B., Tunc, L., Senocak, C., Alkibay, T., Karaoglan, U., Bozkirli, I. Management of ureteral
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16028 Varkarakis, J., Protogerou, V., Albanis, S., Sofras, F., Deliveliotis, C. Comparison of success rates and
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16046 Al-Busaidy, S. S., Prem, A. R., Medhat, M., Al-Bulushi, Y. H. Ureteric calculi in children: Preliminary
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16098 Gur, U., Lifshitz, D. A., Lask, D., Livne, P. M. Ureteral ultrasonic lithotripsy revisited: a neglected tool?.
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16128 Purohit, R. S., Stoller, M. L. Stone clustering of patients with cystine urinary stone formation.. Urology. ; 63:
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16272 Satar, N., Zeren, S., Bayazit, Y., Aridogan, I. A., Soyupak, B., Tansug, Z. Rigid ureteroscopy for the treatment
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16284 Gomha, M. A., Sheir, K. Z., Showky, S., Abdel-Khalek, M., Mokhtar, A. A., Madbouly, K. Can we improve the
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or a statistical model?.. Journal of Urology. ; 172: 175-9
16332 Porpiglia, F., Ghignone, G., Fiori, C., Fontana, D., Scarpa, R. M. Nifedipine versus tamsulosin for the
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16366 Dogan, H. S., Tekgul, S., Akdogan, B., Keskin, M. S., Sahin, A. Use of the holmium:yag laser for
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16394 De Sio, M., Autorino, R., Damiano, R., Oliva, A., Pane, U., D'Armiento, M. Expanding applications of the
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16396 De Sio, M., Autorino, R., Damiano, R., Oliva, A., Perdona, S., D'Armiento, M. Comparing two different
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16398 Di Pietro, C., Micali, S., De Stefani, S., Celia, A., De Carne, C., Bianchi, G. Dornier Lithotripter S. The first
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16438 Park, H. K., Paick, S. H., Oh, S. J., Kim, H. H. Ureteroscopic lithotripsy under local anesthesia: Analysis of the
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16600 Sinha, M., Kekre, N. S., Chacko, K. N., Devasia, A., Lionel, G., Pandey, A. P., Gopalakrishnan, G. Does
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17108 Ng, C. F., McLornan, L., Thompson, T. J., Tolley, D. A. Comparison of 2 generations of piezoelectric
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17128 Akhtar, M. S., Akhtar, F. K. Utility of the Lithoclast in the treatment of upper, middle and lower ureteric
calculi.. Surgeon Journal of the Royal Colleges of Surgeons of Edinburgh & Ireland. ; 1: 144-8
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17392 Marguet, C. G., Springhart, W. P., Auge, B. K., Preminger, G. M. Advances in the surgical management of
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17432 Wang, L. J., Ng, C. J., Chen, J. C., Chiu, T. F., Wong, Y. C. Diagnosis of acute flank pain caused by ureteral
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17528 Cybulski, P., Honey, R. J., Pace, K. Fluid absorption during ureterorenoscopy.. Journal of Endourology. ; 18:
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17810 Sheir, K. Z., El-Diasty, T. A., Ismail, A. M. Evaluation of a synchronous twin-pulse technique for shock wave
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17838 Hautmann, S., Friedrich, M. G., Fernandez, S., Steuber, T., Hammerer, P., Braun, P. M., Junemann, K. P.,
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18154 Aridogan, I. A., Zeren, S., Bayazit, Y., Soyupak, B., Doran, S. Complications of pneumatic ureterolithotripsy
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18204 Yilmaz, E., Batislam, E., Basar, M. M., Tuglu, D., Ferhat, M., Basar, H. The comparison and efficacy of 3
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18376 Unsal, A., Cimentepe, E., Balbay, M. D. Routine ureteral dilatation is not necessary for ureteroscopy..
