Using Adams/Tire - MD Adams 2010

Welcome to Adams/Tire
2 Adams/Tire
Introducing Adams/Tire
Adams/Tire software is a module you use with Adams/Car, Adams/Chassis, Adams/Solver, or
Adams/View to add tires to your mechanical model and to simulate maneuvers such as braking, steering,
acceleration, free-rolling, or skidding. Adams/Tire lets you model the forces and torques that act on a tire
as it moves over roadways or irregular terrain.
Adams/Tire is a set of shared object libraries that Adams/Solver calls through the Adams DIFSUB,
GFOSUB, GSESUB subroutines. These subroutines calculate the forces and moments that tires exert on
a vehicle as a result of the interaction between the tires and road surface.
You can use Adams/Tire to model tires for either vehicle-handling, ride and comfort, and vehicle-
durability analyses.
• Handling analyses are useful for studying vehicle dynamic responses to steering, braking, and
throttle inputs. For example, you can analyze the lateral accelerations produced for a given
steering input at a given vehicle speed.
• Ride and comfort analyses are useful for assessing the vehicle's vibrations due to uneven roads
with short wavelength obstacles (shorter than tire circumference), such as level crossings,
grooves, or brick roads.
• 3D contact analyses are useful for generating road load histories and stress and fatigue studies
that require component force and acceleration calculation. These studies can help you calculate
the effects of road profiles, such as pothole, curb, or Belgian block.
Adams/Tire Modules
Adams/Tire has a line of tire modules that you can use with Adams/View, Adams/Solver, Adams/Car,
and Adams/Chassis. The modules let you model the rubber tires found on many kinds of vehicles, such
as cars, trucks, and planes. More specifically, the modules let you model the force and torque that tires
produce to accelerate, brake, and steer vehicles. The five modules available in Adams/Tire are:
• Adams/Tire Handling Module
• Adams/Tire 3D Spline Road Module
• Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Module
• Specific Tire Models
• Features in Adams/Tire Modules
Adams/Tire Handling Module

Adams/Tire Handling incorporates the following tire models for use in vehicle dynamic studies:
• Using the PAC2002Tire Model*
• Using the PAC-TIME Tire Model
• Using Pacejka '89 and '94 Models*
• Using the Fiala Handling Force Model
Welcome to Adams/Tire 3
• Using the UA-Tire Model

• 521-Tire Model
Adams/Tire Handling uses a point-follower method to calculate tire normal force. Standard Adams/Tire
is limited to two-dimensional roads, but can be extended with the three-dimensional capabilities of
Adams/Tire 3D Spline Road.
*The formulae used in the Pacejka tire models are derived from publications, and are commonly referred
to as the Pacejka method in the automotive industry. Dr. Pacejka himself is not personally associated
with the development of these tire models, nor does he endorse them in any way.
Adams/Tire 3D Spline Road Module

Adams/3D Spline Road lets you define an arbitrary three-dimensional smooth road surface. In addition,
you can place three-dimensional road obstacles, such as a curb, pothole, ramp, or road crown, on top of
the underlying smooth road surface. You can use the 3D Spline Road Module with any of the tire models
in Adams/Tire. Use the smooth road part in combination with any of the handling tire models, or use the
more advanced FTire to deal with road obstacles for ride and comfort and durability analysis.
Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Module

Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road uses a three-dimensional equivalent-volume method to calculate tire normal
force on three-dimensional roads for use in predicting vehicle loads for durability studies. You can use
the Pacejka 2002, Pacejka TIME, Pacejka '89, Pacejka '94, or Fiala models to calculate the tire handling
forces and moments (lateral force, longitudinal force, aligning torque, and so on).
Specific Tire Models

In addition to the tire models in the Adams/Tire Handling Module, Adams/Tire supplies specific tire
models:
• Pacejka Motorcycle Tire Model
A Pacejka tire model suitable for motorcycle handling analysis. It describes the tire-road
interaction forces with tire-road inclination angles up to 60 degrees.
• Adams/Tire FTire Module
FTire can describe the 3D tire dynamic response up to 120 Hz and beyond, due to its flexible
ring approach for the tire belt. It can handle any road obstacle.
All tire models support the Adams/Linear functionality.
4 Adams/Tire
Features in Adams/Tire Modules

The table below lists the features available in Adams/Tire modules.
Adams/Tire modules: Features: Requirements:

Adams/Tire Handling Fiala Tire Model* Full Simulation Package
Pacejka '89* Tire Model
Pacejka '94* Tire Model
Pacejka 2002 Tire Model
Pacejka TIME Tire Model
UA-Tire Tire Model
2D Road Models
-----------------------------------
5.2.1 Tire
5.2.1 Tire Methods:
- Equation Method
- Interpolation Method
5.2.1 Road Methods:
- Point Follower
- Equivalent Plane
Adams/Tire 3D Spline Road Fiala Tire Model* Full Simulation Package
3D Smooth Road and Road pertubations
Adams/Tire FTire 2D FTire Model Full Simulation Package
3D FTire Model
2D Road Models
Adams/Tire Motorcycle Tire Pacejka Motorcycle Tire Model Full Simulation Package
2D Road Models
Note: * Adams/Tire (included in Adams/Car Package) is not required to run the Fiala Tire Model.
The Fiala tire can be run with Adams Basic package.
Which Tire Model Should You Use?

Each tire model is valid in a specific area. Using a tire model outside this area can result in non-realistic
analysis results. The Typical Applications for Each Tire Model table indicates the tire model(s) that are the
best to use for a number of applications.
In general, the Adams/Tire Handling models are valid on rather smooth roads only: the wavelength of
road obstacles should not be smaller than the tire circumference. If the wavelengths are shorter, you
should use the FTire model to cope with the non-linear tire enveloping effects.
Welcome to Adams/Tire 5
Some of the Handling Tire models can describe the first-order response of a tire, but do not take the
eigenfrequencies of the tire itself into account. Therefore, the Handling Tire models are valid up to
approximately 8 Hz. The PAC2002 uses a contact mass method that enables it to describe tire behavior
up to 15 Hz. Beyond that, a tire model should be used, including modeling the tire belt, as FTire does.
Typical Applications for Each Tire Model

6 Adams/Tire
Learning Adams/Tire
2 Adams/Tire
Use and Understanding of Adams/Tire
How to Use Adams/Tire

The Tire Basic help section provides overview material for using Adams/Tire to add tires to a mechanical
system model. It assumes that you know how to run Adams/Car, Adams/Solver, Adams/View, or
Adams/Chassis. It also assumes that you have a moderate level of tire-modeling proficiency
You use Adams/Tire to simulate tires according to your analysis requirements. You can create your own
tire models or you can use the tire models that come with Adams/Tire. The following describes how you
use Adams/Tire. For more about how you can create your own tire models, see User-Written Tire/Road
Models.
Learning Adams/Tire 3
Adams/Tire Steps
To use Adams/Tire:
1. Define tires. How you define tires depends on the product you are using (Adams/Chassis,
Adams/Car, or Adams/Solver). For more information on defining tires, see Defining Tires.
Regardless of the product you use, the product creates an Adams dataset (.adm), which contains
the necessary statements that represent the tires in your Adams model, as well as other elements
of the vehicle, such as the wheel, suspension, and landing gear strut. The primary statement for
each tire is a GFORCE that applies the tire force to the wheel in your suspension.
4 Adams/Tire
2. Reference an existing tire property file from:

• Adams/Tire (/install_dir/solver/atire)
• Tire manufacturers or testing companies.
• Files that you create. For example, you can create your own tire property file for simple kinds
of tire models, such as the Fiala model.
You can find examples of tire property files for all tire models in the Adams installation directory
at:
install_dir/solver/atire
where install_dir/ is the path to the installation directory for Adams/Tire.
3. Reference an existing road property file.
You can find an example road property file for a flat road in the Adams installation directory:
install_dir/solver/atire/mdi_2d_flat.rdf
where install_dir/ is the path to the installation directory for Adams/Tire.
4. Run a simulation of your model.
You can run a simulation using Adams/Car’s version of Adams/Solver (you do not need an
Adams/Car license) or you can create an Adams/Solver user library and then run your simulation
using this library and Adams/Solver. For more information, see Performing Simulations.
5. View the results of the simulation in a postprocessor, such as Adams/PostProcessor.
Understanding Adams/Tire Processes

When you add tires to your Adams model, three processes occur:
• Adams/Solver invokes Adams/Tire.
• Adams/Tire determines the tire and road model to use.
• Adams/Tire performs any calculations the tire model requires.
Flow of Information in Adams/Tire
Invoking Adams/Tire
• When you perform an analysis, Adams/Solver investigates your .adm file to find elements that
represent a tire. For example, it looks for a GFORCE with the necessary parameters to define the
force to the wheel in your suspension. When it finds these parameters, it invokes Adams/Tire.
• Adams/Solver obtains the names of the tire property file (.tir) and road property file (.rdf) from
the STRING statements in the .adm file.
Determining Tire and Road Model to Use

Inside Adams/Tire, the Tire Object Manager examines the tire property file to determine the tire model
(for example, Fiala or Pacejka ‘89) to use and examines the road property file to determine the road model
(for example, 2D or 3D) to use.
Performing Calculations
• The Tire Object Manager calls the selected tire model to calculate the tire forces and moments.
• The tire model reads the tire property file to obtain data for calculating the tire forces and
moments. It then calls the road model to evaluate where the road is in relation to the tire.
• The road model reads the road property file to obtain data about the road.
6 Adams/Tire
• The tire model returns the forces and moments to Adams/Solver.

