2 - Analytic Geometry

CALCULUS 2
2. Vectors and Geometry of Space

(Chapters 12-13)
Nguyễn Anh Tú
natu@hcmiu.edu.vn
Contents
1 Coordinate Systems
2 Vectors
3 Dot product
4 Cross Product
5 Equations of Lines and Planes
6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces
7 Vector Functions
8 Arc Length
Section 1
Coordinate Systems
Three-dimensional Coordinate Systems
In order to represent points in space, we first choose a fixed
point O (the origin) and three directed lines through O that
are perpendicular to each other, called the coordinate axes
and labeled x-axis, y -axis, and z-axis.
Figure 2.1 The coordinate axes

The three coordinate axes determine the three coordinate
planes illustrated in Figure 2.2.
These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts,

called octants. The first octant is determined by the positive
axes.
Figure 2.2 Coordinate planes

Let P be any point in space. The Cartesian coordinates
(a, b, c) of a point P in space are the numbers at which the
planes through P perpendicular to the axes cut the axes.
We call a, b, and c the coordinates of P; a is the
x-coordinate, b is the y -coordinate, and c is the z-coordinate.
Figure 2.3 Coordinates of a point

The point P(a, b, c) determines a rectangular box as in Figure
2.4. If we drop a perpendicular from P to the xy -plane, we get
a point Q with coordinates (a, b, 0) called the projection of P
on the xy -plane. Similarly, R(0, b, c) and S(a, 0, c) are the
projections of P on the yz-plane and xz-plane, respectively.
Figure 2.4 The rectangular box determined by a point

The Cartesian product
R × R × R = {(x, y , z)| x, y , z ∈ R}
is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted

by R3 . It is called a three-dimensional rectangular
coordinate system.
Notice that, in terms of coordinates, the first octant can be

described as the set of points whose coordinates are all
positive.
• In two-dimensional analytic geometry, the graph of an
equation involving x and y is a curve in R2 .
• In three-dimensional analytic geometry, an equation in x,
y , and z represents a surface in R3 .
Example 1.1 The equation y = 5 represents the set of all
points in R3 whose y -coordinate is 5. This is the vertical plane
that is parallel to the xz-plane and is perpendicular to the
y -axis at y = 5.
Distance between two points
The distance |P1 P2 | between the points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and

P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
p
|P1 P2 | = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2
Figure 2.6 Distance between P1 and P2

Example 1.2 The distance between P1 (2, 1, 5) and
P2 (−2, 3, 0) is
p
|P1 P2 | = (−2 − 2)2 + (3 − 1)2 + (0 − 5)2
√ √ √
= 16 + 4 + 25 = 45 = 3 5.
Example 1.3 An equation of a sphere with center

C (a, b, c) and radius r is
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r 2
In particular, if the center is the origin O, then an equation of

the sphere is
x2 + y2 + z2 = r2
Example 1.4 Show that
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3x − 4z + 1 = 0
is the equation of a sphere, and find its center and radius.
Solution We have
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 3x − 4z + 1 = 0
3 2 21
x+ + y 2 + (z − 2)2 =
2 4
Thus it is the
√ equation of a sphere with center (−3/2, 0, 2)
and radius 21/2.
Example 1.5
Defining expression Description
a) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 < 4 The interior of the sphere

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4.
b) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ≤ 4 The solid ball bounded by
the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4.
c) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 > 4 The exterior of the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4.
d) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4 The lower hemisphere cut from
z ≤0 the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4
by the xy -plane.
Section 2
Vectors
Vectors
• The term vector is used to indicate a quantity that has

both magnitude and direction, such as displacements or
velocities or forces.
• A vector is often represented by an arrow or a directed
line segment. The length of the arrow represents the
magnitude of the vector and the arrow points in the
direction of the vector.
• For instance, suppose a particle moves along a line
segment from point A to point B. The corresponding
displacement vector v , shown in Figure 2.7, has initial
point A (the tail) and terminal point B (the tip) and
−→
we indicate this by writing v = AB.
Vectors
Two vectors are equivalent or equal if they have the same

length and direction.
The zero vector, denoted by 0, has length 0. It is the only
vector with no specific direction.
Vectors
Suppose a particle moves from A to B, so its displacement
−→
vector is AB. Then the particle changes direction and moves
−→
from B to C , with displacement vector BC . The combined
effect of these displacements is that the particle has moved
from A to C .
−→ −→
The resulting displacement vector AC is called the sum of AB
−→ −→ −→ −→
and BC and we write AC = AB + BC .
Figure 2.8 The sum of two vectors

Vectors
Definition 2.1
If the vectors u and v are positioned so that the initial point
of v is the same as the terminal point of u , then the sum
u + v is the vector from the initial point of u to the terminal
point of v .
This definition is sometimes called the Triangle Law.
Figure 2.9 The Triangle Law

Vectors
If we place u and v so they start at the same point, then

u + v lies along the diagonal of the parallelogram with u and
v as sides. This is called the Parallelogram Law.
Figure 2.10 The Parallelogram Law

