MP 2007 Maths 4 Tutorial 1

MP2007/AE2007 Mathematics 4
Tutorial 1(Fourier Series)

2007/08 Sem 1
MP 2007 Maths 4
Tutorial 1
1. Verify:
Hint: Knowledge of factor formulae will help, using the factor formulae,
Where
=(m+n) and =(m-n),
the 1st equation becomes:
x)-
x) dx, which if evaluated using simple
integration equates to 0.
the 2nd equation becomes: -
x)-
x) dx, which if evaluated using simple
integration equates to 0 when m=n and when mn.
Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)
2007/08 Sem 1
2.
Hint: Consider the length of 1 period for a function f(x)=sinx, cosx and tanx
The smallest period is given by , where a is the coefficient of x in each function.
Hence,
the smallest period of cosx and sinx is 2,

the smallest period of cos2x and sin2x is ,
the smallest period of cosx and sinx is 2,
the smallest period of cos2x and sin2x is 1.
2007/08 Sem 1
3.
Hint: If a function has a period, p, the period repeats itself, such that when n=1,2,3, np
is a period of f(x)
Solution: f(x+p) = f(x), f[x+(x+p)] = f[x+2p] = f(x+p) = f(x); similarly, we can prove for
f(x+np) = f[x+(n-1)p] = f[x+(n-2)p] == f(x)
2007/08 Sem 1
4.
Hint: We are told in the notes that f(x+p)=f(x), where p is the period of p. We are also
given that f(x+np)=f(x) n=1,2,3 for all x.
Hence 2p, 3p, 4p are also periods of f(x), for p>0
2007/08 Sem 1
5.
Hint:
Given that the period of a particular function is given as , where a is the coefficient of x
in each function and p is the period of f(x)
Hence, the period of f(ax) is p/(a which is equal to .
Similarly, the period of the period of f( ) is p/(
which is equal to pb.
2007/08 Sem 1
6.
For finding Fourier series of a function, 1st thing is to check its period. If the period is 2 , just plug
in the basic Euler formulas, otherwise use the extend form which has period 2L. 2nd thing is to check
if its even or odd. If its even, (graph is symmetry about y-axis, or have the characteristic f (-x) = f
(x)), only need to calculate a 0 and a n , ( b n will be zero); if its odd, (graph is symmetry about the
origin, or have the characteristic f (-x) = -f (x)), only need to calculate b n .
Euler Formulas:
f (x) =
a0 =
an =
bn =
a0
+ (a n cos nx + b n sin nx )
2 n =1
f (x )dx
f (x )cosnx dx
f ( x)sinnx dx
2007/08 Sem 1
7. Find the Fourier series for periodic function f (x) of period 2 ,

0 , - x 0 ;
f (x) =
k , 0 < x < .
Hint: For finding Fourier series of a function, 1st thing is to check its period. If the period
is 2 , just plug in the basic Euler formulas, otherwise use the extend form which has
period 2L. 2nd thing is to check if its even or odd. If its even, (graph is symmetry about
y-axis, or have the characteristic f (-x) = f (x)), you only need to calculate a 0 and a n ,
( b n will be zero); if its odd, (graph is symmetry about the origin, or have the
characteristic f (-x) = -f (x)), you only need to calculate b n .
Euler Formulas:
a
f (x) = 0 + (a n cos nx + b n sin nx )
2 n =1
a0 =
an =
bn =
f (x )dx
f (x )cosnx dx
f (x )sinnx dx
Solution:
0
1
1
1
a 0 = f ( x )dx = 0dx + kdx = k
an =
bn =
( 0 cosnx dx + k cosnx dx) =
1 sinnx
k
( 0 sinnx dx + f ( x ) sinnx dx) =

-
f (x) =
=0
1 - cosnx
k
1 - cosn
k
n
k
1 - cosn
+
k sinnx
2 n =1 n
2007/08 Sem 1
8.
Hint: The function is even function as f (-x) = f (x)),
Therefore, bn=0.
Using the Euler formulas given again below:
f (x) =
a0 =
an =
bn =
a0
+ (a n cos nx + b n sin nx )
2 n =1
f (x )dx
f (x )cosnx dx
f ( x)sinnx dx
We can obtain an and a0 and then find f(x).
2007/08 Sem 1
9. Verify the last statement in Theorem 1 regarding discontinuities for function in

problem 6.
Hint: when we are asked to verify some theorem, we only need to show that its true for
this certain case, (the problem 6 in this case) no proof for general cases is require.
Solution:
For this question, we just need to put the two discontinuous points (x =
) into the
2
Fourier series of f (x), and we will discover that both points will make
n 1
2
(
1
)
cos nx become 0 for any value of n, so we conclude that f ( ) = f ( ) =
n
2
2
n =1
1
1
= (0 + 1) is consistent with our theorem.
2
2
2007/08 Sem 1
10.
Hint: This is an odd series, therefore, a0 and an =0. Since the period is now 2L instead of
from
in previous questions, apply the extended form of Euler Formulas with p =
2L. Secondly, roughly sketch the graph, you will find that its an even function. We just
need to find a 0 and a n .
Extend form of Euler Formulas (with p = 2L)
f (x) =
a0
n
n
+ (a n cos
x + b n sin
x)
2 n =1
L
L
a0 =
1
f ( x )dx
L L
an =
1
n
f ( x )cos
x dx
L L
L
bn =
1
n
f ( x )sin
x dx
L L
L
bn is now:
10
2007/08 Sem 1
11.
Hint: If we examine this function carefully, we can see that the function is neither
symmetrical about the vertical axis(even) or symmetrical about the origin(odd). This is
neither an even nor odd series.
The period is now 2L instead of from
in previous questions, apply the extended
form of Euler Formulas with p = 2L.
a
n
n
f (x) = 0 + (a n cos
x + b n sin
x)
2 n =1
L
L
L
1
a 0 = f ( x )dx
L L
an =
1
n
f ( x )cos
x dx
L L
L
bn =
1
n
f ( x )sin
x dx
L L
L
bn is now:
11
2007/08 Sem 1
12. Find the Fourier series for periodic function f (x) of period p = 2L =1,
f ( x ) = sinx ,0 < x < 1
Hint: Firstly, the period is not 2 , apply the extended form of Euler Formulas with p =
2L. Secondly, roughly sketch the graph, you will find that its an even function. We just
need to find a 0 and a n .
Extend form of Euler Formulas (with p = 2L)
a
n
n
f (x) = 0 + (a n cos
x + b n sin
x)
y
2 n =1
L
L
L
a0 =
1
f ( x )dx
L L
1
n
a n = f ( x )cos
x dx
L L
L
L
1
n
f ( x )sin
x dx
L L
L
L
bn =
Solution:
p
= 0.5. But for this case, since the interval given is not
2
symmetry about y-axis, we need to integrate from 0 to 2L according to the given interval.
1
1
n
sinx cos
x dx .
Hence, we need to find a n , which equals to
0.5 0
0.5
Factor theorem can be used to integrate the above form:
Find half period as usual, L =
Change sin cos to
sin ( + ) + sin ( )
and then integrate. In this case,
2
1
n
sinx cos
x dx
0.5 0
0.5
1
an =
sin(x + 2nx) + sin(x 2nx)