• Adams/Solver applies the forces and moments to the wheel part.
Defining Tires
Defining Tires
If you use Adams/Car or Adams/Chassis, typically the models you work with will already include tires
(for example, the statements necessary to invoke Adams/Tire). Therefore, you do not need to add tires to
your model. If you work with Adams/View, however, you will need to define the tires, and for
Adams/Solver, add statements to your Adams model using Adams/View or a text editor. Learn how to
work with:
• Adams/View
• Adams/Car
• Adams/Chassis
• Adams/Solver
• Defining Wheel Inertia
Defining Tires in Adams/Car

Adams/Car includes a wheel-tire subsystem and template that you can use in any full-vehicle assembly.
The wheel-tire subsystem includes all the elements necessary to start Adams/Tire. You can modify the
wheel inertia and change the property files.
To modify tires in a subsystem:

1. Select the wheel/tire on the screen, right-click, and then select Modify.
8 Adams/Tire
Defining Tires
The Modify Wheel dialog box appears with options that allow you to modify the tire property file
and wheel inertia.
Note: You can also use the Display Tire Property File tool to display the tire property file in
an Information window. You cannot, however, specify or display the road property file
from this dialog box. In Adams/Car, you specify the road property file when you submit a
full-vehicle analysis
2. Change the values as desired, and then select OK. Learn about entering values in Create/Modify
Wheel dialog box.
Defining Tires in Adams/Chassis

Adams/Chassis includes wheels and tires in all body-tire subsystems.
To modify tires in Adams/Chassis:

1. In Build mode, in the treeview, select the wheel subsystem.
2. In the property editor, select the Tires tab.
The property editor displays options for changing the wheels and tires as shown below.
Defining Tires
Tires Tab in Adams/Chassis
3. Edit the wheels and tires, such as edit the tire property files and change the scaling coefficients.
Learn About Tire Subsystems in Adams/Chassis.
Defining Tires in Adams/Solver

If you use Adams/Solver, you must add a set of statements to your Adams model for each tire as described
in the table, Statements Needed for Adding Tires to Your Model. Once you have added these statements
to your model, you change the tire or road property file by entering new file names in the STRING
statements holding the file names. You can do this in your Adams/Solver dataset files (.adm) or from an
Adams/Solver command file (.acf) using a STRING command. In an .acf file, the STRING command
must appear before any simulation commands. For example:
test_rig.adm
mytest
STRING/99, STRING=/usr/mdi/solver/atire/mdi_fiala01.tir
SIMULATE/STATIC
SIMULATE/DYNAMIC, DURATION=1.0,STEPS=50
STOP
Learn more:
• Statements Needed for Defining Tires
• Example Dataset
Statements Needed for Defining Tires

For each tire you want to add to your model, you must create a set of statements in your model. This can
be done using the dialog box in Adams/View (see Defining Tires in Adams/View) or manually using a text
10 Adams/Tire
Defining Tires
editor. For a car with four tires, you need four sets of statements. The table below describes the sets of
statements. The table, MARKER Locations and Orientations, describes how to locate and orient the three
MARKERs.
Statements Needed for Adding Tires to Your Model
Statement types: Purpose in dataset:

MARKER (3) • Wheel center marker - Identify the wheel part, the wheel center location
and orientation, and the location for applying tire force movements. Use as
the GFORCE I marker.
• Road floating marker - Identify the road part to the GFORCE for
applying reaction forces. Use as the GFORCE JFLOAT marker.
• Road reference marker - Identify the origin and orientation of the road.
Use as the GFORCE RM marker.
You must locate and orient the MARKER statements as described in MARKER
Locations and Orientations.
GFORCE (1) Apply the tire force and moments to the wheel part.
DIFF (2) Integrate internal tire states for lag effects.
REQUEST (Up to 11) Output tire kinematics and forces (longitudinal slip, slip angle, camber angle,
contact patch forces, and moments). For more information, see Performing
Simulations and Viewing Results.
STRING (5) Identify the tire property file, road property file, and other miscellaneous
information.
Note: The STRING for "contact type" is required for Adams to correctly
create the STI tire, but it does not change the contact method, which
is based entirely on the road model.
ARRAY (1) Holds the IDs of the GFORCE, DIFF, and STRING statements.
Defining Tires
MARKER Locations and Orientations
Marker statements
required in dataset: Location and orientation:
Wheel center marker Because the tire applies forces to the wheel center marker, you must define
the wheel center so that it belongs to the wheel part and is located at the
wheel center. You orient the wheel center as follows:
• x-axis lies in the wheel plane and points in the forward direction of the
wheel.
• y-axis lies along the wheel's spin axis and points towards the left side of
the vehicle.
• z-axis lies in the wheel plane and points upward.
Road floating marker The tire applies the reaction forces to the road floating marker. The road
floating marker must belong to the road part, usually ground, and must be
defined as FLOATING. Because the marker floats, you do not enter a
location or orientation.
Road reference marker The road reference marker gives the location and orientation of the road.
You define the road reference marker so that it belongs to the road part,
usually ground. In addition, the road reference marker’s z-axis must be
directed upward, meaning the z-axis is parallel to, but points in the opposite
direction of, the gravity vector.
Locations of the points on the road contained in the road property file are
given relative to this marker. Generally, the road reference marker should
be located on the road surface and below the wheel center by approximately
the static loaded radius of the tire.
Example Dataset
This section gives you an example dataset fragment that includes a complete set of statements for a single
tire. The example is based on the following assumptions:
• PART/21 is the wheel and PART/99 is ground.
• The orientations assume that the ground part's x-axis points towards the rear of the vehicle, the
y-axis points towards the right side of the vehicle, and the z-axis points upward.
! adams_view_name='wheel_center_marker'
MARKER/1
, PART=21
, QP = 0,0,0
, REU = 180D, 0D, 0D
!
adams_view_name='road_floating_marker'
MARKER/2
12 Adams/Tire
Defining Tires
, PART = 99
, FLOATING
!
adams_view_name='road_reference_marker'
MARKER/3
, PART = 99
! adams_view_name='tire_forces'
GFORCE/1
, I = 1
, JFLOAT = 2
, RM = 3
, FUNCTION = USER(900,1,100)/
, ROUTINE=abgTire::gfo900
!
adams_view_name='tire_force_dif1'
DIFF/2
, IC = 0
, ROUTINE=abgTire::dif900
!
adams_view_name='tire_force_dif2'
DIFF/3
, IC = 0
, ROUTINE=abgTire::dif900
!Map for GFORCE/DIFF USER Functions:
!-----------------------------------
!par(1): dispatcher branch for tire request (always 900).
!par(2): tire GFORCE statement id.
!par(3): tire ARRAY statement id.
!
adams_view_name='tire_input_array'
ARRAY/100
,IC
,SIZE=9
,NUM= 2, 3, 1, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 0
!array[ 1] : 1st DIFF statement id
!array[ 2] : 2nd DIFF statement id
!array[ 3] : side flag (0 left, 1 right)
!array[ 4] : tire_minor_role STRING id
!array[ 5] : tire_property_file STRING id
!array[ 6] : simulation_type STRING id
!array[ 7] : road_property_file STRING id
!array[ 8] : road_contact_type STRING id
!array[ 9] : RIGID_WHEEL Radius (SUSPENSION analysis tire only)
!
adams_view_name='tire_rolling_states'
REQUEST/1,
, FUNCTION = USER(902,1,1)
!
adams_view_name='tire_kinematic_states_ISO'
REQUEST/2,
!
Defining Tires
adams_view_name='tire_forces_contact_patch_ISO'
REQUEST/3,
!Map for REQUEST USER Functions:
!-------------------------------
!par(1) = branch for tire request (always 902).
!par(2) = reqtyp = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7.8.9.10,11}
!par(3) = tire GFORCE statement id.
!String Statements Description of use:
!------------------
!
! adams_view_name='tire_minor_role'
! Used by Adams/Car to determine minor role (for example, FRONT or
REAR).
STRING/99
,S=front
! adams_view_name='tire_property_file'
! Used by TYRxxx routines. Name of tire property file including
full path that
! contains tire data or 'RIGID_WHEEL' for use in a suspension
analysis.
STRING/100
,S=mdi_tire01.tir
!
adams_view_name='simulation_type'
! Used by Adams/Car to determine analysis to be performed one of
'VEHICLE_HANDLING_DYNAMIC'
or 'SUSPENSION'
STRING/101
,S=VEHICLE_HANDLING_DYNAMIC
!
adams_view_name='road_property_file'
! Used by ARCxxx routines. Name of road property file including
full path that
! contains road data or 'BEDPLATE' for a flat, rigid road used
! with suspension analysis.
STRING/102
,S=example_2d_flat.rdf
! adams_view_name='road_contact_type'
! handling/durability
!
STRING/103
, STRING =handling
Defining Tires in Adams/View

Adams/View provides a dialog box that introduces a tire-wheel assembly in your model. You can also
use the dialog box to create a road.
14 Adams/Tire
Defining Tires
• Creating a Tire-Wheel Assembly

• Creating a Road
Creating a Tire-Wheel Assembly
To create a tire-wheel assembly in Adams/View:

1. Do one of the following:
• From the Create Forces Palette and Tool Stack, select the Tire tool.
• From the Build menu, point to Forces, and then select Special Force: Tire.
Defining Tires
The Create Wheel and Tire dialog box appears with options that allow you to introduce the
wheel inertia, tire property file, and side of the vehicle.
2. Enter the values as desired to define the tire, and then select OK. Learn more with Create/Modify
Wheel and Tire dialog box help.
Creating a Road
If your model includes tires, you must specify a road because each tire must reference a road. The road
determines the surface friction, bumps, and other inputs to tires.
16 Adams/Tire
Defining Tires
To create the road:

1. Display the Create Wheel and Tire dialog box as explained in step 1 above.
2. Right-click the Road text box, point to vpg_road, and then select Create.
The Create Road dialog box appears.
3. Enter the values as desired, and then select OK. Learn more about the values with Create/Modify
Road dialog box help..
Note: This dialog box generates a tire interface based on the general-state equation subroutine. A
more simple interface is shown in Defining Tires Using Adams/Solver.
Defining Wheel Inertia

The input values for the wheel part inertia are different depending on the tire model you are using. There
are differences among the tire models in the Adams/Tire Handling Module, including Adams/Tire
Motorcycle Tire, and FTire, as explained in the next sections:
• Adams/Tire Handling and Motorcycle Modules
• Adams/Tire FTire
Defining Tires
Adams/Tire Handling and Motorcycle Modules