Vectors
Definition 2.2
If c is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple c v is
the vector whose length is |c| times the length of v and whose
direction is the same as v if c > 0 and is opposite to v if
c < 0. If c = 0 or v =0, then c v =0.
Two nonzero vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of
one another or, equivalently, if the line segment representing
them are parallel.
In particular, the vector −v has the same length as v but
points in the opposite direction. We call it the negative of v .
Vectors
The difference u − v is defined by
u − v = u + (−v ).
So we can construct u − v by first drawing the negative of v ,
−v , and then adding it to u by the Parallelogram Law as in
Figure 2.11 (a).
Alternatively, since v + (u − v ) = u the vector u − v , when
added to v , gives u . So we could construct u − v as in Figure
2.11 (b) by means of the Triangle Law.
Figure 2.11 The Parallelogram Law

Vectors
If we place the initial point of a vector a at the origin, then
the terminal point of a has coordinates of the form (a1 , a2 ) or
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) depending on whether our coordinate system is
two- or three-dimensional.
These coordinates are called the components of a and we
write
a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ or a = ⟨a1, a2, a3⟩.
Vectors
The vector i = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, j = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩, and k = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩
represented by the directed line segments from the origin to
the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1) respectively, are the
standard basis vectors.
Similarly, in two dimensions the standard basis vectors are
i = ⟨1, 0⟩ and j = ⟨0, 1⟩.
Figure 2.14 Basis vectors

Vectors
If a = ⟨a1 , a2 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 ⟩, then the sum is
a + b = ⟨a1 + b1, a2 + b2⟩. So
To add vectors we add their components.
Figure 2.15 ⟨a1 , a2 ⟩ + ⟨b1 , b2 ⟩ = ⟨a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ⟩

Vectors
Similarly, to subtract vectors we subtract components.
From the similar triangles in Figure 2.16 we see that the

components of c a are ca1 and ca2 . So to multiply a vector by
a scalar we multiply each component by that scalar.
Figure 2.16 Scalar multiple of a vector

Vectors
If a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ and b = ⟨b1, b2⟩, then

a + b = ⟨a1 + b1, a2 + b2⟩
a − b = ⟨a1 − b1, a2 − b2⟩
c a = ⟨ca1 , ca2 ⟩.
Since a = a1i + a2j , we have

⟨a1 , a2 ⟩ = a1 i + a2 j
Vectors
Similarly, for three-dimensional vectors,
⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ + ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ = ⟨a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ⟩
⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ − ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ = ⟨a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 ⟩
c⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ = ⟨ca1 , ca2 , ca3 ⟩
Since a = a1i + a2j + a3k , we have
⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k
Vectors
Given the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 , then

−→
AB = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩
Similarly, in two dimensions, the vector from A(x1 , y1 ) to

B(x2 , y2 ) is
−→
AB = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ⟩
Vectors
The length of the two-dimensional vector a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ is

|a| = a12 + a22 .
q
The length of the three-dimensional vector

a = ⟨a1, a2, a3⟩ is
|a| = a12 + a22 + a32 .
q
Example 2.1 The length of v = i − 2j + 3k is

√ √
|v | = 12 + (−2)2 + 32 = 1 + 4 + 9 = 14 .
p
Vectors
Any vector whose length is 1 is a unit vector.
For instance, the vector i , j , and k are unit vectors.
If v ̸= 0,
v
|v |
is a unit vector, called the direction of v or the unit vector
in the direction of v .
Any nonzero vector can be expressed as a product of its length

and direction:
v = |v | · |vv | = (length of v )·(direction of v )

Vectors
A force is represented by a vector because it has both a
magnitude and a direction. If several forces are acting on an
object, the resultant force experienced by the object is the
vector sum of these forces.
Example 2.2 A 100 kg weight hangs from two wires as
shown in Figure 2.18. Find the tensions (forces) T 1 and T 2 in
both wires and their magnitudes.
Figure 2.18
Vectors
Figure 2.19
Solution From Figure 2.19 we see that
T1 = −|T1 | cos 50◦ i + |T1 | sin 50◦ j

T2 = |T2 | cos 32◦ i + |T2 | sin 32◦ j
Vectors
The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances the

weight w and so we must have T1 + T2 = −w = 100j :
− |T1 | cos 50◦ + |T2 | cos 32◦ i

+ |T1 | sin 50◦ + |T2 | sin 32◦ j = 100j .

Equating components, we get
−|T1 | cos 50◦ + |T2 | cos 32◦ = 0

|T1 | sin 50◦ + |T2 | sin 32◦ = 100.
Vectors
Solving gives
|T1 | cos 50◦

|T1 | sin 50◦ + sin 32◦ = 100.
cos 32◦
So
100
|T1 | = ≈ 85.64 kg
sin 50◦
+ tan 32◦ cos 50◦
|T1 | cos 50◦
|T2 | = ≈ 64.91 kg
cos 32◦
Hence the tension vectors are
T1 ≈ −55.05i + 65.60j and T2 ≈ 55.05i + 34.40j

Section 3
Dot product
Dot product
Definition 2.3
If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, then the dot
product of a and b is the number a·b given by
a·b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3.