dx
2
0
cos(x + 2nx) cos(x 2nx) 1
=
0
(2n + 1)
(1 - 2n )
2
2
=
+
(2n + 1) (1 - 2n )
4
=
(1 - 4n 2 )
1
= 2
a0 =
1
4
sinx dx =
0.5 0
12
2007/08 Sem 1
f (x) =
(2n )
n =1
cos(2nx )
13
MP2007 Mathematics 4
Tutorial 2 Fourier Series and Integrals
2007/08 Sem 1
1. Are the following functions even, odd, or neither odd nor even?
x 3 , xcosnx , x 2 cosnx , coshx , sinhx , sinx + cosx , x x
Hints:
Odd: f (-x) = - f (x)
Even: f (-x) = f (x)
Odd x Odd = Even
Even x Even = Even
Odd x Even = Odd
Solution:
(-x) 3 = - x 3 = x 3 , even
(-x)cosn(-x) = - xcosnx , Odd x Even = Odd
x 2 cosnx , Even x Even = Even
e -x + e -(-x) e x + e -x
cosh(-x) =
=
= coshx , Even
2
2
e -x e -(-x) e -x e x
sinh(-x) =
=
= -sinhx , Odd
2
2
sin (-x) +cos (-x) = -sinx + cosx, neither even nor odd
x x , Odd x Even = Odd
Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)
2007/08 Sem 1
2. Are the following functions, which are assumed to be periodic, of period 2, even,
odd or neither odd nor even?
3
(i) f(x) = x 2 , (0 < x < 2 );

(ii) f(x) = x 3 , (- < x <
);
2
2
Hint:
Roughly sketch the curve, extend the interval to be symmetrical about y-axis.
Solution:
i) Neither even nor odd, because its neither symmetrical to origin nor y-axis.
y
ii) Neither even nor odd, because its neither symmetrical to origin nor y-axis.
y
2007/08 Sem 1
3. State whether the given periodic function, with p = 2, is even or odd. Find its
Fourier series.
k , - / 2 < x < / 2 ;
f (x) =
0 , / 2 < x < 3 / 2.
Hint:
Roughly sketch
For even function, only a 0 and a n needs to be calculated.
y
Solution:
When k 0 , f(x) is even;
When k = 0, f(x) is both even and odd;
a0 =
k dx = k
an =
k cosnx dx =
f (x) =
2ksin
n
n
2
k 2k
n
+
sin
cosn
2 n =1 n
2
2007/08 Sem 1
1 1 1
4. Using results of problem 3, show that 1 + + =
3 5 7
4
Hint:
Use the result from question 3, f ( x ) =
let x = 0 and k =
k 2k
n
+
sin
cosn = k ( - / 2 < x < / 2 ),
2
2 n =1 n
Solution:
k 2k 2k 2k 2k
+
+
2 3 5 7
1 1 1
1 + + =
3 5 7
4
f(0) = k =
2007/08 Sem 1
5. For given function f (x) =1, defined in 0 < x < L, find the Fourier cosine series as
well as Fourier sine series. Sketch the periodic extensions for both cases from 3L to
3L .
Hint: for sketching the graph, extend it first (cos/sin), then repeat it from the principle
interval (-L<x<L).
y
-3L
3L
cos extension
-3L
3L
-1
sin extension
Solution:
L
2
cos extension: a 0 = 1 dx = 2
L0
2
n
2
a n = 1 cos
x dx =
L0
L
L
L
f (x) =
2sin
n
x
L
n
L
L
0
=0
1
a0 = 1
2
2007/08 Sem 1
2
n
2
1 sin
x dx =
L0
L
L
L
Sin extension: b n =
2
nx
(1 - cosn ) sin
L
n =1 n
- cos
n
x
L
n
L
L
0
2
(1 cosn )
n
f (x) =
2007/08 Sem 1
6. For given function f ( x ) = x 2 , defined in 0 < x < L, find the Fourier cosine series as
well as Fourier sine series. Sketch the periodic extensions for both cases from 3L to
3L .
Hint: same as question 5

y
-3L
3L
cos extension
-3L
3L
sin extension
L
cos extension: a 0 =
2 2
2 x3
x
dx
=
L 0
L 3
L
0
2
nx
4L3
a n = x 2 cos
dx = 2 2 cosn = 0 (using by parts for twice)
L0
L
n
L
f (x) =
L2 4L2
nx
+ 2 2 cosn cos
3 n =1 n
L
Sin extension:
bn =
3
L
2 2
n
2 L3
2L2
4L2
L
+
x
sin
x
dx
cosn
2
(cosn
1
)
=
cosn
+
(cosn 1)
3 3
L 0
L
L n
n
2007/08 Sem 1
- 2L2
4L2
nx
cosn + 3 3 (cosn 1) sin
f (x) =
n
L
n =1 n
2007/08 Sem 1
7. For given function f (x), defined in 0 < x < 2, by
0, 0 x < 1
f (x) =
x, 1 x 2
Find the Fourier cosine series as well as Fourier sine series. Sketch the periodic
extensions for both cases from 2 to 2.
Hint: We will need to use the Euler formulaes:

(with p = 2L)
a
n
n
f (x) = 0 + (a n cos
x + b n sin
x)
2 n =1
L
L
1
a0 =
L
an =
bn =
1
L
1
L
f ( x ) dx
L
L
f ( x ) cos
L
L
f ( x ) sin
n
x dx
L
n
x dx
L
For the fourier cosine series, b n =0

Hence, we can obtain the cosine series by finding
a0 =
an =
= (use integral by parts)
And finally, the fourier cosine series can be given by:

a
n
f(x)= 0 +
x)
a n cos
2
L
= )
For the fourier sine series, a n =0 and a 0 =0.
Hence, we can obtain the sine series by finding
bn =
= (use integral by parts)
And finally, the fourier sine series can be given by:
n
f(x)=
b n sin
x )=
L
2007/08 Sem 1
8. Find the complex Fourier series for periodic function f (x) = x , (-<x<), p = 2.
Hint: for finding complex Fourier Series, just recall the formulas
f ( x ) = C n e inx
1
where C n =
1
2
f (x) e
-inx
dx
also recall:
e i = cos + i sin
Solution:
Cn =
1
2
x e
-inx
dx
-inx
1 xe inx
e
=
dx
2 ni ni
1
=
2
xe inx e inx
+ 2
n
ni
x(cosnx - isinnx) (cosnx - isinnx)

+
ni
n2
n
(-1) i
=
n
(-1) n i inx
f (x) =
e
n
1
2
n 0
Notice! n 0 is added in, because when n is the denominator, it cannot be 0.
10
2007/08 Sem 1
9. Find the complex Fourier series for periodic function f (x) = x , (0<x<2), p = 2.
Hint: Same a Q8.

Solution:
1
Cn =
2
x e
-inx
dx
2 -inx
1 xe inx
e
dx
=
2 ni
ni 0
0
1 xe inx e inx
=
+ 2
2 ni
n 0
1 x(cosnx - isinnx) (cosnx - isinnx)

=
+
ni
2
n2
0
i
=
n
i
f ( x ) = e inx
n
n 0
11
2007/08 Sem 1
0 , x < 0 ;
cosx + sinx
d = - x
2
1+
e , x 0.
0
10. Show that
Hint:
Using Fourier Integral,
f ( x ) = A( )cosx + B( )sinxdx
0
A( ) =
B( ) =
f(v)cosvdv
f(v)sinvdv
Solution:
0
1
1
A( ) = 0 cosvdv + e -v cosvdv
-v
cosvdv
= e -v
sinv
- e -v
sinv
dv
- cosv
- cosv
= 0 + e - v
- e -v
dv
2
0 0
2
= 0+
e -v
cosv
dv
1
1
1 + 2 e - v cosvdv = 2
1
+1
0
Similarly, we can use integral by parts to find B( )
A( ) = e -v cosvdv =
B( ) =
-v
sinvdv =
+1
2
cosv sinv
+ 2
d
2
+
+
1
1
f (x) =
12
2007/08 Sem 1
11. Show that
Hint:
Expand f ( x ) =
cosv
d = e x , for x > 0.
2
2
+1
0
e x to be an even function, because only cosv term is involved in this
equation.
Solution:
0
1 -v
1 -v
A( ) = e cosvdv + e cosvdv
- 2
02
2 -v
e cosvdv
0 2
1
(details can be referred to question 10)
+1
2
f (x) =
cosv
d
2
0 +1
13
2007/08 Sem 1
x , 0 < x < a ;
12. Represent the following function in Fourier cosine integral, f ( x ) =
0 , x > a.
Hint: Expand it as an even function, so only A( ) will be involved
A( ) =
v cosvdv +
0
2 sinv
v
a
0
sinv
2 sinv cosv
= v
+
0 cosvdv
0
dv
2 sina cosa 1
+
a
2 2
2 sina cosa 1
f (x) = a
+
2 cosxd
0
2

=
14
2007/08 Sem 1
Tutorial 4 Complex Variables
Regions of Practical Interest
1. Determine and sketch or plot the sets in the complex plane given by
1
1
(a) z + 2 + 5i
(b) Re ( ) < 1 (c) argz <
z
2
4
Hints: recall the definition of z = x + iy or z = re i in coordinate system , understand its
geometrical meaning.
Solution:
1
, which means the area within which the points are all
2
1
1
less than away from the point ( 2 5i ) , so its a solid circle with radius and center ( 2 5i ) .
2
2
a) z + 2 + 5i = z ( 2 5i )
1
x yi
x
, so the function means its real part 2
< 1, we
= 2
2
z x +y
x + y2
1
1
2
2
transform the inequality x + y > x , (x - ) 2 + y 2 > , which is the entire region outside the
2
4
1
1
circle with radius and centered at ( ,0 )
2
2
1
z
b) Re( ) < 1 , we find that
c) argz <
is between
, it refers to the region which when express z in polar form, the angles
and
of the points
4
y
y
x
x
x
2007/08 Sem 1
Functions and Their Derivatives