For tire models in the Adams/Tire Handling Module and the Pacejka Motorcycle Tire model, the inertia
given for the wheel part must be equal to the total inertia of the tire and the rim.
Adams/Tire FTire
In FTire, a part of the tire can move with respect to the rim. Therefore, the tire mass and moments of
inertia have to be split into two parts: a part that is moving with the rim (wheel part) and a part that is
moving with the tire itself. This subdivision is performed during preprocessing of the tire property (.tir)
file. When a simulation begins with FTire, the following lines appear in the .msg file:
CTI: add the following mass properties to the rim in your MBS
model
CTI: (the 'rim-fixed' tire parts which are not accounted for in
FTire):
The inertia data printed after this message has to be added to the rim inertia and used to defined the wheel
part inertia. Modification of the wheel part is not done automatically.
18 Adams/Tire
Simulations and Results
Performing Simulations
Once you have incorporated the required statements for modeling a tire into your dataset, you can submit
the dataset for simulation. If you have Adams/Car installed, you can submit your dataset to the
Adams/Car version of Adams/Solver, or you can create an Adams/Solver user library and then run your
simulation using this library and standard Adams/Solver.
To submit your dataset to the Adams/Car version of Adams/Solver, do one of the

following:
In a command window, submit your dataset for simulation using the following commands:
• For UNIX, enter:
mdadams2010 -c acar ru-solver
• For Windows, enter:
mdadams2010 acar ru-solver
• On Windows, from the Start menu, point to Programs, point to MSC.Software, point to MD
Adams 2010, point to ACar, and then select Adams - Car (solver).
• On UNIX, from the Adams Toolbar, right-click the Adams/Car tool, and then select
Adams/Car - Solver.
Note: You can also set the Adams/Car tool on the Adams Toolbar to automatically run
Adams/Car with Adams/Solver. For more on the Adams Toolbar see Configuring Adams.
To create an Adams/Solver user library:

1. Copy the file install_dir/solver/atire/atire.f to your local directory.
2. Using atire.f, create a user Adams/Solver library:
a. In a command window, enter the command, where mysol.dll is the name of the library:
• For UNIX, enter:
mdadams2010 -c cr-user n atire.f -n mysol.dll exit
• For Windows, enter:
mdadams2010 cr-user n atire.f -n mysol.dll exit
b. On Windows, from the Start button, point to Programs, point to MSC.Software, point to
MD Adams 2010, point to ASolver, and then select Create Custom Solver. Follow the menu
selections to create a private or site library. For more information see Creating User Libraries.
c. On UNIX, from the Adams Toolbar, right-click the Adams/Solver tool, point to New,
and then select Adams/Solver User Library. Enter the parameters to define how to create the
library. For more information see Creating User Libraries in Running and Configuring Adams.
Note: On Windows, you can now enter the FORTRAN file directly without first compiling it.
To submit your dataset to Adams/Solver using your Adams/Solver user library:

• In a command window, submit your dataset for simulation using the following command
(assuming your library was mysol):
a. For UNIX, enter:
mdadams2010 -c ru-user i mysol
b. For Windows, enter:
mdadams2010 -c ru-user i mysol
• On Windows, from the Start menu, point to Programs, point to MSC.Software, point to MD
Adams 2010, point to ASolver, and then select Run Custom Solver. Enter the name of the
library you want to run.
• On UNIX, from the Adams Toolbar, right-click the Adams/Solver tool, point to Select
Library, and then select a library, such as mysol.
Note: You can also set the AdamsAdams/Solver tool on the Adams Toolbar to automatically run
with your user library. For more on the Adams Toolbar, see Running and Configuring
Adams.
Outputting Results
If you combine requests with a USER function, you can output tire results to the request (.req) and results
(.res) files. The form of the request statement is:
REQUEST/id
, FUNCTION = USER(902, REQTYP, TIR_ID)/
, ROUTINE = abgTire::req902
where:
• 902 - Branch flag for tire request subroutine.

• REQTYP - Integer code fixing the information output to the request file. Valid values are
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11}. The output for each value of REQTYP is described in the table, Tire
Outputs.
• TIR_ID - Tire GFORCE statement ID.
For information on the axis systems and sign conventions for these outputs, see About Axis Systems and
Sign Conventions.
20 Adams/Tire
Example of a request in a dataset.
Tire Outputs
REQTYP
Output: Request: Component definitions:
Tire rolling states 1 x = rolling radius
y=  (rad/sec)
z=  free (rad/sec)
 is the actual angular velocity about the wheel's axis, while
 free is the velocity of the wheel's axle center divided by
the radius to the instantaneous center of rotation. The
difference between the two is, therefore, a measure of the slip
when the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating.
Tire kinematic properties 2 x = longitudinal slip (%)
in TYDEX-W axis (ISO)
system. y = lateral slip angle (degrees)
z = inclination angle (degrees)

Tire contact patch forces 3 x = longitudinal force (model units)
in TYDEX-W axis (ISO)
system y = lateral force (model units)
z = vertical force (model units)
r1 = residual overturning moment (model units)
r2 = rolling resistance moment (model units)
r3 = aligning moment (model units)

Tire contact patch forces 4 x = longitudinal force (model units)
in SAE axis system
y = lateral force (model units)
r1 = residual overturning moment (model units)

REQTYP
Tire kinematic properties 5 x = longitudinal slip (%)
in SAE axis system
y = lateral slip angle (radians)
z = inclination angle (radians)

Forces at hub, in 6 x = longitudinal force (model units)
TYDEX-C axis system
y = lateral force (model units)
r1 = overturning moment (model units)

Miscellaneous tire states 7 x = longitudinal lag (du/dt)*
#1
y = lateral lag (du/dt)*
z = longitudinal coefficient of friction
r1 = lateral coefficient of friction
r2 = FXMAX = DX + SVX (peak  from Pacejka + vertical

shift)
r3 = FYMAX = DY + SVY (peak  from Pacejka + vertical

shift)
Miscellaneous tire states 8 x = pneumatic trail *
#2
y = residual aligning moment at contact patch in ISO
z = FX moment arm*
r1= longitudinal relaxation length*
r2 = lateral relaxation length*
r3 = gyroscopic moment*
Miscellaneous tire states 9 x = inclination angle induced side force*
#3
y = surface friction
22 Adams/Tire
REQTYP
Miscellaneous tire states 14 x = distance traveled*
#4
y = effective plane height*
z = effective plane angle*
r1= effective plane curvature*
r2 = contact length*
Contact patch locations 10 x = road contact point X location
(the contact patch
y = road contact point Y location
location along the plane
of the tire in the z = road contact point Z location
GFORCE reference
marker’s coordinate r1 = tire radial penetration into the road surface
system.) r2 = tire radial penetration velocity into the road surface
Hub and wheel velocities 11 x = hub longitudinal velocity in wheel carrier (TYDEX-C)
axis system
y = tire longitudinal velocity at the contact patch in the
contact patch axis system
z = tire lateral velocity at the contact patch in the contact
patch axis system
About Axis Systems and Sign Conventions

The following sections describe the tire axis systems and the sign conventions for tire kinematic and force
outputs.
• Tire Axis Systems
• About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs
• Sign Conventions for Tire Outputs
Tire Axis Systems

The following sections describe the ISO coordinate systems to which Adams/Tire conforms. The ISO
coordinates are shown as follows:
• ISO-C (TYDEX C) Axis System
• ISO-W (TYDEX W) Contact-Patch Axis System
• Road Reference Marker Axis System
ISO-C (TYDEX C) Axis System

The TYDEX STI specifies the use of the ISO-C axis system for calculating translational and rotational
velocities, and for outputting the force and torque at the tire hub.
The properties of the ISO-C axis system are:
• The origin of the ISO-C axis system lies at the wheel center.
• The + x-axis is parallel to the road and lies in the wheel plane.
• The + y-axis is normal to the wheel plane and, therefore, parallel to the wheel’s spin axis.
• The + z-axis lies in the wheel plane and is perpendicular to x and y (such as z = x x y).
24 Adams/Tire
TYDEX-C Axis System Used in Adams/Tire
ISO-W (TYDEX W) Contact-Patch Axis System

The properties of the ISO-W (TYDEX W) axis system are:
• The origin of the ISO-W contact-patch system lies in the local road plane at the tire contact
point.
• The + x-axis lies in the local road plane along the intersection of the wheel plane and the local
road plane.
• The + z-axis is perpendicular (normal) to the local road plane and points upward.
• The + y-axis lies in the local road plane and is perpendicular to the + x-axis and + z-axis (such as
y = z x x).
TYDEX W-Axis System Used in Adams/Tire
Road Reference Marker Axis System

The road reference marker axis system is the underlying coordinate system that Adams/Tire uses
internally. For example, the tire translational displacement and local road normal for a three-dimensional
road are expressed in the axis system of the road reference marker.
The properties of the reference marker axis system are:
• The GFORCE reference marker defines the axis system.
• The + z-axis points upward.
About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs

Adams/Tire calculates the kinematic quantities of slip angle, inclination angle, and longitudinal slip.
These are based on the location, orientation, and velocity of the tire relative to the road. In turn,
Adams/Tire calculates the forces and moments of the tire using the tire kinematics as inputs to the tire
mode you select.
Sign Conventions for Tire Outputs

The table below, Conventions for Naming Variables, and the figure, ISO Coordinate System, show the
sign conventions for tire kinematic and force outputs.
26 Adams/Tire
Conventions for Naming Variables
Variable name and

abbreviation: Description:
Slip angle  The angle formed between the direction of travel (velocity) of
the center of the tire contact patch and the ISO-W: x-axis. If
the wheel-travel direction has a component in the ISO-W: +y
direction, a is positive. This produces a negative lateral force
(Fy). Note that the steer angle, or the vehicle attitude angle,
plays no part in defining the slip angle.
Inclination  The angle formed between the ISO-W: x-z plane and the
angle wheel plane. If the wheel plane has a component lying in the
direction of ISO-W, the inclination angle is positive.
Longitudinal  The ratio of the longitudinal-slip velocity of the contact patch
slip (Wactual- to the longitudinal velocity of the wheel. The longitudinal slip
Wfree)/Wfree is positive during acceleration of a moving tire and negative
during braking. Longitudinal slip is limited to the range -1 to
+1.
Longitudinal Fx The x-component of the force exerted by the road or tire.
force at
contact patch
Lateral force Fy The y-component of the force exerted by the road or tire.
at contact Lateral force may be produced by one or any combination of
patch the following: slip angle, inclination angle, conicity, or
plysteer.
Normal force Fz The z-component of the force exerted by the road or tire. The
at contact direction of this force is up.
patch
Overturning Mx The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting on the
moment at tire by the road with respect to the ISO-W: x-axis.
contact patch
Rolling My The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting on the
resistance tire by the road with respect to the y-axis.
moment
Aligning Mz The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting on the
moment tire by the road with respect to the z-axis.
Spin axis Spin Axis The axis about which the wheel rotates. Perpendicular to the
wheel plane, not necessarily about the ISO-C: y-axis (only if
inclination angle is zero).
The central Wheel plane The wheel plane is normal to the wheel spin axis.
plane of the
tire and wheel
Variable name and

abbreviation: Description:
Wheel ISO W:X This is not the same as the direction in which the wheel is
heading along traveling. If the tire reverses its direction, the axis system flips
road 180 degrees about the z'-axis.
Direction to ISO W:Y The direction to the left along ground as viewed from behind
the left along a forward rolling tire. Expressed as right-hand orthogonal to
the road the definitions of x' and z' (such as y = Z x X).
Z-coordinate ISO W:Z Perpendicular to the road in the neighborhood of the origin of
the tire axis system in a positive (downward) direction. (If the
road is flat and in the x-y plane, this is negative global z.)
ISO Coordinate System

