Vectors

Scalars and Vectors

A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude and a direction. One example of a vector is
velocity. The velocity of an object is determined by the magnitude(speed) and direction of
travel. Other examples of vectors are force, displacement and acceleration.
A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude only. Mass, time and volume are all examples of
scalar quantities.
Example 1.
If a car travels from point O to point A, which is 50km. away in a north-easterly direction,
then the displacement of the car from O is 50km.NE. The displacement of the car is
specified by the distance travelled (50km.) and the direction of travel (NE.) from O.
Displacement is therefore a vector, and the magnitude of the displacement (distance), is a
scalar.
On the diagram below the displacement is represented by the directed line segment OA .
The length of the line represents the magnitude of the displacement and is written OA .
The arrowhead represents the direction of the displacement.
N
A

OA =50km.

450

Example 2.
A force of 50 Newton at an angle of 200 to the horizontal downward, is applied to a
wheelbarrow. The diagram below shows a vector representing this force.


AB = 50N

200

50N
B

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Geometric Vectors
We will be considering vectors in three-dimensional space defined by three mutually
perpendicular directions.

Definitions and conventions.

Vectors will be denoted by lower case bold letters such as a, b, c.

Unit vectors i, j, k
Vectors with a magnitude of one in the direction of the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis will be
denoted by i, j, and k respectively.
The notation (a, b, c) will be used to denote the vector (ai + bj + ck) as well as the coordinates of a point P (a, b, c). The context will determine which meaning is correct.

Example
z

P (3,4,5)

k
j

O
i

i = j = k =1

In the diagram above the point P has coordinates (3,4,5).

The vector OP is the vector 3i + 4j + 5k. This may also be written (3,4,5).

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Directed Line Segment.

The directed line segment, or geometric vector, PQ , from P( x1 , y1 , z1 ) to Q( x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
found by subtracting the co-ordinates of P (the initial point) from the co-ordinates of Q (the
final point).
PQ =

cb x x gi + b y y gj + bz z gkh
2

Example.

b g b g b

PQ = 5 3 i + 6 4 j + 1 1 k
PQ = 2i + 2 j 2k

b g

P 3,4,1

Q 5,6,1

x
The directed line segment PQ is represented by the vector 2i + 2j 2k, or (2, 2, 2). Any
other directed line segment with the same length and same directon as PQ is also
represented by 2i + 2j 2k or (2, 2, 2).
The directed line segment QP has the same length as PQ but is in the opposite direction.
QP = PQ = (2i + 2j 2k) = 2i 2j + 2k or (2,2, 2)

Position Vector.
The position vector of any point is the directed line segment from the origin O (0,0,0) to the
point and is given by the co-ordinates of of the point.
The position vector of P(3, 4, 1) is 3i + 4j + k, or (3, 4, 1).
Exercise 1. Given the points A(3, 0,4)

(a) AB

(b) AC

(d) BC

(e) CA

B(2, 4, 3) and

C(1,5,0), find:

(c) CB

(f) The position vectors of A, B and C.

Compare your answers 1(b)and 1(e), and 1(c) and 1(d). What do you notice?

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Length or Magnitude of a Vector.

The length of a vector a = a1i + a2j + a3k is written a and is evaluated by:
a = a 12 + a 22 + a 23
For example the length of the vector 2i + 2j - 2k equals

b g

2 2 + 2 2 + 2

= 12 = 2 3

a1, a2 , a3 are often referred to as the components of vector a.

Unit Vector
A vector with a magnitude of one is called a unit vector. If a is any vector then a unit vector
parallel to a is written a (a hat). The hat symbolises a unit vector.
Vector a can then be written
therefore

a = a a
a =

a
a

Example

A unit vector parallel to

is the vector

a = (1, 2, 3)
a =

1, 2, 3
1
a
1, 2, 3
=
=
a
14
12 + 2 2 + 32

Adding and Subtracting Vectors.

Vectors are added or subtracted by

adding or subtracting their corresponding components

using the triangle rule

by using the parallogram rule.

Example

If a = (-3, 4, 2) and b = (1 2, 3), find:

(i) a + b

( ii) a b.