Similarly, if a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ and b = ⟨b1, b2⟩, then
a·b = a1b1 + a2b2.
Thus, to find the dot product of a and b , we multiply

corresponding components and add.
The dot product is sometimes called the scalar product (or

inner product).
Dot product
Theorem 2.1
If a, b , and c are vectors and λ is a scalar, then
1. a·a = |a|2 ;
2. a·b = b ·a;
3. a·(b + c = a·b + a·c ;

4. (λa)·b = λ(a·b ) = a·(λb );

5. 0·a = a·0 = 0.
Dot product
Theorem 2.2
If θ is the angle between the vectors a and b, then
a·b = |a||b| · cos θ
In words, the scalar product of a and b is the length of a times

the length of b times the cosine of the angle between a and b .
Corollary 2.3
If θ is the angle between the nonzero vectors a and b,
then
cos θ =
a ·b
|a||b |
Dot product
Example 2.3 Find the angle between the vectors

a = i − 2j − 2k and b = 6i + 3j + 2k .
Solution
a·b = 1 × 6 + (−2) × 3 + (−2) × 2 = −4
√
|a| = 12 + (−2)2 + (−2)2 = 9 = 3
p
√ √
|b | = 62 + 32 + 22 = 49 = 7
a ·b −4
−1 −1
θ = cos = cos
|a||b | 3×7
4
= cos−1 − ≈ 1.76 rad .
21
Dot product
Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or

orthogonal if the angle between them is θ = π/2. Thus,
Two vectors a and b are orthogonal ⇐⇒ a ·b = 0
Example 2.4 a = ⟨3, −2, 1⟩ and b = ⟨0, 2, 4⟩ are

orthogonal because
a·b = (3)(0) + (−2)(2) + (1)(4) = 0.

Projections
−→ −→
Projection Suppose that a = PQ and b = PR. If S is the
−→
foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ,
−
→
then the vector with representation PS is called the vector
projection of b onto a and is denoted by proja b .
Figure 2.20 The vector projection of b onto a

Projections
The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the

component of b along a) is defined to be the number
|b | cos θ, where θ is the angle between a and b . This is
denoted by compa b . The equation
a·b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)

shows that the dot product of a and b can be interpreted as
the length of a times the scalar projection of b onto a.
Projections
Since
|b | cos θ =
a ·b = a · b ,
|a| |a|
compa b =
a ·b
|a|
a ·b a a ·b
proja b = = 2a
|a| |a| |a|
So the vector projection is the scalar projection times the

direction of a.
Projections
Example 2.5 Find the scalar projection and vector

projection of b = ⟨1, 1, 2⟩ onto a = ⟨−2, 3, 1⟩.
√
a = (−2)2 + 32 + 12 = 14,
p
Solution Since
compa b =
a·b = (−2) × 1 +√3 × 1 + 1 × 2 = √3 .
|a| 14 14
Thus
3 a 3 D 3 9 3E
proja b = √ = a= − , , .
14 |a| 14 7 14 14
Projections
One use of projections occurs in physics in calculating work. If

the force moves the object from P to Q, then the
−→
displacement vector is PQ.
Definition 2.4
The work done by a constant force
−→
F acting through a
displacement PQ is
−→ −→
Work = F ·PQ = |F ||PQ| cos θ.
Projections
Example 2.6 A wagon is pulled a distance of 100 m along
a horizontal path by a constant force of 70 N. The handle of
the wagon is held at an angle of 35◦ above the horizontal.
Find the work done by the force.
Solution If F and D are the force and displacement vectors,

then the work done is
W = F ·D = |F ||D | cos 35◦
= (70)(100) cos 35◦ ≈ 5734 N · m = 5734 J.
Section 4
Cross Product
Cross Product
Definition 3.1
If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, then the cross
product a × b of a and b is the vector
a × b = ⟨a2b3 − a3b2, a3b1 − a1b3, a1b2 − a2b1⟩
Cross product is also called the vector product.
a × b is defined only when a and b are three-dimensional

vectors.
Cross Product
A determinant of order 2 is defined by

a b
= ad − bc.
c d
A determinant of order 3 can be defined in terms of

second-order determinants as follows:

a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3 = a1 b2 b3 − a2 b1 b3 + a3 b1 b2 .

c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
Cross Product
Then the cross product of the vectors a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k and

b = b1i + b2j + b3k is

a × b = b b i − b b j + b b k
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
2 3 1 3 1 2
i j k

= a1 a2 a3 .
b1 b2 b3
Cross Product
Example 3.1 Show that a × a = 0 for any vector a in R3.
Solution If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, then
i j k

a × a = a1 a2 a3

a1 a2 a3
= (a2 a3 − a3 a2 )i + (a3 a1 − a1 a3 )j
+ (a1 a2 − a2 a1 )k
= 0.
Example 3.2 Show that
i ×j =k j ×k =i k ×i =j
j × i = −k k × j = −i i × k = −j .
Cross Product
Theorem 3.1
The vector a × b is orthogonal to both a and b.
Proof: Let a = ⟨a1, a2, a3⟩ and b = ⟨b1, b2, b3⟩. Then

(a × b )·a =
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
a − a + a
b2 b3 1 b1 b3 2 b1 b2 3
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )a1 + (a3 b1 − a1 b3 )a2
+ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )a3
=0
A similar computation shows that (a × b )·b = 0. Therefore

a × b is orthogonal to both a and b. □
Cross Product
The direction of a × b is given by the right-hand rule: If the
fingers of your right hand curl in the direction from a to b ,
then thumb points in the direction of a × b .
Figure 2.23 The direction of a×b