28 Adams/Tire
Units Supported in Tire Property Files
Tire Property File

A tire property file specifies what kind of tire model Adams/Tire should use. The tire property file
contains the data that defines the tire's force and moment characteristics. The amount and kind of data
varies according to the type of tire model you use. A STRING statement in the Adams dataset holds the
name of the tire property file.
Road Property File

A road property file contains data that defines the road surface and coefficient of friction. The road can
be flat or have a three-dimensional surface represented as triangular patches. A STRING statement in the
Adams dataset provides the name of the road property file.
Units
The following tables list the valid choices for the parameters in the UNITS section of a tire property file.
Note the following:
• You must enter the choices in single quotes, such as 'METER' for meter.
• The choices are case-insensitive. Therefore, 'MeTeR,' 'meter,' and 'METER' are all equivalent.
• The strings are limited to 12 characters and the minimum abbreviation is shown in the tables. So,
for example, 'millisecond' is valid and is interpreted as 'MILLI.’
Note: For some tire models, the [UNITS] section is not applied consistently to all tire parameters.
The exceptions are the Magic Formula coefficients for the Pacejka ‘89 and ‘94 model and
spline data for the 521 model, where the unit conversion factors have to be defined
explicitly.
Length Units
The unit: Can be abbreviated:

Kilometers 'KM'
Meters 'METER'
Centimeters 'CM'
Millimeters 'MM'
Miles 'MILE'
Feet 'FOOT'
Inches 'IN'
Time Units

Milliseconds 'MILLI'
Seconds 'SEC'
Minutes 'MIN'
Hours 'HOUR'
Angle Units
The units: Can be abbreviated:

Degrees 'DEG'
Radians 'RAD'
Mass Units

Kilograms 'KG'
Grams 'GRAM'
Pound-Mass 'POUND_MASS'
Kilo-Pound-Mass 'KPOUND_MASS'
Slugs 'SLUG'
Ounce-mass OUNCE_MASS'
Force Units

Kilograms-Force ‘KG_FORCE'
Newtons 'NEWTON' or 'N'
Kilo-Newtons 'KNEWTON' or 'KN'
Pounds-force 'POUND_FORCE'
Kilo-Pound-Force 'KPOUND_FORCE'
2
Dynes (gram-cm/sec ) ‘DYNE'
Ounce-force 'OUNCE_FORCE'
30 Adams/Tire
PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool (TDFT)

The PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool (TDFT) calculates PAC2002 tire model parameters out of tire
measurement data or virtual test data for steady-state pure and combined slip conditions including the
possibility to visualize/modify tire characteristics.
Tires added to the Tire Data Tool can be saved to a tire database file. This file stores all data used for the
tire parameter identification and tire characteristic visualization. Each tire in the tire database can be
exported to a PAC2002 tire property file that can be used with Adams/Tire.
In addition:
• The Tire Data and Fitting Tool offers you the possibility to switch to the PAC2002 tire model by
using virtual tire test data from another tire model. Virtual test data may be generated using the
Adams/Car Tire Testrig.
• The Tire Data and Fitting Tool offers the user the possibility to modify the tire characteristics
and to create a new tire property file.
• Same PAC2002 tire model is used for both tire parameter identification and Adams simulation.
A scheme of the Tire Data and Fitting Tool or Tyre Data and Fitting Tool is shown below.
Following Sections explain how to:

1. Create a measurement input data file for the tire parameter identification process:
2. Perform PAC2002 tire parameter identification:
3. Verification of calculated tire parameters versus measurement data:
4. Plotting tire characteristics:
1. Create a measurement input data file for the tire parameter identification process:
This Section explains how to create a measurement/virtual data input file. The TDFT uses the following
3 keys to identify pure and combined slip measurement data in the measurement data file:
1. [FX_PURE] - Pure longitudinal slip (kappa) versus longitudinal force (Fx) data.
2. [FYMZ_PURE] - Pure lateral slip (alpha) versus lateral force (Fy) and/or self-aligning torque
(Mz) data.
3. [FXYMZ_COMBINED] - Combined longitudinal and lateral slip versus longitudinal, lateral
and self-aligning torque data.
Note: It is important that measurement data is expressed in ISO coordinates. (See also Axis
Systems and Slip Definitions in PAC2002 Tire Model.).
An example measurement data file containing measurement data for both pure and combined slip
conditions 'fm_data_example_tdft.txt' can be found in following directory
<adams_install>/acar/shared_car_database.cdb/tires.tbl.
Following Figures show some typical tire characteristics expressed in ISO coordinates and also show the
sign convention used in the TDFT for longitudinal, lateral force and self-aligning torque. The curves are
created using the example measurement data file ‘fm_data_example_tdft.txt’.
32 Adams/Tire
Figure 1 Pure slip condition: longitudinal slip (kappa) versus longitudinal force (Fx).
Figure 2 Pure slip condition: lateral slip (alpha) versus lateral force (Fy).
Figure 3 Pure slip condition: lateral slip (alpha) versus self-aligning torque (Mz).
Each measurement/virtual input data file must consist of 7 columns:

1. Lateral Slip (alpha)
2. Longitudinal Slip (kappa)
3. Inclination Angle (camber)
4. Vertical Load (fz)
5. Longitudinal Force (fx)
6. Lateral Force (fy)
7. Self-Aligning Torque (mz)
which must be placed in Sections starting with [FX_PURE] for pure longitudinal slip data,
[FYMZ_PURE] for pure lateral slip data and [FXYMZ_COMBINED] for combined slip data.
See also fm_data_example_tdft.txt for an example:
[FX_PURE]
{ alpha kappa camber fz fx fy mz }
0.0000000e+000 -1.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8423142e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000
0.0000000e+000 -9.9900000e-001 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8423986e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000
0.0000000e+000 -9.9800000e-001 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8424832e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000
…
The order of the measurement/virtual data signals must be specified. It is possible to do this for each
measurement/virtual data Section by adding Section [FX_PURE_SIGNALS],
34 Adams/Tire
[FYMZ_PURE_SIGNALS] or [FXYMZ_COMBINED_SIGNALS] before each measurement/virtual

data Section, for example.
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
[FX_PURE_SIGNALS]
ALPHA = 1
KAPPA = 2
CAMBER = 3
FZ = 4
FX = 5
FY = 6
MZ = 7
$----------------------------------------------------------------fx_pure
[FX_PURE]
{ alpha kappa camber fz fx fy mz }
0.0000000e+000 -1.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8423142e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000
0.0000000e+000 -9.9900000e-001 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8423986e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000

0.0000000e+000 -9.9800000e-001 0.0000000e+000 2.0000000e+003 -1.8424832e+003 0.0000000e+000 0.0000000e+000
It is also possible to define a Section [SIGNALS] that specifies the order of the measurement
data/virtual data signals for all measurement/virtual data Sections, for example.
$----------------------------------------------------------------units
[SIGNALS]
ALPHA = 1
KAPPA = 2
CAMBER = 3
FZ = 4
FX = 5
FY = 6
MZ = 7
If the Section [SIGNALS] is present, the Sections [FX_PURE_SIGNALS],

[FYMZ_PURE_SIGNALS] and [FXYMZ_COMBINED_SIGNALS] will be ignored.
Note: It is not necessary to store all data in a single file. Multiple measurement data files can be
used as input to the TDFT.
2. Perform PAC2002 tire parameter identification:

This Section explains how to add measurement data to a tire and how to perform the PAC2002 tire
parameter identification by means of an example.
To start the PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool in Adams/Car:
1. From the Simulate menu, point to Component Analysis, and then select PAC2002 Tire Data
and Fitting Tool…
Figure 4 PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool (TDFT)
2. Create an empty tire by selecting File -> Create New Tire Property (default values) from the
menu bar (see red arrow in Figure 4). Default values are specified in
<adams_install>/acar/shared_car_database.cdb/tires.tbl/tdft_template.tir
It is also possible to use an existing PAC2002 tire property file as a base for the tire identification
process to add new and/or overwrite existing tire parameters. To import a tire property file, select
File -> Open Tire Property and Add to Tire Database… from the menu bar.
Note: You set the environment variable TDFT_TEMPLATE_PATH to overwrite the default
location of tdft_template.tir (which is the Adams/Car Shared Tires Database).
36 Adams/Tire
Figure 5 PAC2002 TDFT; Create an empty tire
3. It is important to verify that following parameters are specified because these parameters are used
in the PAC2002 tire model to make the tire parameters dimensionless:
Under entry Vertical in the left column (see red arrow in Figure 5): FNOMIN ($Nominal wheel
load)
Under entry Dimension in the left column (see red arrow in Figure 5): UNLOADED RADIUS
($Free tire radius)
4. Select the tire by clicking on the top of the tire data column (1). Click on the Tire Fit button (see
red arrow in Figure 6) in the PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool or select Run -> Tire Fit from
the menu bar to start the Tire Fit Tool.
Figure 6 PAC2002 TDFT; Starting PAC2002 Tire Fit

38 Adams/Tire
Figure 7 PAC2002 TDFT; PAC2002 Tire Fit
5. Figure 7 shows the Tire Fitting Tool. Clicking on the available entries to the left, start values and
lower/upper boundaries for each parameter of the identification process are shown and may be
modified, see Figure 8.
Default values are specified in
<adams_install>/acar/shared_car_database.cdb/tires.tbl/tdft_template.tir.
Figure 8 PAC2002 TDFT; start values and lower/upper bounderies