2. Find the values of Re f and Im f of f = z 2 + 2z + 2 at 1- i.
Hint:
Find the value of f at the point 1- i first, then pick its real part and imaginary part out.
f = (1 i) 2 + 2(1 i ) + 2
= 4 - 4i
Re f = 4, Im f = -4
2007/08 Sem 1
Continuity
3. Find out (and give reason) whether f(z) is continuous at z = 0 if f(0) = 0 and z 0
for the function f (Re z 2 ) / z = 2
Hint: lim f ( x , y) = f (z 0 ) is the condition for f (z) to be continuous at z 0 . We also need to verify
x x 0
y y0
its continuity by using polar form, see if it gets the limit 0.
Solution:
f=
Re z 2 Re r 2 e 2 i
r 2 cos(2 )
=
=
= r cos(2 ) Because z = re i
z
r
r
lim f ( x,y ) = lim f (r, ) = lim r cos(2 ) = 0 = f (0 ) .

x 0
y 0
r 0
r 0
Hence, this function is continuous
2007/08 Sem 1
Derivative
4. Find the value of the derivative of (z i) /(z + i) at i.
Hint:
df (z)
is the derivative.
dz
Solution:
zi
2i
) d(1 +
)
df (z)
2i
z
i
z
i
+
+
=
=
=
dz
dz
dz
( z + i) 2
df (i)
2i
i
=
=
2
dz
2
(i + i)
d(
2007/08 Sem 1
Analytic Functions. Cauchy-Riemann Equations
5. Check for analyticity by using Cauchy-Riemann Equations ( u x = v y , u y = v x in

Cartesian form or u r = v / r, v r = u / r for r > 0 in Polar form).
(a) f (z) = z 6 (b) f (z) = ln z + iArgz (c) f (z) = Re z / Im z (d) f(z) = Re( z 3 )
Hint: Using Cauchy-Riemann Equations as given in the question. But pay attention to the
form of z, whether its in normal form (x + yi) or polar form ( re i ) will decide how simple
your question could be.
Solution:
a) Express it in polar form will simplify the problem of involving high order.
f(z) = (re i ) 6 = r 6 e i6 = r 6 (cos6 + isin6 )
u = r 6 cos6 , u r = 6r 5 cos6 , u = 6r 6 sin6

v = r 6 sin6 , v r = 6r 5 sin6 , v = 6r 6 cos6
v
u r = = 6r 5 cos6
r
- u
= v r = 6r 5 sin6
r
its analytical.
b) Express it in polar form again: f(z) = ln z + iArgz = lnr + i
1
ur = , vr = 0 ;
r
u
v 1
= = ur , = 0 = vr
r
r
r
its analytical.
Re z x
= (Express z = x + yi)
Im z y
1
ux = vy = 0
y
not analytical
c) f(z) =
d) f(z) = Re z (Express in polar form)
= Re [ r 3 (cos3 + isin3 ) ]
= r 3 cos3
u r = 3r 2 cos3 ,
not analytical
v
= 0 ur
r
2007/08 Sem 1
6. Show that, in addition to f' ( z ) = u x + iv x and f' ( z ) = iu y + v y ; f' ( z ) = u x iu y and
f' ( z ) = v y + iv x
Hint: Use Cauchy-Riemann Equations u x = v y , u y = v x
f ( x,y ) u ( x,y ) + v( x,y )i

=
= u x + iv x ,
x
x
Since its analytical, we can use u x = v y , u y = v x
Solution: f' ( z ) =
Hence, f ' (z ) = u x + iv x = v y iu y = u x iu y = v y + iv x
2007/08 Sem 1
Mapping of Curves
7. Find and sketch the images of x = 0,1,...,5; y = 0,1,5; under the mapping w = iz. (Rotation)
Hint: understand the meaning of the mapping function will help you plotting the graph.
i
i ( + )
Solution: z i = re i e 2 = re 2 , so for every points plotted in w-plane, it has the same
modulus but 2 argument greater than the original argument. Hence, all functions in w-plane are just
the corresponding functions rotated
CCW.
z-plane
w-plane
2007/08 Sem 1
Mapping of Regions
8. Find and sketch the image of the given region x > 0, y < 0, under the mapping w = z 2 .
Hint: Find the geometrical meaning of the region that is expressed in algebraic form.
Solution: w = z = ( x + yi ) = x y + 2 xyi (x>0, y<0)
Hence, the real part of w can be any value, the imaginary part can only be negative. It resembles the
region under the x-axis.
2
x
u
w-plane
z-plane
2007/08 Sem 1
Failure of Conformality
9. Find all the points at which the mapping w = ( z a ) 3 are not conformal.
Hint: The analytical function will not be conformal only at the critical points where
Solution:
dw
= 0.
dz
dw
= 3( z a) 2 = 0 , hence z is not conformal at z=a
dz
2007/08 Sem 1
10. Parametric representation of curves was used in the proof of the Theorem
(Conformality of mapping by analytic function) and will be needed in integration
and etc in the latter lesson. Familiarize yourself with this basic concept by representing
the following curves parametrically.
(a) x 2 + 9 y 2 = 9 (b) y = kx 2
Hint: To find a parametric representation of curves it to find another single variable to

represent both x and y. The objective is to simplify the representation of z. Some of the
common types can be identified by inspection.
Solution:
(a) by inspection we know that the curve is an eclipse. We express x and y in terms of
trigonometric function.
x2 + 9y2 = 9
2
x
2
+ y =1
3

Hence we can let x = 3cos t and get y = sin t; then z = x + yi = 3cos t + i sin t (0 t < 2 )
(b) by inspection we know its a hyperbola, us t to replace x and kt to replace y.
2
Hence z = x + yi = t + i kt
10
2007/08 Sem 1
Tutorial 6 Complex Variables
Integration
1. Use the first method or state that it does not apply and use the second method.
Integrate
(a) Re zdz , C the shortest path from 1+ i to 3 + 2i
c
(b)
sin
zdz , C from i along z = to i in the right half-plane
(c)
cos zdz , C the semicircle
z = , x 0 , from i to i
Hint: the condition which the 1st method can be applied is that the mapping function w = f(z) is
analytical in the whole domain. Hence we need to recall the method of checking whether the
function is analytical, which is Cauchy-Riemann Equations.
If its not analytical, the integration will become path dependant. We need to use the 2nd
method instead.
1st method:
2nd method:
z1
z0
f ( z ) dz = F ( z1 ) F ( z 0 ) (can be applied because its path independent)
f ( z ) zdz = f [z (t )]
b
dz (t )
dt (express z and f(z) in parametrical form)
dt
Solution:
(a) Re z is not an analytical function, (the proof can be found in Tutorial 4, simply because that its
imaginary part is 0 while real part is not, obviously not satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equation)
1
Re zdz = (1 + 2t ) (2 + i) dt , (because z = (1+2t) + i(1+1t), Re z = (1+2t), 0<t<1)