Cross Product
Example 3.3 Find a vector perpendicular to the plane of

P(1, −1, 0), Q(2, 1, −1), and R(−1, 1, 2).
−→ −→
Solution The vector PQ × PR is perpendicular to the plane
because it is perpendicular to both vectors. In terms of
components,
−→
PQ = (2 − 1)i + (1 + 1)j + (−1 − 0)k
= i + 2j − k
−→
PR = (−1 − 1)i + (1 + 1)j + (2 − 0)k
= −2i + 2j + 2k .
Cross Product
Thus,
i j k

−→ −→
PQ × PR = 1 2 −1
−2 2 2

i − −2 2 j + −2 2 k
2 −1 1 −1 1 2
=
2 2
= 6i + 6k .
Cross Product
Theorem 3.2
If θ is the angle between a and b (so 0 ≤ θ ≤ π), then
|a × b | = |a||b | sin θ
Thus, the length of the cross product a × b is equal to the

area of the parallelogram determined by a and b .
Figure 2.24 |a × b | =area of parallelogram

Cross Product
Corollary 3.3
Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel if and only if
a × b =0.
Example 3.4 Find the area of the triangle with vertices
P(1, −1, 0), Q(2, 1, −1), and R(−1, 1, 2).
Solution The area of the parallelogram determined by P, Q,
and R is √
−→ −→
|PQ × PR| = |6i + 6k | = 6 2.
√
(See Example 3.3.) The triangle’s area is half of this, 3 2.
Cross Product
Theorem 3.3
If a, b , and b are vectors and λ is a scalar, then
1. a × b = −b × a
2. (λa) × b = λ(a × b ) = a × (λb )
3. a × (b + c ) = a × b + a × c
4. (a + b ) × c = a × c + b × c
5. a·(b × c ) = (a × b )·c
6. a × (b × c ) = (a·c )b − (a·b )c
Triple Products
The product a × (b × c ) that occurs in Property 6 is called

the vector triple product of a, b , and c .
The product a·(b × c ) that appears in Property 5 is called the
scalar triple product of the vectors a, b , and c . It can be
shown that
a1 a2 a3
a·(b × c ) = b1 b2 b3 .

c1 c2 c3
Triple Products
The volume of the parallelepiped with three sides a, b , and c
is
V = |a·(b × c )|.
Remark: If a·(b × c ) = 0, then the vectors a, b , c must lie

in the same plane, i.e. they must be coplanar.
Triple Products
Example 3.5 Find the volume of the parallelepiped

determined by a = ⟨1, 2, −1⟩, b = ⟨−2, 0, 3⟩, and
c = ⟨0, 7, −4⟩.
Solution

1 2 −1
a·(b × c ) = −2 0 3 = 07 −43 − 2 −2
3 −2 0
−
0 −4 0 7
0 7 −4
= −21 − 16 + 14 = −23.
The volume is V = |a·(b × c )| = 23.

Section 5
Equations of Lines and Planes

Equations for Lines Suppose L is a line in
three-dimensional space that passes a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ). Let
v be a vector parallel to L, P(x, y , z) be an arbitrary point on
L and let r 0 and r be the position vectors of P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and
P(x, y , z), respectively. Then
r = r 0 + tv
which is a vector equation of L.
Suppose v = ⟨a, b, c⟩, then we have the three scalar equations:
x = x0 + ta, y = y0 + tb z = z0 + tc, t∈R (1)
These equations are called parametric equations of the line

through the point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and parallel to the vector
v = ⟨a, b, c⟩.
Note The vector equation and parametric equations of a line
are not unique.
Example 4.1 (a) Find a vector equation and parametric
equations for the line that passes through the point (5, 1, 3)
and is parallel to the vector i + 4j − 2k .
(b) Find two other points on the line.
Solution (a) The vector equation is
r = (5i + j + 3k ) + t(i + 4j − 2k )
= (5 + t)i + (1 + 4t)j + (3 − 2t)k .
Parametric equations are
x = 5 + t, y = 1 + 4t, z = 3 − 2t, t ∈ R.
(b) Choosing the parameter value t = 1 gives x = 6, y = 5,

and z = 1, so (6, 5, 1) is a point on the line. Similarly, t = −1
gives the point (4, −3, 5).
If none of a, b, or c is 0, we can solve each of Equations (1)

for t, equate the results, and obtain
x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
These equations are called symmetric equations of L. If

a = 0, we can write the equations of L as
y − y0 z − z0
x = x0 , = .
b c
Equations for line segments
The line segment from r 0 to r 1 is given by the vector equation

r = r 0 + t(r 1 − r 0) = (1 − t)r 0 + t r 1, 0≤t≤1
Example 4.2 Show that the lines L1 and L2 with

parametric equations
x = 1 + t y = −2 + 3t z = 4 − t
x = 2s y =3+s z = −3 + 4s
are skew lines; that is, they do not intersect and are not
parallel (and therefore do not lie in the same plane).
Solution The lines are not parallel because the

corresponding vectors ⟨1, 3, −1⟩ and ⟨2, 1, 4⟩ are not parallel.
If L1 and L2 had a point of intersection, there would be values
of t and s such that
1 + t = 2s
−2 + 3t = 3 + s
4 − t = −3 + 4s
These equations have no solution, so L1 and L2 do not