6. Select Add Measurements (see red arrow in Figure 9) and add the measurement data files to the
Measurement File(s) Table. See
<adams_install>/acar/shared_car_database.cdb/tires.tbl/fm_data_example_tdft.txt for an
example measurement data file containing steady-state force and moment measurement data for
pure and combined slip conditions.
Figure 9 PAC2002 TDFT; start values and lower/upper bounderies
7. If measurement data for both pure and combined slip conditions is available, select
Characteristic = All under Fitting Parameters and click on Start. Now, all tire characteristics will
be fitted in following order:
a. Fx_pure
b. Fy_pure
c. Mz_pure
d. Fx_combined
e. Fy_combined
f. Mz_combined
It is also possible to fit each tire characteristic separately if not all measurement data is available.
Select the desired Characteristic under Fitting Parameters.
Force/Moment expressions for the combined slip conditions are based on the expressions for the
pure slip conditions. Therefore, the force and/or moment for pure slip conditions need to be fitted
first before fitting the combined slip conditions.
40 Adams/Tire
Note: • Fy (and Fx in case of combined slip conditions) needs to be fitted before Mz because
the Mz formulation depends on the lateral force Fy.
• The .log files in the working directory show the result of the tire identification process.
The fit error (=100*sqrt(((measurement data)^2 - (model
data)^2)/(measurement_data)^2) ) and variations of each tire parameter are shown.
• The X[0], X[1], X[2], etc are the tire parameters that are identified and could be seen in
the log file generated in your working directory. For instance, if you perform a tire fit
for the FX_PURE coefficients then following parameters are being identified (see also
pac2002_205_55R16_tdft.tir, Section Longitudinal_Coefficients):
PCX1 = 1.3178 $Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1 = 1.0455 $Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2 = 0.063954 $Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3 =0 $Variation of friction Mux with camber
PEX1 = 0.15798 $Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2 = 0.41141 $Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3 = 0.1487 $Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
PEX4 = 3.0004 $Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1 = 23.181 $Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2 = -0.037391 $Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3 = 0.80348 $Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1 = -0.00058264 $Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2 = -0.0037992 $Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1 = 0.045118 $Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2 = 0.058244 $Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
PTX1 = 0.85683 $Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2 = 0.00011176 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
PTX3 = -1.3131 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
PTX4 = 0.1
You can find these parameters under the entry Longitudinal in the left column of the
PAC2002 Tire Fit Tool as well. Please note that both pure and combined slip
parameters are shown. The order of the parameters logged in the log file is the same as
in the Longitudinal entry of the PAC2002 Tire Fit Tool. This is also applicable for other
tire characteristics.
8. The next step will be to verify the calculated tire parameters versus measurement data and to
generate a tire property file which will be discussed in next Section.
3. Verification of calculated tire parameters versus measurement data:

In this Section you'll learn how to verify the resulting tire model parameters by graphically comparing
measurement/virtual test data to the PAC2002 model.
Force/Moment characteristics are by default created using the embedded plotter and can be exported to
Adams/Postprocessor by selecting Plot -> Adams/PPT under Plot Parameters.
Select Settings -> Plot Units… to change the default plot units (SI).
1. Select Measurement Data = Yes under Plot Parameters, see Figure 10.
This means that measurement data (as added to the tire for the tire parameter identification
process) is plotted against PAC2002 model data. Longitudinal (kappa), lateral (alpha) slip data,
inclination angle (camber) and vertical tire load (Fz) extracted from the measurement data files
will be used as input to the PAC2002 tire model and the resulting forces/moment will be plotted
against measured forces/moment.
2. Select Slip Condition = Pure under Plot Parameters, see Figure 9.
Set Slip Condition to Pure to plot pure slip tire characteristics (that is, only braking/traction or
only cornering) or set Slip Condition to Combined to plot combined slip tire characteristics (that
is, cornering while braking/driving).
3. Select X-axis = Longitudinal Slip and select Y-axis = Fx to plot the longitudinal slip-force
characteristic versus measurement data for pure slip conditions.
4. Click on Tire Plot in the Main GUI (see red arrow in Figure 9) or select Run - > Tire Plot from
the menu bar to plot the PAC2002 tire model results versus measurement data. Plots are by default
created using the embedded plotter.
Click on Clear Tire Plot(s) or select Run -> Clear Tire Plot(s) to remove the plots from the
embedded plot window.
Figure 11 shows the resulting longitudinal slip-force characteristic versus measurement data for
pure slip conditions using Adams/Postprocessor.
42 Adams/Tire
Figure 10 PAC2002 TDFT; Plotting Results

Figure 11 Longitudinal slip-force characteristic versus measurement data for pure slip
conditions using Adams/Postprocessor
Note: Only the X-axis, Y-axis and Slip Condition need to be selected if Measurement Data is set
to Yes. The other options do not have any effect as input data is taken from the
measurement data files.
5. Table 1 provides more information about selections for Slip Condition, X-axis and Y-axis for
plotting of the tire model results versus measurement data for pure and combined slip conditions.
Table 1 Input selection for plotting of tire model results versus measurement data.
Fx_pure Fy_pure Mz_pure Fx_combined Fy_combined Mz_combined

Slip Pure Pure Pure Combined Combined Combined
Condition
X-axis Long. Slip Lat. Slip Angle Lat. Slip Angle Long. Slip Long. Slip Long. Slip
Y-axis Fx Fy Mz Fx Fy Mz
6. To generate a tire property file, select Save Tire property file (see red arrow in Figure 11) or
select File -> Save Tire Property File from the menu bar.
44 Adams/Tire
Figure 12 PAC2002 TDFT: Save Tire Property File
7. To save the database, that is, calculated tire parameters for a tire, loaded tires and references to
measurement data files, select Save Tire Database (see red arrow in Figure 13) or select File ->
Save Tire Database from the menu bar. Tire Database files can be loaded by clicking on Open
Tire Database which is located next to the Save Tire Database button.
Figure 13 PAC2002 TDFT; Save/Open Tire Database
4. Plotting tire characteristics:

This Section explains how to plot tire characteristics by means of an example (longitudinal slip-force
characteristic) by evaluating the PAC2002 tire model for a given set of input data.
1. Open Tire Property File
<adams_install>/acar/shared_car_database.cdb/tires.tbl/pac2002_205_55R16_tdft in the
PAC2002 Tire Data and Fitting Tool and select the tire by clicking on the first column (1).
46 Adams/Tire
Figure 14 PAC2002 TDFT; Plot Parameters
2. Set Measurement Data = No under the Plot Parameters, see Figure 15. This means that
measurement data (added in Tire Fit) is not used for plotting but only input data entered in the Plot
Parameters is used to evaluate the PAC2002 tire model.
3. Set Slip Condition = pure to plot pure slip tire characteristics (that is, braking/traction without
cornering and vice versa).
To plot tire characteristics for combined slip conditions, set Slip Condition = combined (that is,
cornering while braking/driving).
4. Set X-axis = Longitudinal Slip and set Y-axis = Fx for plotting the longitudinal slip along the
X-axis and longitudinal force along the Y-axis.
5. Set Sweep = Longitudinal Slip. The Sweep variable is varied along each curve.
Input data for Longitudinal Slip can be entered in the Longitudinal Slip input field. Enter -1:0.01:1
to specify a range of values from -1 to 1 using a 0.01 step size.
Other possible input data formats:
0.0 - single values
1,2,3 - values separated by a comma
6. Set Independent = Vertical Load. The independent variable is constant for each curve. Input
data as shown in Figure 15 will produce 3 curves, one for each vertical load (2000, 4000 and 6000
N.). Input data for the Vertical Load can be entered in the Vertical Load input field, see Figure 13.
Enter: 2000, 4000, 6000.
7. Data for remaining fields must also be entered as this is input to the PAC2002 tire model.
Set Lateral Slip Angle = 0.0.
Set Inclination Angle = 0.0.
For a pure longitudinal slip-force characteristic, the lateral slip will not be used and vice versa.
However, it is recommend to use a single value (for instance 0) for the fields that are not used in
order not to evaluate unnecessary data points and not to increase calculation time.
8. Click on Tire Plot or select Run -> Tire Plot from the menu bar. You can either use the
embedded plotter or Adams/Postprocessor. Figure 15 shows the longitudinal slip-force tire
characteristic for pure slip conditions using Adams/Postprocessor.
Figure 15 Pure slip condition: longitudinal slip (kappa) versus longitudinal force (Fx).
48 Adams/Tire
More examples of typical tire characteristics are shown below:

Measurement Data: No
Slip Condition: Pure
X-axis: Lateral Slip Angle
Y-axis: Fy
Sweep: Lateral Slip Angle
Independent: Vertical Load
Vertical Load: 2000, 4000, 6000

Longitudinal Slip: 0.0
Lateral Slip Angle: -0.2:0.002:0.2
Inclination Angle: 0.0
Figure 16 slip condition: lateral slip (alpha) versus lateral force (Fy).
Slip Condition: Pure
X-axis: Lateral Slip Angle
Y-axis: Mz
Sweep: Lateral Slip Angle

Independent: Vertical Load
Vertical Load: 2000, 4000, 6000

Longitudinal Slip: 0.0
Figure 17 Pure slip condition: lateral slip (alpha) versus self-aligning torque (Mz).
Slip Condition: Combined
X-axis: Fx
Y-axis: Fy
Sweep: Longitudinal Slip
Independent: Lateral Slip Angle
50 Adams/Tire
Vertical Load: 2000, 4000, 6000

Longitudinal Slip: -1.0:0.01:1.0
Figure 18 Combined slip condition: Longitudinal force versus lateral force.
Tire Test Data

High quality of tire test data is the basis of the tire parameter identification. To ensure good tire model
results, tire testing should be performed under realistic tire operating conditions.
An example of a PAC2002 conventional Force and Moment test program is given in following table:
Slip condition Vertical load Slip angle Inclination angle Long. Slip
[N] [deg] [deg] [-]
Pure lateral slip Fz1, Fz2, Fz3 -12 - +12 -5, 0, 5 deg Free rolling
Slip condition Vertical load Slip angle Inclination angle Long. Slip
[N] [deg] [deg] [-]
Pure longitudinal Slip Fz1, Fz2, Fz3 0 0 - 100% - 0 - 100%
Combined slip Fz1, Fz2, Fz3 -1, 1, 3, 5, 8 -5, 0, 5 deg - 100% - 0 - 100%
More information about the tire test data required to calculate PAC2002 tire parameters can be found in
Knowledge Base article 1-KB12543.
52 Adams/Tire
Tire Models
2 Adams/Tire
Using the Fiala Handling Force Model