Adding or subtracting components

(i) a + b = (3, 4, 2) + (1, 2, 3) = (4, 2, 5)
Similarly

(ii) a b = (3, 4, 2) (1, 2, 3) = (2, 6, 1)

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Triangle Rule

(i) a + b
a+b

b
P

a
Q

Place the tail of vector b at the head of vector a (point Q). The directed line segment PR
from the tail of vector a to the head of vector b is the vector a + b.
(ii) To subtract b from a, reverse the direction of b to give b then add a and b.
a b = a + (b)

Parallelogram Rule
S
(i) a + b
R

b
a+b

a
Q

a and b are placed tail-to-tail( point P) and the parallelogram (PQRS) completed. The
diagonal PR is the sum a + b.

(ii) To find (a b), reverse the direction of b to give b then add a and b.
Exercise 2.

For vectors p (3, 6, 5), q (4, 1, 0) and r (1, 3, 5) find:

(a) p + q

(b) r + p

Copyright 2006 RMIT University Learning Skills Unit

(c) p q
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Multiplication of a vector by a scalar.

To multiply vector a = a1i + a2 j + a3k by a scalar, m, multiply each component of a by m.
ma = ma1i + ma2 j + ma3k
The result is a vector of length |m||a|
If m > 0 the resultant vector is in the same direction as a
If m < 0 the resultant vector is in the opposite direction from a.
Two vectors a and b are said to be parallel if and only if a = kb where k is a real constant.
Example 1
a = (3i + j 2k) is multiplied by 7

7a = 7(3i + j 2k) = 21i + 7j 14k.

The magnitude of a is

a =
7a =

32 + 12 + ( 2 ) = 14
2

212 + 7 2 + ( 14 ) = 686 = 7 14 = 7 a

Example 2

Find the value of m so that the vector a, ( 4, m, 8) is parallel to the vector b, (6, 3, 12).
For a and b to be parallel a = kb
Therefore

( 4, m, 8) = k (6, 3, 12) = (6k, 3k, 12k)

equating icomponents
4 = 6k
k=

2
3

equating jcomponents
m = 3k
m = 3

2
3

m = 2
Exercise 3

Find the following

(a) 3 (i + 3j 5k)

(b) 8 (7i + 2j + 4k)

Copyright 2006 RMIT University Learning Skills Unit

(c) 4 ( j 3k)

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Multiplication of a vector by a vector

(1) Dot product or scalar product

The dot product of two vectors a ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and b ( b1 , b2 , b3 )

is a scalar, defined by

a b = a b cos , where is the angle between a and b

and a b = b a
If a is perpendicular to b then a b = 0 (cos(/2)= 0).
In particular i j = j k = k i = 0

If a is parallel to b then a b = a b (cos(0)=1)

In particular i i = j j = k k = 1

Also ( a1i + a2 j + a3k ) ( b1i + b2 j + b3k ) =

( a1b1i i + a1b2i j + a1b3i k + a2b1 j i + a2b2 j j + a2b3 j k + a3b1k i + a3b2k j + a3b3k k )

Thus a b can be defined by

a b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

Example 1
Find the dot product of (2i + 3j + 4k) and ( i 2j + k)
(2i + 3j + 4k) ( i 2j + k) = 2(1) + 3(2) + (4)(1)
= 2 6 + 4
=4
(2i + 3j + 4k) ( i 2j + k) = 4

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Example 2
Find the scalar product of a and b, as drawn, below where

a = 14 and b = 6

a b = a b cos

= 14 6 cos 300

300

= 14 6

3
2

=3 7

ab = 3 7

Exercise 4 Find the dot product of the following vectors:

(a) 3i and 5j

(b) 2i + 3k and 7i + 2j + 4k

(d) (2, 0, 4) and ( 3, 1, 3)

(e) (0, 5, 1) and (4, 0, 0)

(f)

(c) 5k and j 2k

(g)
5
3

450

(2) Cross product or vector product

The cross product of two vectors a and b is the vector a b, which is perpendicular to both a
and b and is given by

j k

a b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
The magnitude of a b is given by a b = a b sin where is the angle between a and b.
The direction of a b is that in which your thumb would point if the fingers of your right are
curled from a to b.
In particular

i j = k,

j k = i,

ki=j

ik=j

k j = i

ji=k

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If a is parallel to b then a b = 0. (sin00 = 0)