intersect. Thus L1 and L2 are skew lines.
Example 4.3 Show that the midpoint of the line segment

joining two points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) is
x + x y + y z + z
1 2 1 2 1 2
M= , , .
2 2 2
Solution
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ 1 −−→
OM = OP1 + P1 M = OP1 + P1 P2
2
−−→ 1 −−→ −−→ 1 −−→ −−→
= OP1 + OP2 − OP1 = OP1 + OP2
2 2
x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
=
2
i + 2 j + 2 k.
A plane in space is determined by a point P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the
plane and a vector n that is orthogonal to the plane. This
orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector. The plane
consists of all points P(x, y , z) for which
−−→
P0 P = ⟨x − x0 , x − y0 , x − z0 ⟩ is orthogonal to n.
So we have
n·(r − r 0) = 0 (2)
which can be rewritten as
n ·r = n ·r 0 (3)
(2) and (3) are called vector equations of the plane.

Suppose n = ⟨a, b, c⟩, r = ⟨x, y , z⟩, and r 0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩.
Then the vector equation (2) becomes
a(x − x0 ) + b(y − y0 ) + c(z − z0 ) = 0 (4)
Equation (4) is the scalar equation of the plane through

P 0(x0, y0, z0) with normal vector n = ⟨a, b, c⟩.
By collecting terms in Equation (4) we can rewrite the

equation of a plane as
ax + by + cz + d = 0 (5)
where d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 ). Equation (5) is called a linear

equation in x, y , and z.
Conversely, if a, b, and c and are not all 0, then the linear

equation (5) represents a plane with normal vector ⟨a, b, c⟩.
Example 4.4 Find an equation of the plane that passes
through the points P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6), and R(5, 2, 0).
−→ −→
Solution Since both PQ = ⟨2, −4, 4⟩ and PR = ⟨4, −1, −2⟩
−→ −→
lie in the plane, n = PQ × PR is a normal vector of the plane.
Thus
i j k

n = 2 −4 4 = 12i + 20j + 14k .

4 −1 −2
With the point P(1, 3, 2) and the normal vector n, an
equation of the plane is
12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0
or
6x + 10y + 7z = 50.
Angles Between Planes
Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.

If two planes are not parallel, then they intersect in a straight
line and the angle between the two planes is defined as the
acute angle between their normal vectors.
Figure 2.28 The angle between planes

Angles Between Planes
Example 4.5 Find the angle between the planes

x + y + z = 1 and x − 2y + 3z = 1.
Solution The normal vectors of these planes are

n1 = ⟨1, 1, 1⟩ and n2 = ⟨1, −2, 3⟩ and so, if θ is the angle
between the planes, then
cos θ =
n1·n2 = √1 · 1 + 1(−2)
√
+1·3
=√
2
|n1 ||n2 | 1+1+1 1+4+9 42
2
θ = cos−1 √ ≈ 72◦ .
42
Distance from a Point to a Plane
Example 4.6 Find a formula for the distance from a point
P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) to the plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Solution Let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be any point in the given plane

−−→
and let b = P0 P1 . Then b = ⟨x1 − x0 , y1 − y0 , z1 − z0 ⟩. The
distance from P1 to the plane is equal to the absolute value of
the scalar projection of b onto the normal vector n = ⟨a, b, c⟩.
Distance from a Point to a Plane
Thus
|n·b |
D = | compn b | =
|n|
|a(x1 − x0 ) + b(y1 − y0 ) + c(z1 − z0 )|
= √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
|(ax1 + by1 + cz1 ) − (ax0 + by0 + cz0 )|
= √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
Since P0 lies in the plane, ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d = 0. Thus
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|

D= √
a2 + b 2 + c 2
Section 6
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Just as we call the graph of an equation F (x, y ) = 0 in the

plane a curve, we call the graph of an equation F (x, y , z) = 0
in space a surface.
In order to sketch the graph of a surface, it is useful to

determine the curves of intersection of the surface with planes
parallel to the coordinate planes.
These curves are called traces (or cross-sections) of the

surface.
Definition 5.1
A cylinder is a surface that consists of all lines (called
rulings) that are parallel to a given line and pass through
a given plane curve. The curve is the generating curve
for the cylinder.
Figure 2.30 A general cylinder

Example 5.1 Sketch the graph of the surface z = x 2 .

Solution Notice that any vertical plane y = c (parallel to
the xz-plane) intersects the graph in a curve with equation
z = x 2 . So these vertical traces are parabolas. The graph is
formed by taking the parabola z = x 2 in the xz-plane and
moving it in the direction of the y -axis.
The graph is a surface, called a parabolic cylinder. Here the

rulings of the cylinder are parallel to the y -axis.
Figure 2.31 The cylinder z = x 2

A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation

in three variables x, y , and z.
Example 5.2 Consider the quadric surface with equation
x2 y2 z2
+ + = 1, a > 0, b > 0, c > 0.
a2 b 2 c 2
This surface cuts the coordinates at (±a, 0, 0), (0, ±b, 0), and
(0, 0, ±c). The surface is symmetric with respective to each
coordinate plane because the variables in the defining equation
are squared.
By substituting z = 0, we find that the trace in the xy -plane is