This section of the help provides detailed technical reference material for defining tires on a mechanical
system model using Adams/Tire. It assumes that you know how to run Adams/Car, Adams/Solver, or
Adams/Chassis. It also assumes that you have a moderate level of tire-modeling proficiency.
The Fiala tire model is the standard tire model that comes with all Adams/Tire modules. This chapter
contains information for using the Fiala tire model:
• Assumptions
• Inputs
• Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behavior
• Force Evaluation
• Tire Carcass Shape
• Property File Format Example
• Contact Methods
Fiala Tire Assumptions

The background of the Fiala tire model is a physical tire model, where the carcass is modeled as a beam
on an elastic foundation in the lateral direction. Elastic brush elements provide the contact between
carcass and road. Under these assumptions, analytical expressions for the steady-state slip characteristics
can be derived, which are the basis for the calculation of the longitudinal and lateral forces in Adams.
• Rectangular contact patch or footprint.
• Pressure distribution uniform across contact patch.
• No tire relaxation effects are considered.
• Camber angle has no effect on tire forces.
Fiala Tire Inputs

The inputs to the Fiala tire model come from two sources:
• Input parameters from the tire property file (.tir), such as tire undeflected radius, that the tire
references.
• Tire kinematic states, such as slip angle (), which Adams/Tire calculates.
The following table summarizes the input that the Fiala tire model uses to calculate force.
Tire Models 3
Input for Calculating Tire Forces
Quantity: Description: Use by Fiala: Source:

Mt Mass of tire • Damping -
• Vertical force (Fz)
Alpha Slip angle Lateral force (Fy) Tire kinematic state
from Adams/Solver
Ss Longitudinal slip ratio Longitudinal force (Fx) Tire kinematic state
from Adams/Solver
pen Penetration (tire deflection) Vertical force (Fz) Tire kinematic state
from Adams/Solver
Vpen d/dt (penetration) Vertical force (Fz) Tire kinematic state
from Adams/Solver
Vertical_damping Vertical damping • Damping Tire property file (.tir)
coefficient • Vertical force (Fz)
Vertical_stiffness Vertical tire stiffness Vertical force (Fz) Tire property file (.tir)
CSLIP Partial derivative of Longitudinal force (Fx) Tire property file (.tir)
longitudinal force (Fx) with
respect to longitudinal slip
ratio (S) at zero longitudinal
slip
CALPHA Partial derivative of lateral Lateral force (Fy) Tire property file (.tir)
force (Fy) with respect to
slip angle () at zero slip
angle
UMIN Coefficient of friction with Fx, Fy, Tz Tire property file (.tir)
full slip (slip ratio = 1)
UMAX Coefficient of friction at Fx, Fy, Tz Tire property file (.tir)
zero slip
Rolling_resistance Rolling resistance Rolling resistance Tire property file (.tir)
coefficient moment (Ty)
4 Adams/Tire
Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behavior

Definition of Tire Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities at combined cornering and braking/traction
The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the SAE-axis system is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the
wheel rotational velocity  , and the loaded rolling radius Re:
V sx = V x – R e
The lateral slip velocity is equal to the lateral speed in the contact point with respect to the road plane:
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities  (longitudinal slip) and  (slip angle) are calculated with these slip
velocities in the contact point:
V sx
 = – -------
Vx
and
V sy
tan  = --------
Vr
The rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re:
Vr = Re 
Tire Models 5
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 900 and the longitudinal slipSs (=  ) in
between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
Lagged longitudinal and lateral slip quantities (transient tire behavior)

In general, the tire rotational speed and lateral slip will change continuously because of the changing
interaction forces in between the tire and the road. Often the tire dynamic response will have an important
role on the overall vehicle response. For modeling this so-called transient tire behavior, a first-order
system is used both for the longitudinal slip  as the side slip angle, . Considering the tire belt as a
stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral springs, the lateral deflection of the belt can
be estimated (see H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0
7506 5141 5). The figure below shows a top-view of the string model.
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire behavior
When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string will arise that depends on the slip angle size and the history
of the lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
For calculating the lateral deflection v1 of the string in the first point of contact with the road, the
following differential equation is valid during braking slip:
1 dv 1 -----
v1
+ - = tan  + a
: ----- --------
V x dt  
6 Adams/Tire
with the relaxation length   in the lateral direction. The turnslip  can be neglected at radii larger than
10 m. This differential equation cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the equation
can be transformed to:
dv 1
:   --------
+ V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
When the tire is rolling, the lateral deflection depends on the lateral slip speed; at standstill, the deflection
depends on the relaxation length, which is a measure for the lateral stiffness of the tire. Therefore, with
this approach, the tire is responding to a slip speed when rolling and behaving like a spring at standstill.
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in longitudinal direction:
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, ' and ' , are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
' = ------ sgn  V x 

v1
' = atan  ------
  
These practical slip quantities ' and ' are used instead of the usual  and  definitions for steady-
state tire behavior.
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Fiala Tire Property
File Format Example.
Fiala Tire Force Evaluation

Types of force evaluation:
• Normal Force of Road on Tire
• Longitudinal Force
• Lateral Force
• Rolling Resistance Moment
• Aligning Moment
• Smoothing
Tire Models 7
Normal Force of Road on Tire

The normal force of a road on a tire at the contact patch in the SAE coordinates (+Z downward) is always
negative (directed upward). The normal force is:
Fz = min (0.0, {Fzk + Fzc})
where:
• Fzk is the normal force due to tire vertical stiffness

• Fzc is the normal force due to tire vertical damping
• Fzk = - vertical_stiffness × pen
• Fzc = - vertical_damping × Vpen
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined in
the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Fiala Tire Property File
Format Example). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datap
oints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of
the tire. Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file, but it does not play
any role.
Longitudinal Force
The longitudinal force depends on the vertical force (Fz), the current coefficient of friction (U), the
longitudinal slip ratio (Ss), and the slip angle (). The current coefficient of friction depends on the static
(Umax) and dynamic (Umin) friction coefficients and the comprehensive slip ratio ( S s  ).
Umax specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction at zero slip and represents the static friction
coefficient. This is the y-intercept on the friction coefficient versus slip graph. Note that this value is an
unobtainable maximum friction value, because there is always slip within a footprint. This value is used
in conjunction with Umin to define a linear friction versus slip relation. Umax will normally be larger
than Umin.
Umin specifies the tire/road coefficient of friction for the full slip case and represents the sliding friction
coefficient. This is the friction coefficient at 100% slip, or pure sliding. This value is used in conjunction
with Umax to define a linear friction versus slip relationship.
The comprehensive slip ( S s  ):
2
Ss  = S s + tan 2   
The current value coefficient of friction (U):
U = Umax –  Umax – Umin   S s 

Fiala defines a critical longitudinal slip (S_critical):
8 Adams/Tire
U  Fz
S critical = -------------------------
-
2  CSLIP
This is the value of longitudinal slip beyond which the tire is sliding.
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: |Ss| < S_critical
Fx = -CSLIP × Ss
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Ss| > S_critical
Fx = -sign(Ss)(Fx1- Fx2)
where:
F x1 = U  F z
 U  Fz  2
F x2 = ----------------------------------------
4  S s  CSLIP
Lateral Force
Like the longitudinal force, the lateral force depends on the vertical force (Fz) and the current coefficient
of friction (U). And similar to the longitudinal force calculation, Fiala defines a critical lateral slip
 critical :
3  U  Fz
 critical = arc tan  ----------------------------
CALPHA
The lateral force peaks at a value equal to U × |Fz| when the slip angle () equals the critical slip angle
( critical ).
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State:    critical
Fy = - U × |Fz|× (1-H3) × sign()

where:
CALPHA  tan   
H = 1 – -------------------------------------------------
3  U  Fz
Case 2. Sliding State:   critical
Fy = -U|Fz|sign()
Tire Models 9
Rolling Resistance Moment

When the tire is rolling forward: Ty = -rolling_resistance * Fz
When the tire is rolling backward: Ty = rolling_resistance * Fz
Aligning Moment
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State:    critical
Mz = U × |Fz| × WIDTH × (1-H) × H3 × sign()

where:
CALPHA  tan   
H = 1 – -------------------------------------------------
3  U  Fz
Case 2. Complete Sliding State:    critical
Mz= 0.0
Smoothing
Adams/Tire can smooth initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The
longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See
STEP function in the Adams/Solver online help).
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
The USE_MODE parameter in the tire property file allows you to switch smoothing on or off:
• USE_MODE = 1, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 2, smoothing is on
Fiala Tire Carcass Shape

Using Fiala tire, you can optionally supply a tire carcass cross-sectional shape in the tire property file in
the [SHAPE] block. The 3D-durability, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when
calculating the tire-to-road volume of interference. To learn more about this topic, see Applying the Tire
Carcass Shape. If you omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass cross-section
defaults to the rectangle that the tire radius and width define.
10 Adams/Tire
You specify the tire carcass shape by entering points in fractions of the tire radius and width. Because
Adams/Tire assumes that the tire cross-section is symmetrical about the wheel plane, you only specify
points for half the width of the tire. The following apply:
• For width, a value of zero (0) lies in the wheel center plane.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the side wall.
• For radius, a value of one (1) lies on the tread.
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at +/-
80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points along
the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the following property
format example.
Fiala Tire Property File Format Example

$---------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 2.0
FILE_FORMAT = 'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test Date - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
'New File Format v2.1'
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'degree'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$--------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12 11 12
! --------------------------------------------
! smoothingX X
! transient X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'FIALA'
USE_MODE = 2.0
$----------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = 309.9
WIDTH = 235.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.45
$----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
Tire Models 11
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 310.0
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 3.1
ROLLING_RESISTANCE = 0.0
CSLIP = 1000.0
CALPHA = 800.0
UMIN = 0.9
UMAX = 1.0
RELAX_LENGTH_X = 0.05
RELAX_LENGTH_Y = 0.15
$---------------------------------------------carcass shape
[SHAPE]
{radius width}
1.0000 0.0000
1.0000 0.5000
1.0000 0.8649
0.9944 0.9235
0.9792 0.9819
0.9583 1.0000
$------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ Maximum of 100 points (optional)
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]
{pen fz}
0 0.0
1 212.0
2 428.0
3 648.0
5 1100.0
10 2300.0
20 5000.0
30 8100.0
Fiala Tire Contact Methods