0
= (2 + 4t + i + 2ti )dt = 4 + 2i
0
(b) sin 2 z can be proved to be analytical. Hence 1st method can be applied
1 cos 2 z
1
sin 2 z i
sin 2i
e 2 e 2
dz = [ z
] i = i
i
= i
2
2
4
2
4
c
2
sin zdz =
c
Tip: Trigonometric function, exponential function and hyperbolic functions are closely linked to one
another. Must remember how the relationships are.
(c) cos z can be proved to be analytical as well. Hence 1st method can be applied
cos zdz = sin z i = 2 sin i = 2i sinh

c
Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg)
2007/08 Sem 1
2. Verify Cauchys integral theorem (Theorem 1) for the integral of z 2 over the
boundary of the square with vertices 1 + i, -1 + i, -1 - i, and 1 i (Counterclockwise).
Hint: To verify Theorem 1, we need to show that the answer we get from using Theorem 1 is
the same as using another approach, which is the 2nd method of indefinite integration in this
case.
Theorem 1: if f(z) is analytical in its whole domain which is simply connected, then its
integration along the path will be 0 if the path is closed (ending point and starting point are
the same)
Solution:
Express each side of the square in parametric form, we get:
z
c
dz = {[(1,1) + t (2,0)] 2 2}dt + {[(1,1) + t (0,2)]2 2i}dt +
2
2
{[(1,1) + t (2,0)] (2)}dt + {[( 1,1 ) + t( 0 ,2 )] ( 2i )}dt
Note: (x,y) is the point form of writing x+iy

Dont expand it!!! Otherwise it will become too complicated! We can see by inspection that
the 1st and 3rd term will cancel out each other, so does the 2nd and 4th term.
Hence,
dz = 0 , same as what the Theorem 1 say.
2007/08 Sem 1
Path Independence
3. Verify Theorem 2 (Path Independence) for the integral of cos z from 0 to (1+ i)
(a) over the shortest path, (b) over the x-axis to and then straight up to (1+ i) .
Hint: The key for integrating along different paths is to find its parametric equation and use the 2nd
method of integration.
Solution:
for path a), its a straight line-segment. z = (0 + 0i ) + (1 + i ) t (0 < t < 1),
1
1
zdz
=
cos
c
0 cos( + i)t (1 + i)dt = sin( + i) t 0 = sin( + i)
for path b), its a combination of 2 line segments. z = t (0 < t < 1); and z = +t i (0 < t < 1)
1
1
1
1
zdz
=
dt
+
+
t
idt
=
t
+
+
t
i
= sin( + i )
sin(
)
cos
cos
cos(
)
sin
c
0
0
0
0
Hence, the integration along the 2 paths are the same, the integration is path-independent.
2007/08 Sem 1
Cauchys Integral Theorem Applicable?

4. Integrate f (z) counterclockwise around the unit circle, indicating whether Cauchys
integral theorem applies,
(a) f ( z ) = e z (b) f ( z ) = 1 /( 2 z 1) (c) f (z) = Im z
2
Hint:
Firstly, check if the function is analytical (by Cauchy-Riemanns Equations) and its whole
domain is simply-connected. If so, Cauchys Integral Theorem applies here. As the path is a
unit circle which is a closed path, we can see that the result will be 0 immediately according
to Cauchys 1st Integral Theorem.
If its analytical only except at one point z = z 0 , then we can construct another function g(z)
= f ( z ) ( z z 0 ) use Cauchys integral formulas:
g ( z)
zz
c
dz = 2ig ( z 0 )
If its not analytical, go back to the 2nd method of integration.

Solution:
(a) f ( z ) = e z is analytical in the domain, the domain is simply connected as well.
2
Hence, its integration along the path is 0.

(b) f ( z ) =
1
1
is analytical except (z = )
2z 1
2
1
2
1
dz = 2i ( ) = i
1
2
z
2
(c) f ( z ) = Im z is not analytical, hence, we express z in parametric form: z = re i , then