2
x2
a2
+ yb2 = 1, which is an equation of an ellipse.
In general, the horizontal trace in the plane z = k, |k| ≤ c is
x2 y2 k2
+ = 1 − .
a2 b 2 c2
Similarly, the vertical traces are also ellipses:
y2 z2 k2
+ = 1 − , x = k, |k| ≤ a
b2 c 2 a2
x2 z2 k2
+ = 1 − , y = k, |k| ≤ b.
a2 c 2 b2
The surface is called an ellipsoid.
y2 z2
Figure 2.32 The ellipsoid x 2 + 9
+ 4
=1
Example 5.3 The surface
x2 y2 z
+ = a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
a2 b 2 c
is symmetric with respective to the planes x = 0 and y = 0.
Except for the origin, the surface lies above the xy -plane
because z is positive whenever either x or y is not zero. If we
put x = k (a constant), we get
cy 2 ck 2
z= + 2,
b2 a
which is a parabola that opens upward.
Similarly, if y = k, the trace is z = cx 2 /a2 + ck 2 /b 2 , which is
again a parabola that opens upward.
2 2
If we put z = k > 0, we get the horizontal traces xa2 + yb2 = kc ,
which we recognize as a family of ellipses. Because of the
elliptical and parabolic traces, the surface is called an elliptic
paraboloid.
Figure 2.33 The elliptic paraboloid z = 4x 2 + y 2 .

y2 x2 z
2
− 2 = a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
b a c
has symmetry with respective to the planes x = 0 and y = 0.
The traces in the vertical planes x = k are the parabolas
2 2
z = cyb2 − cka2 , which open upward. The traces in y = k are the
2 2
parabolas z = − cxa2 + ckb2 , which open downward. The
2 2
horizontal traces are yb2 − xa2 = kc , a family of hyperbolas. The
2 2
surface yb2 − xa2 = cz is called a hyperbolic paraboloid.
Figure 2.34 A hyperbolic paraboloid

x2 y2 z2
+ − =1
a2 b 2 c 2
is symmetric with respective to each of the three coordinate
planes. The plane z = k cuts the surface in an ellipse
x2 y2 k2
+ = 1 +
a2 b 2 c2
with center on the z-axis. However the traces in the xz- and
yz-planes are the hyperbolas
x2 z2 y2 z2
− = 1, y =0 and − = 1, x = 0.
a2 c 2 b2 c 2
This surface is called a hyperboloid of one sheet.
x2 z2
Figure 2.36 The hyperboloid of one sheet 4
+ y2 − 4
=1
Figure 2.37 Nuclear reactors have cooling towers

in the shape of hyperboloids.
Section 7
Vector Functions
Vector Functions
A vector function r on I is a function whose values are vectors
r (t) = ⟨f (t), g (t), h(t)⟩ = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k

The functions f , g , and h are called the components or
coordinate functions of r .
Vector Functions
Example 6.1 Sketch the curve whose vector equation is

r (t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + t k .
Solution The parametric equations for this curve are
x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t, t ∈ R.
The curve lies on the circular cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 since the
coordinates of the tip r satisfy the cylinder’s equation:
x 2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1. The curve spirals
counterclockwise and upward at a constant rate around the
cylinder as z = t increases. Each time t increases by 2π, the
curve completes one turn around the cylinder. The curve is
called a helix.
Vector Functions
The DNA double helix

Limits
Definition 6.2
If r (t) = ⟨f (t), g (t), h(t)⟩, then
lim r (t) = lim f (t), lim g (t), lim h(t)

D E
t→a t→a t→a t→a
provided the limits of the component functions exist.

Example 6.2 If r (t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + t k , then
lim r (t) = lim cos t i + lim sin t j

t→π/4 t→π/4 t→π/4
+ lim t k

t→π/4
√ √
2 2 π
=
2
i +
2
j + k.
4
Continuity
Definition 6.3
A vector function r (t) is continuous at a if
lim r (t) = r (a).

t→a
The function is continuous if it is continuous at every point

in its domain.
A vector function r (t) = ⟨f (t), g (t), h(t)⟩ is continuous at a if
and only if its component functions f (t), g (t), and h(t) are
continuous at a.
Example 6.3 The function
r (t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + t k

is continuous because its component functions cos t, sin t, and
t are continuous.
Derivatives
Definition 6.4
The derivative of r (t) is the limit of the difference quotient
dr r (t + h) − r (t)
= r ′ (t) = lim
dt h→0 h
if this limit exists.
The vector r ′ (t) is called the tangent vector to the curve

defined by r (t) at the point P, provided that r ′ (t) exists and
r ′(t) ̸= 0.
The tangent line to C at P is defined to be the line through
P parallel to the tangent vector r ′ (t). The unit tangent
vector is
T (t) = |rr (t)|
′
(t)
.
Derivatives
Theorem 6.1
If
r (t) = ⟨f (t), g (t), h(t)⟩ = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k ,
where f , g , and h are differentiable functions, then
r ′(t) = ⟨f ′(t), g ′(t), h′(t)⟩ = f ′(t)i + g ′(t)j + h′(t)k .