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18402 Dellabella, M., Milanese, G., Muzzonigro, G. Randomized trial of the efficacy of tamsulosin, nifedipine and
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18474 Dagnone, A. J., Blew, B. D., Pace, K. T., Honey, R. J. Semirigid ureteroscopy of the proximal ureter can be
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49
A special analysis of observation therapies was requested for stone sizes of <5, 5-10,
and >10 mm stones. Most studies didnt fit these ranges. Below is the analysis that was
possible.
Observation
Article # # Stone free
# pts
Notes
<5 mm
8788
9526
10632
10828
18522
54
12
9
85
3
68% (46 - 85)%
59
27
9
114
15
8788
10632
10828
8
9
31
47% (36 - 59)%
16
15
73
Meta-analysis:
4mm or less
results at 2 weeks
5-10mm
Meta-analysis:
>10 mm
35
51
>4 mm
Results at 1 week
no data
50
Medical Therapy
Article #
# Stone free
# pts
Notes
Nifedipine
9663
16332
16402
Meta-analysis:
31
24
13
74% (55 - 88)%
35
30
25
<10 mm
<15 mm
(-17 - 31)%
(16 - 33)%
(17 - 36)%
(16 - 33)%
(17 - 37)%
Linked Meta-analysis
18% (-9 - 42)%
20% (-7 - 45)%
51
20%
40%
60%
52
80%
100%
Transfusion
20%
40%
60%
53
80%
100%
Cardiovascular/Pulmonary
0%
20%
40%
60%
54
80%
100%
20%
40%
60%
55
80%
100%
Sepsis
Distal Ureter - SWL - all types
Distal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter - SWL - other
Distal Ureter - URS - all types
Distal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Distal Ureter - URS - rigid
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - SWL - all types
Mid Ureter - SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - SWL - other
Mid Ureter - URS - all types
Mid Ureter - URS - Flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - rigid
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Proximal Ureter - SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - other
Proximal Ureter - URS - all types
Proximal Ureter - URS - Flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - all types
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - rigid
0%
20%
40%
60%
56
80%
100%
Steinstrasse
0%
20%
40%
60%
57
80%
100%
Ureteral Injury
Distal Ureter - SWL - All types
Distal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter - URS - all types
Distal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Distal Ureter - URS - rigid
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - all types
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Mid Ureter - URS - all types
Mid Ureter - URS - Flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - rigid
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - all types
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter - SWL - All types
Proximal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - other
Proximal Ureter - URS - all types
Proximal Ureter - URS - Flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - all types
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - rigid
0%
20%
40%
58
60%
80%
100%
Ureteral Obstruction
Distal Ureter - SWL - all types
Distal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter - SWL - other
Distal Ureter - URS - all types
Distal Ureter - URS - rigid
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - SWL - all types
Mid Ureter - SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - SWL - other
Mid Ureter - URS - all types
Mid Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter - SWL - bypass
Proximal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - other
Proximal Ureter - URS - all types
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
0%
20%
40%
60%
59
80%
100%
UTI
Distal Ureter - SWL - all types
Distal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter - SWL - other
Distal Ureter - URS - all types
Distal Ureter - URS - rigid
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - other
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
20%
40%
60%
60
80%
100%
Stricture
Distal Ureter - SWL - all types
Distal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter - URS - all types
Distal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Distal Ureter - URS - rigid
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Distal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Distal Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - SWL - all types
Mid Ureter - SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter - URS - all types
Mid Ureter - URS - Flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Mid Ureter - URS - rigid
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Mid Ureter <= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - all types
Mid Ureter >= 10 mm- SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - all types
Proximal Ureter - SWL - in situ
Proximal Ureter - SWL - other
Proximal Ureter - URS - all types
Proximal Ureter - URS - Flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - mixed flexible
Proximal Ureter - URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - all types
Proximal Ureter <= 10 mm- URS - rigid
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - all types
Proximal Ureter >= 10 mm- URS - rigid
0%
20%
40%
60%
61
80%
100%
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