The Fiala tire model supports the following roads:
• 2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D Spline Roads, see Adams/3D Spline Road Model
• 3D Shell Roads, see Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model
12 Adams/Tire
Using the PAC2002Tire Model
The PAC2002 Magic-Formula tire model has been developed by MSC.Software according to Tyre and
Vehicle Dynamics by Pacejka [1]. PAC2002 is latest version of a Magic-Formula model available in
Adams/Tire.
Learn about:
• When to Use PAC2002
• Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces
• Axis Systems and Slip Definitions
• Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation
• Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC2002
• Steady-State: Magic Formula in PAC2002
• Transient Behavior in PAC2002
• Gyroscopic Couple in PAC2002
• Left and Right Side Tires
• USE_MODES of PAC2002: from Simple to Complex
• Quality Checks for the Tire Model Parameters
• Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC2002
• Definitions
• References
• Example of PAC2002 Tire Property File
• Contact Methods
When to Use PAC2002

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling tire-road interaction
forces in vehicle dynamics applications. Since 1987, Pacejka and others have published several versions
of this type of tire model. The PAC2002 contains the latest developments that have been published in
Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics by Pacejka [1].
In general, a MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
wavelengths longer than the tire radius) up to frequencies of 8 Hz. This makes the tire model applicable
for all generic vehicle handling and stability simulations, including:
• Steady-state cornering
• Single- or double-lane change
• Braking or power-off in a turn
• Split-mu braking tests
• J-turn or other turning maneuvers
2 Adams/Tire
• ABS braking, when stopping distance is important (not for tuning ABS control strategies)
• Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
obstacles must be longer than the tire radius)
For modeling roll-over of a vehicle, you must pay special attention to the overturning moment
characteristics of the tire (Mx) and the loaded radius modeling. The last item may not be sufficiently
accurate in this model.
The PAC2002 model has proven to be applicable for car, truck, and aircraft tires with camber
(inclination) angles to the road not exceeding 15 degrees.
PAC2002 and Previous Magic Formula Models

Compared to previous versions, PAC2002 is backward compatible with all previous versions of
PAC2002, MF-Tyre 5.x tire models, and related tire property files.
New Features
The enhancements for PAC2002 in Adams/Tire 2005 r2 are:
• More advanced tire-transient modeling using a contact mass in the contact point with the road.
This results in more realistic dynamic tire model response at large slip, low speed, and standstill
(usemode > 20).
• Parking torque and turn-slip have been introduced: the torque around the vertical axis due to
turning at standstill or at low speed (no need for extra parameters).
• Extended loaded radius modeling (see Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation) are suitable
for driving under extreme conditions like roll-over events and racing applications.
• The option to use a nonlinear spline for the vertical tire load-deflection instead of a linear tire
stiffness. See Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation.
• Modeling of bottoming of the tire to the road by using another spline for defining the bottoming
forces. Learn more about wheel bottoming.
• Online scaling of the tire properties during a simulation; the scaling factors of the PAC2002 can
now be changed as a function of time, position, or any other variable in your model dataset. See
Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, an accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
because the movements of a vehicle primarily depend on the road forces on the tires. These interaction
forces depend on both road and tire properties, and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
In the radial direction, the MF tire models consider the tire to behave as a parallel linear spring and linear
damper with one point of contact with the road surface. The contact point is determined by considering
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road, the contact forces in
3
longitudinal and lateral direction strongly depend on the slip between the tire patch elements and the
road.
The figure, Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model, presents the input and output
vectors of the PAC2002 tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) [3]. The input through the STI consists of:
• Position and velocities of the wheel center
• Orientation of the wheel
• Tire model (MF) parameters
• Road parameters
The tire model routine calculates the vertical load and slip quantities based on the position and speed of
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip     , and inclination angle    with the road. The output is the forces (Fx,
Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating these
forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
The forces and moments out of the Magic Formula are transferred to the wheel center and returned to
Adams/Solver through STI.
Input and Output Variables of the Magic Formula Tire Model
Axis Systems and Slip Definitions

• Axis Systems
4 Adams/Tire
• Units
• Definition of Tire Slip Quantities
Axis Systems
The PAC2002 model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in the
TYDEX-Format [2] and the STI [3].
The STI interface between the PAC2002 model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
model in the C-axis coordinate system. In the tire model itself, a conversion is made to the W-axis system
because all the modeling of the tire behavior as described in this help assumes to deal with the slip
quantities, orientation, forces, and moments in the contact point with the TYDEX W-axis system. Both
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC2002, Source [2]
The C-axis system is fixed to the wheel carrier with the longitudinal xc-axis parallel to the road and in
the wheel plane (xc-zc-plane). The origin of the C-axis system is the wheel center.
The origin of the W-axis system is the road contact-point defined by the intersection of the wheel plane,
the plane through the wheel carrier, and the road tangent plane.
The forces and moments calculated by PAC2002 using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
system. A transformation is made in the source code to return the forces and moments through the STI
to Adams/Solver.
The inclination angle is defined as the angle between the wheel plane and the normal to the road tangent
plane (xw-yw-plane).
5
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC2002 are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC2002 described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
However, the parameters in the tire property file must always be valid for the TYDEX W-axis system
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below (also see Definitions).
SI Units Used in PAC2002
Variable type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Angle Slip angle  Radians
Inclination angle 
Force Longitudinal force Fx Newton
Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz
Moment Overturning moment Mx Newton.meter
Rolling resistance moment My
Self-aligning moment Mz
Speed Longitudinal speed Vx Meters per second
Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed Vsx
Lateral slip speed Vsy

Rotational speed Tire rolling speed  Radians per second

The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact point (W-axis system, see Slip Quantities at Combined
Cornering and Braking/Traction) is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the wheel rotational velocity
 , and the effective rolling radius Re:
V sx = V x – R e (1)
6 Adams/Tire
Slip Quantities at Combined Cornering and Braking/Traction
V sy = V y (2)
velocities in the contact point with:
V sx
 = – ------- (3)
Vx
V sy
tan  = -------- (4)
Vx
Vr = Re  (5)
Turn-slip is one of the two components that form the spin of the tire. Turn-slip  is calculated using the
·
tire yaw velocity  :
·

W t = ----- (6)
Vx
The total tire spin  is calculated using:
1 ·
 1 = -----   –  1 –    sin   (7)
Vx
The total tire spin has contributions of turn-slip and camber.   denotes the camber reduction factor for
the camber to become comparable with turn-slip.
7
Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
• Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius
• Wheel Bottoming
Contact Point
In the vertical direction, the tire is modeled as a parallel linear spring and damper having one point of
contact (C) with the road. This is valid for road obstacles with a wavelength larger than the tire radius
(for example, for car tires 1m).
For calculating the kinematics of the tire relative to the road, the road is approximated by its tangent plane
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel
Plane
The contact point is determined by the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the road tangent
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane through the wheel
spin axis.
The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with the tire deflection  as follows:
8 Adams/Tire
 Ro Fx 2 Fy 2 2
F z =  1 + q V2  ------ –  q Fcxl -------- –  q Fcyl -------- + q Fcl   (8)
 Vo  F z0  F z0 
  2 ·
q Fzl ------ + q Fz2  ------ F z0 + K z  
R0 R0
Using this formula, the vertical tire stiffness increases due to increasing rotational speed  and decreases
by longitudinal and lateral tire forces. If qFz1 and qFz2 are zero, qFz1 will be defined as CzR0/Fz0.
When you do not provide the coefficients qV2, qFcx, qFcy, qFz1, qFz2 and qFc  in the tire property file, the
normal load calculation is compatible with previous versions of PAC2002, because, in that case, the
normal load is calculated using the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz and tire damping Kz according to:
·
F z = C z  Cz + K z 
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz (= qFz1Fz0/R0), you can define an arbitrary tire deflection -
load curve in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example of
PAC2002 Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load
deflection data points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the
vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any
role.
Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius

With the loaded tire radius Rl defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of the tire
with the road, the tire deflection can be calculated using the free tire radius R0 and a correction for the
tire radius growth due to the rotational tire speed  :
R0 2
 = R 0 – R 1 + q V1 R 0   ------ (9)
V0
The effective rolling radius Re (at free rolling of the tire), which is used to calculate the rotational speed
of the tire, is defined by:
Vx
R e = ----- (10)

For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation
because of the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
9
Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a MF-type of equation is used:
R 0 2
R e = R 0 + q V1 R 0  ----------- –  Fz0  D Reff arc tan  B Reff   + F Reff  
d d
(11)
 V0 
in which  Fz0 is the nominal tire deflection:

10 Adams/Tire
F z0
 Fz0 = --------------- (12)
C z  Cz
d
and  is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:
d 
 = --------- (13)
 Fz0
Example of Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as Function of Vertical Load
Normal Load and Rolling Radius Parameters
Name: Name Used in Tire Property File: Explanation:

Fz0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
Ro UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
BReff BREFF Low load stiffness effective rolling radius
DReff DREFF Peak value of effective rolling radius
FReff FREFF High load stiffness effective rolling radius
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness (if qFz1=0)
11

Kz VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
qFz1 QFZ1 Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (linear)
qFz2 QFZ2 Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (quadratic)
qFcx1 QFCX1 Tire stiffness interaction with Fx
qFcy1 QFCY1 Tire stiffness interaction with Fy
qFc  1 QFCG1 Tire stiffness interaction with camber
qV1 QV1 Tire radius growth coefficient
qV2 QV2 Tire stiffness variation coefficient with speed
Wheel Bottoming
You can optionally supply a wheel-bottoming deflection, that is, a load curve in the tire property file in
the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] block. If the deflection of the wheel is so large that the rim will be hit
(defined by the BOTTOMING_RADIUS parameter in the [DIMENSION] section of the tire property
file), the tire vertical load will be increased according to the load curve defined in this section.
Note that the rim-to-road contact algorithm is a simple penetration method (such as the 2D contact) based
on the tire-to-road contact calculation, which is strictly valid for only rather smooth road surfaces (the
length of obstacles should have a wavelength longer than the tire circumference). The rim-to-road contact
algorithm is not based on the 3D-volume penetration method, but can be used in combination with the
3D Contact, which takes into account the volume penetration of the tire itself. If you omit the
[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block from a tire property file, no force due to rim road contact is added to the
tire vertical force.
You can choose a BOTTOMING_RADIUS larger than the rim radius to account for the tire's material
remaining in between the rim and the road, while you can adjust the bottoming load-deflection curve for
the change in stiffness.
12 Adams/Tire
If (Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom) - ½·width ·| tan() |) < 0, the left or right side of the rim has contact with the
road. Then, the rim deflection Penrim can be calculated using:
 = max(0 , ½·width ·| tan(  ) | ) + Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom)