Example
√
Sketch the curve r (t) = t i + (2 − t)j and find r ′ (t).
Compute r ′ (1) and the corresponding unit tangent vector.
Solution
• We have
1
r ′(t) = √ i −j and r ′(1) = 12 i −j .
2 t
• The unit tangent vector at the
point where t = 1 is
T (1) = |rr ′(1)

′
1 2
= √ i − √ j.
(1)| 5 5
• The curve is y = 2 − x 2 , x ≥ 0.
Derivatives
Definition 6.5
The vector function r (t) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k is
differentiable at t = a if f , g , and h are differentiable at
a. Also, r is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable
at every point of its domain. The curve traced by r is
smooth if d r /dt is continuous and never equal to 0, i.e.,
if f , g , and h have first derivatives that are not
simultaneously 0.
Derivatives
• A curve that is made up of a finite number of smooth curves

pieced together in a continuous fashion so that the initial
point of one curve is the terminal point of the immediately
preceding one is called piecewise smooth.
• The second derivative of a vector function r is the derivative

of r ′ , that is, r ′′ = (r ′ )′ .
Derivatives
Definition 6.6
If r (t) is the position vector of a particle moving along a
smooth curve in space, then
v = ddtr
is the particle’s velocity vector. At any time t, the direction
of v is the direction of motion, the magnitude of v is the
particle’s speed, and the derivative
a = d v /dt,
when it exists, is the particle’s acceleration vector.
Note
Velocity=|v |·
v = (Speed)·(Direction)
|v |
Derivatives
Example 6.5 The vector r = (3 cos t)i + (3 sin t)j + t 2 k

gives the position of a moving body at time t. Find the body’s
speed and direction when t = 2. At what times, if any, are the
body’s velocity and acceleration orthogonal?
Solution
v = ddtr = −(3 sin t)i + (3 cos t)j + 2t k ,

a = d v = −(3 cos t)i − (3 sin t)j + 2k .
dt
Derivatives
At t = 2, the body’s speed and direction are
|v (2)| = (−3 cos 2)2 + (−3 sin 2)2 + 42 = 5

p
v (2) = − 3 sin 2i + 3 cos 2j + 4 k ,

|v (2)| 5 5 5
respectively. The body’s velocity and acceleration are

orthogonal when
v · a = 9 sin t cos t − 9 cos t sin t + 4t = 4t = 0.

The only value is t = 0.
Derivatives
Theorem 6.2
Suppose u and v are differentiable vector functions, c is a
scalar, and f is a real-valued function. Then
• [u (t) + v (t)]′ = u ′ (t) + v ′ (t)
• [c u (t)]′ = c u ′ (t)
• [f (t)u (t)]′ = f ′ (t)u (t) + f (t)u ′ (t).
• [u (t)·v (t)]′ = u ′ (t)·v (t) + u (t)·v ′ (t)
• [u (t) × v (t)]′ = u ′ (t) × v (t) + u (t) × v ′ (t)
• [u f (t) ]′ = f ′ (t)u ′ f (t) .

Derivatives
Example 6.6 If r (t) is a differentiable vector function of

constant length, then r ′ (t) is orthogonal to r (t):
r ·r ′ = 0.
Solution Since r · r = |r |2 is constant,
d
0= (r · r ) = r ′ ·r + r · r ′ = 2r · r ′ .
dt
Thus, r · r ′ = 0.
Integrals of Vector Functions
Definition 6.7
If the components of r (t) = f (t)i + g (t)j + h(t)k are
integrable over the interval a ≤ t ≤ b, then r is integrable
over [a, b] and the definite integral of r from a to b is
Z b Z b Z b Z b
r (t)dt = i+ j+ k.

f (t)dt g (t)dt h(t)dt
a a a a
For example
Z π DZ π Z π Z π E
⟨1, t, sin t⟩dt = 1dt, tdt, sin tdt
0 0 0 0
D 1 E
= π, π 2 , 2 .
2
• Vector-valued integrals obey the linearity rules as
scalar-valued integrals.
Antiderivatives of Vector Functions
• An antiderivative of r (t) on an interval I = (a, b) is a

vector function R (t) such that R ′ (t) = r (t) at each
point of I .
• If R (t) is an antiderivative of r (t) on I , it can be shown
that every antiderivative of r (t) on I has the form
R (t) + C for some vector C .
• The set of all antiderivatives of r on I is the indefinite
integral of r on I and denoted by r (t)dt.
R
Thus, if R (t) is an antiderivative of r (t), then

Z
r (t)dt = R (t) + C
Example
The velocity of a particle moving in the space is
dr
= (cos t)i − (sin t)j + k .
dt
Find the particle’s position as a function of t if r = 2i + k
when t = 0.
Solution
Z
r (t) = r ′(t)dt = (sin t)i + (cos t)j + t k + C .
To determine C , we use the initial condition r (0) = 2i + k :
(sin 0)i + (cos 0)j + 0k + C = 2i + k
C = 2i − j + k .
The particle’s position as a function of t is
r (t) = (sin t + 2)i + (cos t − 1)j + (t + 1)k .
Section 8
Arc Length
Arc length
• Want to find the length of the part of a parametric curve
(x(t), y (t)) with t ∈ [a, b].
• Partition the interval [a, b] by a = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b.
• On each small interval, approximate the curve by a
straight line.
• Let Pi = (x(ti ), y (ti )). Then
p
|Pi−1 Pi | ≈ (x ′ (ti ))2 + (y ′ (ti ))2 ∆t.
• Thus,
n
X p
L≈ (x ′ (ti ))2 + (y ′ (ti ))2 ∆t.
i=1
• This
p is a Riemann sum for′ the function
(x ′ (t))2 + (y ′ (t))2 = |r (t)|. Thus, passing to the limit
n → ∞, we obtain
Z b
L= |r ′ (t)|dt.
a
• The same formula works for curves in three dimensional