2
i
2
Im zdz = sin ie d = ( i sin cos sin )d =
c
2 1 cos 2
i sin 2
d
d
0
2
2
2007/08 Sem 1
Contour Integrals
5. Evaluate (showing the details and using a partial fraction representation of the integrand if
necessary)
(a) Ln(1 z )dz , C the boundary of the parallelogram with vertices i, (1 + i )
c
(b)
2z 3 + z 2 + 4
c z 4 + 4 z 2 dz, C the circle z 2 = 4 , clockwise
Hint:
Using the similar method as question 4, but here needs one more technique: when the f(z) is
analytical except more than 1 points (this is usually because of the denominator cannot be
zero), we can use partial fraction to break the whole function into parts, then continue using
the method above. If the denominator has factors which have higher order, say, ( z + a ) n , then
we need to use another theorem for the derivatives of analytical function, which is:
2i ( n )
f ( z)
f ( z0 ) =
dz , (n = 1,2,3)
n +1
n!
c (z z0 )
Solution:
(a)
Ln(1 z )dz is analytical at the whole domain. (the singularity at z =1 is not inside the domain),
c
since its path is closed, then the integral = 0.
2z 3 + z 2 + 4
(b)
dz has singularities at z = 0 & z = 2i , (which makes z 4 + 4 z 2 = 0 ) then we
4
2
z + 4z
c
can use partial fraction as we discussed.
2z 3 + z 2 + 4
1
1
1
2i d1
c z 4 + 4 z 2 dz = c ( z 2 + z + 2i + z 2i )dz = 1! dz + 2i1 + 2i1 = 4i , since its the
answer based on the normal condition which is integrated CCW. In our case, if we want to integrate it
CW, the answer is - 4i .
2007/08 Sem 1
Contour Integration
z2
6. Integrate 4
counterclockwise around the circle (a) z + 1 = 1, (b) x 2 + 16 y 2 = 4 .
z 1
z2
has the singularities at 1, i
Hint: use the methods in question 4 and 5. The function 4
z 1
Solution:
(a) the closed path is z + 1 = 1, hence only the singularity at the point -1 is not inside the domain.
We need to construct g(z)=
Hence:
z
z2
/( z + 1)dz = 2i 2
= 0.5i
2
z + 1 ( z 1)
z + 1 ( z 1) z =1
(
c
z2
/( z + 1) .
z 2 + 1 ( z 1)
(b) the closed path is x + 16 y = 4 , hence the singularities at 1 are inside the domain.
Hence use partial fraction:
2
z2
z2
0.5 z 2
1
0.5 z 2
1
z2 + 1
dz
=
dz
=
dz
+
c z 4 + 1 c ( z + 1 )( z 1 ) c z 2 + 1 ( z + 1 ) c z 2 + 1 ( z 1 )dz
2i
0.5 z 2
z2 +1
z = 1 + 2i
0.5 z 2
z2 +1
z =1
=0
2007/08 Sem 1
7. Integrate the given function counterclockwise around the unit circle.

(a)
z3
cosh 3 z
and (b)
2z i
2z
Hint: Using the method above, just remember to change the coefficient of z in numerator to 1
when construct the function g(z)
Solution:
z3
z
z3
dz = 2 dz = 2i ( ) i =
(a)
z
=
i
2 2 8
2z i
c
c z
2
3
(b)
cosh 3 z
dz =
2z
c
cosh 3 z
cosh 3 z
2
dz = 2i[
] z =0 = i
z0
2
2007/08 Sem 1
Further Contour Integrals

8. Integrate the given function over the given contour C, counterclockwise or as
indicated.
1
2
2
(a) 2
, C the ellipse 4 x + ( y 2) = 4
z +4
ez
, C the circle z = 0.5
(b)
ze z 2iz
Ln ( z + 1)
(c)
, C consists of z i = 1.4 (counterclockwise) and z = 0.2 (clockwise)
z2 +1
Hint: Using the same method as above. Remember the theorem for integration in multiple
connected domains. If integrating along 2 paths c1 and c2 , if c2 is inside c1 and integrate
f ( z)
f ( z)
dz +
dz = 2if ( z 0 )
around c1 CCW while integrate c1 CW, then we have
z z0
z z0
c1
c2
Solution:
(a) f(z) is only singularity at 2i inside the ellipse, hence we construct g(z) =
1
,
z + 2i
1
1
1
z + 2i
c z 2 + 4dz = c z 2i dz = 2i z + 2i z =2i = 2
(b) f(z) has the singularity at 0, since only 0 is inside the domain, we construct g(z) =
hence
ez
,
e z 2i
ez
e z 2i dz = 2i 1 = 2i 4
1 2i
z 0
5
(c) f(z) has the singularities at z = i , but since only i is inside the domain, hence we
let
c1 + c2
Ln( z + 1)
dz =
z2 +1
c1 + c2
Ln( z + 1)
2
z + i dz = 2i Ln( z + 1) = ln 2 + i
z + i
4
z i
z =i
2007/08 Sem 1
Contour Integration by Theorem 1 (Derivative of an analytic function)

9. Integrate the following functions counterclockwise around the unit circle,
e3z
tan z
sinh 2 z
(a)
(b)
(c)
1
z4
(4 z i ) 3
( z )3
4
2i ( n )
f ( z)
f ( z0 ) =
dz , (n = 1,2,3)
Hint: use the theorem:
n!
( z z0 ) n+1
c
Solution:
sinh 2 z
2i (3)
2i
8 cosh 2 z
dz =
f ( z0 ) =
4
3!
3!
z
c
(a)
(b)
z =0
8i
3
tan z
2i ( 2 )
2i
dz =
f ( )=
( sin z ) = 4i
3
z=
1 3
2!
4
cos
z
c (z
4
)
4
2007/08 Sem 1
10. Integrate f (z) around C counterclockwise or as indicated.

(a) f(z) = z 2 tan z , C any contour enclosing 0
2z 3 3
, C consists of z = 2 (counterclockwise) and z = 1 (clockwise)
z ( z 1 i) 2
Ln( z + 3)
(c) f(z) =
, C the boundary of the square with vertices 1.5 , 1.5i .
( z 2)( z + 1) 2
(b) f(z) =
Solution:
(a) z 2 tan zdz =
c
tan z
2i
dz =
2
1! cos 2 z
z
(b) use the discussion in question 8, we can use
z =0
= 2 2 i ,
f ( z)
zz
c1
f ( z)
dz = 2if ( z 0 ) for multiple
z z0
c2
dz +
connected domain. c1 is z = 2 while c1 is z = 1 , then the only singularity in the domain is 1+i,
2z 3 3
2z3 3
3
z
hence we construct g(z) =
,
dz = 2i ( 4 z + 2 )z =1+ i = 8i 5
2
z
z
c1 + c2 ( z 1 i )
(c) f(z) has the singularities at -3, 2, -1, but only -1 is inside the domain. Hence we construct g(z) =
1
( z 2) Ln( z + 3)
Ln( z + 3)
Ln ( z + 3)
+
z
3
dz = 2i
,
2
z2
( z 2) 2
c ( z 2)( z + 1)
z = 1
3 2 ln 2
i
9
10
Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
Tutorial guide 10*
6. State the types of the following linear 2nd order PDE
(a) u xx + 2u xy + u yy = 0
(b) xu xy 2 yu yy = u y
(c) u xx + 3u xy + 4u yy + 5u x 2u y + 4u = 2 x 6
(d) ( y + 1)u xx + 2 xu xy + u yy = x + y
Hint: The types of PDE are determined by the coefficient of all 2nd order terms, even a
function of x or y can be the coefficient of the terms.
The general expression for 2nd order PDEs is Au xx + Bu xy + Cu yy = f (u x , u y , u , x, y ) . If
B 2 4 AC > 0 , its hyperbolic; if B 2 4 AC = 0 , its parabolic; if B 2 4 AC < 0 , its ellipse.
Sometime the type of the equation can be different. For example, in (b) and (d), the type
changes (see answers provided)
Solution:
(a) u xx + 2u xy + u yy = 0 , B 2 4 AC = 0 , hence its parabolic.
(b) xu xy 2 yu yy = u y , B 2 4 AC = x 2 + 8 y , its uncertain which type the equation is. Its