In particular

ii=jj=kk=0

If a is perpendicular to b then a b = a b ( sin900 =1)

a b = b a ( the cross product is not commutative.)
Example 1

Find a b if a = 2i +3j + k and b = 5j +3k

j k

a b = 2 3 1 = (9 5)i (6 0)j + (10 0)k

0 5 3
a b = 4i 6j + 10k
Example 2

Find a b if a = (2,1,1) and b = (2,4,0)

a b = 2 1 1 = (0 4)i (0 + 2)j + (8 + 2)k

2 4 0
a b = 4i 2j + 10k
Example 3

Find a b if a = (2,1,1) and b = (8,4,4)

Because a = 4b, a is parallel to b therefore a b = 0

Exercise 5 Find the cross product of the following vectors:

(a) j k

(b) i 4i

(d) 3j 5i

(e) (i 3j + k) (2i + j k)

Copyright 2006 RMIT University Learning Skills Unit

(c) (2i + 3j k) (3j + 2k)

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Projection of vectors.
Consider the diagram below:
Q

Let PQ = a and PS = b.

Scalar projection
The scalar projection of vector a in the direction of vector b is the length of the straight line
PR or PR .
PR = a cos .

Also

cos =

a b
ab

(because a b = a b cos )

Therefore
a b a b
b
PR = ( a )
=
= a b (cancel a , and use
=b)
a b
b
b

The scalar projection of a vector a in the direction of vector b is given by

a b
= a b
b

or

a cos

Vector projection
The vector projection of vector a in the direction of vector b is a vector in the direction of b
with a magnitude equal to the length of the straight line PR or PR .
Therefore the vector projection of a in the direction of b is the scalar projection multiplied by
a unit vector in the direction of b.
The vector projection of vector a in the direction of vector b is given by

(a b ) b
( a b ) b =
2
b

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Angle between two vectors

The angle, between two vectors can be found from the definition of the dot product

a b = a b cos
therefore cos =

a b
ab

can also be found from cos =

a b
a

Example

Find (a) the scalar projection of vector a = (2, 3, 1) in the direction of vector b = (5, 2, 2).
(b) the angle between a and b.
(c) the vector projection of a in the direction of b.
(a) Scalar projection

b = 25 + 4 + 4 = 33

therefore

(5, 2, 2)
b =
33

b g

(5, 2, 2) 10 + 6 + 2
6
=
a b = (2, 3, 1)
=
33
33
33

The scalar projection of a in the direction of b is

6
33

(b) Angle between a and b

The scalar projection of a in the direction of b is also equal to a cos , where
is the angle between a and b.
6
= a cos .
33

Therefore

6
=
33

cos =

a =

2 2 + 32 + 12 = 14

14 cos
6
= 0.2791
33 14

= 74
The angle between a and b is 740.

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(c) Vector projection

The vector projection a in the direction of b equals:
(scalar projection a in the direction of b) b
=

6
(5, 2, 2)
6(5, 2, 2)

=
33
33
33

The vector projection of a in the direction of b is

6(5, 2, 2)
33

Exercise 6 For the following pairs of vectors find:

(i) the scalar projection of a on b
(ii) the angle between a and b
(iii) the vector projection of a on b
(a) a = (2, 3 ,1)

b = (5, 0, 3)

(b) a = (0, 0, 3)

(c) a = (5, 0, 0)

b = (0, 3, 0)

(d) a = (3, 2, 1) b = (2, 1, 2)

Copyright 2006 RMIT University Learning Skills Unit

b = (0, 0, 7)

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Answers
1.(a) (5, 4, 1)

(b) (2, 5, 4)

(d) (3, 9, 3)




(f) OA = 3i + 4k ,

(c) (3, 9, 3)

(e) (2, 5, 4)








OB = 2i + 4 j + 3k , OC = i 5 j

2. (a) (1, 7, 5)

(b) (4, 3, 10)

(c) (7, 5, 5)

3. (a) 3i + 9 j 15k

(b) 56i + 16 j + 32k

(c) 4 j + 12k

4. (a) 0

(b) 26

(b) 0

5. (a) i

6.(a)(i)

13
34

(c) 9i 4j + 6k
(ii) 530

(b)(i) 3

(ii) 00

(c)(i)

(ii) 900

(d)(i) 2

(d) 6

(c) 10

(ii) 122

Copyright 2006 RMIT University Learning Skills Unit

(e) 0

(f) 10 2
(d) 15k

(e) i + 9j +7 k

(iii)

13
(5, 0, 3)
34

(iii)

3
0, 0, 7
7

(g) 0

(iii) 0
0

(iii)

2
2, 1, 2
3

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