space.
Example
Find the length of the arc of the semicubical parabola y 2 = x 3
between the points (1,1) and (4,8).
• y = x 3/2 so y ′ = 23 x 1/2
• Arc length
Z 4q
L= 1 + 94 xdx
1
Subs: u = 1 + 49 x
Z 10
√
4
L= 9
udu
13/4
1
√ √
= 27 (80 10 − 13 13)
Practice Problems
Section Exercises
12.1 (p. 814) 7, 9, 10, 12, 18, 20, 21, 34, 35, 36, 42, 43
12.2 (p. 822) 7, 8, 14, 30, 40
12.3 (p. 830) 11, 19, 23, 25, 28, 44, 45, 48, 50, 53
12.4 (p. 838) 2, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 28, 30, 36, 38, 39, 44
12.5 (p. 848) 4, 5, 7, 10, 12, 15, 17, 18,
20, 21, 24, 26, 29, 32, 34, 38, 46,
49, 50, 53, 58, 64, 66, 73, 75, 78
12.6 (p. 856) 2, 4, 5, 9, 23, 24, 28, 33, 34, 41, 42, 44
13.1 (p. 869) 3, 4, 19, 22, 23, 24, 30, 40, 42, 47, 48
13.2 (p. 876) 3, 7, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 20, 21,
23, 24, 26, 36, 37 ,38, 41
13.3 (p. 884) 2, 3, 4, 15

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2 - Analytic Geometry

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CALCULUS 2

2. Vectors and Geometry of Space

5 Equations of Lines and Planes

6 Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Figure 2.1 The coordinate axes

These three coordinate planes divide space into eight parts,

Figure 2.2 Coordinate planes

Figure 2.3 Coordinates of a point

Figure 2.4 The rectangular box determined by a point

The Cartesian product

is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers and is denoted

Notice that, in terms of coordinates, the first octant can be

The distance |P1 P2 | between the points P1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and

Figure 2.6 Distance between P1 and P2

Example 1.3 An equation of a sphere with center

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = r 2

In particular, if the center is the origin O, then an equation of

Example 1.4 Show that

is the equation of a sphere, and find its center and radius.

a) x 2 + y 2 + z 2 < 4 The interior of the sphere

• The term vector is used to indicate a quantity that has

Two vectors are equivalent or equal if they have the same

Figure 2.8 The sum of two vectors

This definition is sometimes called the Triangle Law.

Figure 2.9 The Triangle Law

If we place u and v so they start at the same point, then

Figure 2.10 The Parallelogram Law

Figure 2.11 The Parallelogram Law

Figure 2.14 Basis vectors

Figure 2.15 ⟨a1 , a2 ⟩ + ⟨b1 , b2 ⟩ = ⟨a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 ⟩

From the similar triangles in Figure 2.16 we see that the

Figure 2.16 Scalar multiple of a vector

If a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ and b = ⟨b1, b2⟩, then

Since a = a1i + a2j , we have

Given the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) in R3 , then

Similarly, in two dimensions, the vector from A(x1 , y1 ) to

The length of the two-dimensional vector a = ⟨a1, a2⟩ is

The length of the three-dimensional vector

Example 2.1 The length of v = i − 2j + 3k is

Any nonzero vector can be expressed as a product of its length

v = |v | · |vv | = (length of v )·(direction of v )

T1 = −|T1 | cos 50◦ i + |T1 | sin 50◦ j

The resultant T1 + T2 of the tensions counterbalances the

− |T1 | cos 50◦ + |T2 | cos 32◦ i

+ |T1 | sin 50◦ + |T2 | sin 32◦ j = 100j .

Equating components, we get

−|T1 | cos 50◦ + |T2 | cos 32◦ = 0

|T1 | cos 50◦

T1 ≈ −55.05i + 65.60j and T2 ≈ 55.05i + 34.40j

a·b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3.

Thus, to find the dot product of a and b , we multiply

The dot product is sometimes called the scalar product (or

4. (λa)·b = λ(a·b ) = a·(λb );

In words, the scalar product of a and b is the length of a times

Example 2.3 Find the angle between the vectors

Two nonzero vectors a and b are called perpendicular or

Two vectors a and b are orthogonal ⇐⇒ a ·b = 0

Example 2.4 a = ⟨3, −2, 1⟩ and b = ⟨0, 2, 4⟩ are

a·b = (3)(0) + (−2)(2) + (1)(4) = 0.

Figure 2.20 The vector projection of b onto a

The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the

a·b = |a||b| cos θ = |a|(|b| cos θ)

So the vector projection is the scalar projection times the

Example 2.5 Find the scalar projection and vector