parabolic if x =0, hyperbolic if x 0.
(c) u xx + 3u xy + 4u yy + 5u x 2u y + 4u = 2 x 6 , B 2 4 AC = 7 < 0 , its ellipse

(d) ( y + 1)u xx + 2 xu xy + u yy = x + y , B 2 4 AC = x 2 y 1 > 0 , this type is uncertain.
Parabolic if y = x2 1, elliptic if y > x2 1, hyperbolic if y < x2 1.

*Please take notes that the hints in this tutorial guide were checked by one of the MP2007 tutors, but the solutions
are not. Hence, there might be some errors due to the limitation of the knowledge of the student who did this
tutorial guide which we do not take responsibility for it.
Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
7. Solve
u u
=0
x y
by the method of separation of variables. What can you say about the solution if it is
required to satisfy the condition u (0, y ) = y ?
Hint: MSV (method of separation of variable) is done by let u(x,y) = F ( x ) G ( y ) , then
use F ( x ) G ( y ) and its derivatives to replace u and its derivatives in the equation. We will
get 2 ODE (ordinary differential equations) after this, for the questions below until Q10,
all the ODEs we will get are first order only, so just recall the method we are using to
dF ( x)
solve 1st order linear homogenous ODE in the form of A
+ BF ( x) = 0 :
dx
( coefficients A and B can be function of x)
dF ( x) B
dF ( x )
Step 1: transform the coefficient of
into 1, which gives us:
+ F ( x) = 0
dx
dx
A
B
Step 2: find the factor e

Step 3: F(x) = C e
A dx
A dx
, C is an arbitrary constant.
Solution: let u(x,y) = F ( x ) G ( y ) , then the equation becomes

let the ratio become k, then we have 2 ODEs which are
dF ( x)
dG ( y )
G( y) =
F ( x) ,
dx
dy
dF ( x)
kF ( x) = 0 and
dx
dG ( y )
kG ( y ) = 0 , solve the 2 equations we get F(x) = C1e kx and G(y) = C 2 e ky . Hence, u =
dy
Ce kxy
If theres a BC (Boundary Condition) u(0,y)=y, which means Ce
values, hence, the BC does not exist.
ky
= y , it cannot be true for all y

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
8. Use the Product method to solve

u
u
= 4 , u = u ( x, t )
x
x
subject to the boundary conditions u(0, 0)=10, u(0, 4)=200.
Hint: Same method as question 7.
Solution: Let u(x,t) = F ( x) G (t ) , hence we get
dF ( x)
dG ( y )
G( y) = 4
F ( x) , let
dx
dy
dF ( x)
1
dG ( y ) 1
= k , we have F = C1e 4 kx , G = C 2 e kt , u ( x, y ) = Ce k ( 4 x +t )
dx 4 F ( x)
dy G ( y )
u (0,0) = C = 10 , u (0,4) = 10e
4k
(ln 20 ) x +
ln 20
4
= 200 , k =
, u = 10e
4

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
9. Solve (a) yu x xu y = 0 and (b) u x yu y = 0 by separating variables.

Hint: Same as above.
Solution:
(a) yu x xu y = 0 , let u(x,y) = F ( x) G (t ) , hence
dF ( x)
dG ( y )
y G( y) = x
F ( x) . Let
dx
dy
k
( x2 + y 2 )
x2
y2
dF ( x)
1
dG ( y )
1
= k , then F = C1e 2 , G = C 2 e 2 , u ( x, y ) = Ce 2
dx
x F ( x)
dy
y G( y)
(b) u x yu y = 0 , let u(x,y) = F ( x) G (t ) , hence
dF ( x)
dG ( y )
G( y) = y
F ( x) . Let
dx
dy
dF ( x) 1
dG ( y )
y
= k , then F = C1e kx , G = C 2 e k ln y , u ( x, y ) = Ce k ( x + ln y )
dx F ( x)
dy
G( y)

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
10. Use the method of separation of variables to solve

2u
2u
+
9
= 0 , u= u(x,y)
x 2
y 2
which satisfies the conditions
(a) u is periodic in y
(b) u=0 when y=0
u
(c)
= 0 when x=0
x
(d) u=4cosh 15x when y=/2
Hint: Recall the knowledge of dealing with 2nd order linear homogenous ordinary
differential equation. The most popular method is using D-factor.
d 2u
du
+B
+ Cu = 0
2
y
dx
B B 2 4 AC
; case 1, both D1, 2 are
2A
+ C 2 e D2 x ; case 2, D1, 2 are real but identical roots, then
Transform into ( AD 2 + BD + C )u = 0 , D1, 2 =

different real roots, then u = C1e D1x
u = (C1 x + C 2 )e D1 x ; case 3, D1, 2 are imaginary roots, then u = C1 cos D1 x + C 2 sin D2 x

[Note that to meet (a), the function G(y) is periodic which directly gives the correct k
value.]
Solution:
Let u(x,y)=F(x)G(y), use MSV to transform this PDE into 2 ODEs, namely:
d 2 F ( x) 1
dG 2 ( y ) 9
=k
F ( x)
G( y)
dx 2
dy 2
Case1: k=0, F = Ax+B, G = Cy+D. G is nonperiodical, contradicts BC (a).
Case2: k>0, F = C1 cos k x + C 2 sin k x , G = C1e
contradicts BC (a).
Case3: k<0, F = C1e
k x
BC (b): U(x,0) = (C1e
+ C2 e
k x
k x
+ C2 e
, G = C1 cos
k x
k
y
3
+ C2e
k
y
3
, G is nonperiodical,
k
k
y + C 2 sin
y.
3
3
)C 3 = 0 , C 3 = 0 as F 0 isnt meaningful.
u ( x,0)
k
k
= (C1 k e k x C 2 k e k x ) x =0 (C 3 cos
y + C 4 sin
y) =
x
3
3
k
k
(C1 C 2 ) k (C 3 cos
y + C 4 sin
y ) = 0 , C1 = C 2 as G 0 isnt meaningful.
3
3
BC (c):

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
k
k
BC (d): u ( x, ) = (C1e k x + C1e k x )C 4 sin
= 2C1C 4 sin
cosh k x =
3 2
2
3 2
4cosh 15x, k = 15 , C1C 4 = 2 u = 4 cosh 15 x sin 5 y

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
11. A vibrating string has length and c 2 =
= 1 . Suppose that the string is held fixed at
the two ends, the initial velocity is zero and the initial distortion f ( x) = x x 2 . Find the
distortion u(x, t) and the fundamental frequency of the string.
2
2u
2 u
c
=
, remember to BCs for different cases
t 2
x 2
namely: 1. both ends fixed, 2. with one or both end unfixed (moving vertically), 3.
infinitely long strings (no BCs), or semi-infinite with one end fixed (1 BC)
Hint: recall the PDE for wave:
(In addition, the solution derived in the lecture can also be used directly.)
Solution:
Identify the boundary condition: u (0,t) = u (L,t) = 0
u ( x,0)
2
Initial conditions: 1. u(x,0) = f ( x) = x x , 2.
=0
t
Let u(x,y)=F(x)G(y), use MSV to transform this PDE into 2 ODEs, namely:
d 2 F ( x) 1
dG 2 ( y ) 1
=k
F ( x)
G( y)
dx 2
dy 2
Case1: k=0, F = Ax+B, G = Cy+D. u (0,t) = u ( ,t) = 0 is not satisfied.
Case2: k>0, F = C1e
k x
+ C2 e
k x
. u (0,t) = u ( ,t) = 0 is again not satisfied.
Case3: k<0, F = C1 cos k x + C 2 sin k x , G = C3 cos k t + C 4 sin k t .
BC: u(0,t)= u( ,t) =0, C1 = 0 , F = C 2 sin k = 0 . Q C 2 = 0 isnt meaningful,

sin k = 0 ,
k = n = 1,2,3...
u ( x, t ) = F ( x )G (t ) = C2 sin nx (C3 cos nt + C4 sin nt ) , the whole set of u(x,t) =
= sin nx ( An cos nt + Bn sin nt ) ,

n =1
IC2:
u ( x,0)
2
= sin nxBn = 0 , hence using Fourier Integral, Bn =
t
n =1
0 sin nxdx = 0 .
IC1:
An =
u ( x ,0) = sin nxA n = x x 2 ,

n =1
(x x ) sin nxdx =
2
2
n
2
n
2 cos n + 2
4 cos n + 4
)=
dx
3
n
n 3

Tutorial guide 10
2007/08 Sem 1
4 cos n + 4
sin nx cos nt , fundamental frequency = 1 (the smallest
n 3
n =1
coefficient of x in sinnx).
u ( x, t ) =


MP 2007 Maths 4 Tutorial 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MP 2007 Maths 4 Tutorial 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MP2007/AE2007 Mathematics 4

Tutorial 1(Fourier Series)

=(m+n) and =(m-n),

the 1st equation becomes:

x) dx, which if evaluated using simple

x) dx, which if evaluated using simple

integration equates to 0 when m=n and when mn.

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

the smallest period of cosx and sinx is 2,

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

which is equal to pb.

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

7. Find the Fourier series for periodic function f (x) of period 2 ,

( 0 cosnx dx + k cosnx dx) =

( 0 sinnx dx + f ( x ) sinnx dx) =

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

We can obtain an and a0 and then find f(x).

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

9. Verify the last statement in Theorem 1 regarding discontinuities for function in

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Find half period as usual, L =

Change sin cos to

sin(x + 2nx) + sin(x 2nx)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

Done by: Lester Lee (le0002er@ntu.edu.sg) and Huang Yuli (hawkoli1987@gmail.com)

x x , Odd x Even = Odd

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

(i) f(x) = x 2 , (0 < x < 2 );

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Hint: same as question 5

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

7. For given function f (x), defined in 0 < x < 2, by

Hint: We will need to use the Euler formulaes:

For the fourier cosine series, b n =0

= (use integral by parts)

And finally, the fourier cosine series can be given by:

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

x(cosnx - isinnx) (cosnx - isinnx)

Notice! n 0 is added in, because when n is the denominator, it cannot be 0.

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Hint: Same a Q8.

1 x(cosnx - isinnx) (cosnx - isinnx)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

10. Show that

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

11. Show that

e x to be an even function, because only cosv term is involved in this

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

b) Re( ) < 1 , we find that

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

Functions and Their Derivatives

Done by: Huang Yuli (HUAN0112@ntu.edu.sg) & Lester Lee (aircraftfanatic@gmail.com)

its continuity by using polar form, see if it gets the limit 0.