2
Penrim=  /(2 · width ·| tan(  ) |)
13
Srim= ½·width - max(width ,  /| tan(  ) |)/3

with Srim, the lateral offset of the force with respect to the wheel plane.
If the full rim has contact with the road, the rim deflection is:
Penrim = Pentire - (Rtire - Rbottom)
Srim = width2 · | tan(  ) | · /(12 · Penrim)
Using the load - deflection curve defined in the [BOTTOMING_CURVE] section of the tire property file,
the additional vertical force due to the bottoming is calculated, while Srim multiplied by the sign of the
inclination  is used to calculate the contribution of the bottoming force to the overturning moment.
Further, the increase of the total wheel load Fz due to the bottoming (Fzrim) will not be taken into account
in the calculation for Fx, Fy, My, and Mz. Fzrim will only contribute to the overturning moment Mx using
the Fzrim·Srim.
Note: Rtire is equal to the unloaded tire radius R0; Pentire is similar to effpen (=  ).
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC2002

The Magic Formula is a mathematical formula that is capable of describing the basic tire characteristics
for the interaction forces between the tire and the road under several steady-state operating conditions.
We distinguish:
• Pure cornering slip conditions: cornering with a free rolling tire
• Pure longitudinal slip conditions: braking or driving the tire without cornering
• Combined slip conditions: cornering and longitudinal slip simultaneously
For pure slip conditions, the lateral force Fy as a function of the lateral slip  , respectively, and the
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip  , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula equation is capable of describing this shape:
Y  x  = D cos  Carc tan  Bx – E  Bx – arc tan  Bx     (14)
where Y(x) is either Fx with x the longitudinal slip  , or Fy and x the lateral slip  .
14 Adams/Tire
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
called pneumatic trail t, from the contact point. Because the pneumatic trail t as a function of the lateral
slip  has a cosine shape, a cosine version the Magic Formula is used:
in which Y(x) is the pneumatic trail t as function of slip angle .

The figure, The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters, illustrates the functionality of the B,
C, D, and E factor in the Magic Formula:
• D-factor determines the peak of the characteristic, and is called the peak factor.
• C-factor determines the part used of the sine and, therefore, mainly influences the shape of the
curve (shape factor).
• B-factor stretches the curve and is called the stiffness factor.
• E-factor can modify the characteristic around the peak of the curve (curvature factor).
15
The Magic Formula and the Meaning of Its Parameters
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighing functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF equation.
16 Adams/Tire
The Magic Formula itself only describes steady-state tire behavior. For transient tire behavior (up to 8
Hz), the MF output is used in a stretched string model that considers tire belt deflections instead of slip
velocities to cope with standstill situations (zero speed).
Input Variables
The input variables to the Magic Formula are:
Longitudinal slip  [-]

Slip angle  [rad]
Inclination angle  [rad]
Normal wheel load Fz [N]
Output Variables
Longitudinal force Fx [N]

Lateral force Fy [N]
Overturning couple Mx [Nm]
Rolling resistance My [Nm]
moment
Aligning moment Mz [Nm]
The output variables are defined in the W-axis system of TYDEX.
Basic Tire Parameters

All tire model parameters of the model are without dimension. The reference parameters for the model
are:
Nominal (rated) load Fz0 [N]

Unloaded tire radius R0 [m]
Tire belt mass mbelt [kg]
As a measure for the vertical load, the normalized vertical load increment dfz is used:

F z – F zo
df z = -------------------

(16)
F zo
17
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor,  F Z0 ):

F zo = F zo   Fz0
Nomenclature of the Tire Model Parameters

In the subsequent sections, formulas are given with non-dimensional parameters aijk with the following
logic:
Tire Model Parameters
Parameter: Definition:
a= p Force at pure slip
q Moment at pure slip
r Force at combined slip
s Moment at combined slip
i= B Stiffness factor
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
K Slip stiffness = BCD
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
t Transient tire behavior
j= x Along the longitudinal axis
y Along the lateral axis
z About the vertical axis
k= 1, 2, ...
User Scaling Factors

A set of scaling factors is available to easily examine the influence of changing tire properties without
the need to change one of the real Magic Formula coefficients. The default value of these factors is 1.
You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors,   and   , are
also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and 3D Road. An overview of all
scaling factors is shown in the following tables.
18 Adams/Tire
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Pure Slip
Name: Name used in tire property file: Explanation:

 Fzo LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
 Cz LCZ Scale factor of vertical tire stiffness
 Cx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor
 x LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
 Ex LEX Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
 Kx LKX Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
 Hx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
 Vx LVX Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
 x LGAX Scale factor of inclination for Fx
 Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor
 y LMUY Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
 Ey LEY Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
 Ky LKY Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
 Hy LHY Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
 Vy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
 gy LGAY Scale factor of inclination for Fy
t LTR Scale factor of peak of pneumatic trail
 Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual moment
 z LGAZ Scale factor of inclination for Mz
 Mx LMX Scale factor of overturning couple
 VMx LVMX Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
 My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance moment

19
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Combined Slip

 x LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
 y LYKA Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
 Vy LVYKA Scale factor of kappa-induced Fy
s LS Scale factor of moment arm of Fx
Scaling Factor Coefficients for Transient Response

  LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
  LSGAL Scale factor of relaxation length of Fy
 gyr LGYR Scale factor of gyroscopic moment
Note that the scaling factors change during the simulation according to any user-introduced function. See
the next section, Online Scaling of Tire Properties.
Online Scaling of Tire Properties

PAC2002 can provide online scaling of tire properties. For each scaling factor, a variable should be
introduced in the Adams .adm dataset. For example:
!lfz0 scaling
! adams_view_name='TR_Front_Tires until wheel_lfz0_var'
VARIABLE/53
, IC = 1
, FUNCTION = 1.0
This lets you change the scaling factor during a simulation as a function of time or any other variable in
your model. Therefore, tire properties can change because of inflation pressure, road friction, road
temperature, and so on.
You can also use the scaling factors in co-simulations in MATLAB/Simulink.
For more detailed information, see Knowledge Base Article 12732.
Steady-State: Magic Formula in PAC2002

• Steady-State Pure Slip
20 Adams/Tire
• Steady-State Combined Slip
Steady-State Pure Slip

• Longitudinal Force at Pure Slip
• Lateral Force at Pure Slip
• Aligning Moment at Pure Slip
• Turn-slip and Parking
Formulas for the Longitudinal Force at Pure Slip

For the tire rolling on a straight line with no slip angle, the formulas are:
F x = F x0   F z   (17)
F x0 = D x sin   C x arc tan  B x  x – E x  B x  x – arc tan  B x  x     + S Vx  (18)
 x =  + S Hx (19)
 x =    x (20)
with following coefficients:
C x = p Cx1   Cx (21)
Dx = x  Fz  1 (22)
2
 x =  p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z    1 – p Dx3    x (23)
2
E x =  p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex3 df z    1 – p Ex4 sgn   x     Ex with E x  1 (24)
the longitudinal slip stiffness:
K x = F z   p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z   exp  p Kx3 df z    Kx (25)
F x0
Kx = Bx Cx Dx = at  x = 0
 x
Bx = Kx   Cx Dx  (26)
S Hx =  p Hx1 + p Hx2  df z  Hx (27)
S Vx = F z   p Vx1 + p Vx2  df z  Vx   x   1 (28)

21
Longitudinal Force Coefficients at Pure Slip

pCx1 PCX1 Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
pDx1 PDX1 Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
pDx2 PDX2 Variation of friction Mux with load
pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with inclination
pEx1 PEX1 Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
pEx2 PEX2 Variation of curvature Efx with load
pEx3 PEX3 Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
pEx4 PEX4 Factor in curvature Efx while driving
pKx1 PKX1 Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
pKx2 PKX2 Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pKx3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pHx1 PHX1 Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
pHx2 PHX2 Variation of shift Shx with load
pVx1 PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
pVx2 PVX2 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
Formulas for the Lateral Force at Pure Slip

F y = F y0    F z  (29)
F y0 = D y sin  C y arc tan  B y  y – E y  B y  y – arc tan  B y  y     + S Vy (30)
 y =  + S Hy (31)
The scaled inclination angle:
 y =    y (32)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1   Cy (33)
Dy = y  Fz  2 (34)
2
 y =  p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z    1 – p Dy3  y    y (35)
22 Adams/Tire
E y =  p Ey1 + p Ey2 df z    1 –  p Ey3 + p Ey4  y  sgn   y     Ey with E y  1 (36)
The cornering stiffness:
 Fz 
K y0 = P Ky1  F z0  sin 2arc tan  ---------------------------    Fz0   Ky (37)
 P Ky2 F 0  Fz0 
K y = K y0   1 – p Ky3  y    3 (38)
By = Ky   Cy Dy  (39)
S Hy =  p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z    Hy + p Hy3  y   0 +  4 – 1 (40)
S Vy = F z    p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z    Vy +  p Vy3 + p Vy4 df z    y    y   4 (41)
The camber stiffness is given by:
K y0 = P Hy3 K y0 + F z  p Vy3 + p Vy4 df z  (42)
Lateral Force Coefficients at Pure Slip

pCy1 PCY1 Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
pDy1 PDY1 Lateral friction Muy
pDy2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared inclination
pEy1 PEY1 Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load
pEy3 PEY3 Inclination dependency of curvature Efy
pEy4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with inclination
pKy1 PKY1 Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
pKy2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
pKy3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with inclination
pHy1 PHY1 Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
pHy2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load
pHy3 PHY3 Variation of shift Shy with inclination
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
23

pVy2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load
pVy3 PVY3 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with inclination
pVy4 PVY4 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with inclination and load
Formulas for the Aligning Moment at Pure Slip


M z = M z0    F z  (43)
M z0 = – t  F y0 + M zr
with the pneumatic trail t:
t   t  = D t cos  C t arc tan  B t  t – E t  B t  t – arc tan  B t  t     cos    (44)
 t =  + S Ht (45)
and the residual moment Mzr:
M zr   r  = D r cos  C r arc tan  B r  r    cos    (46)
 r =  + S Hf (47)
S Hf = S Hy + S Vy  K y (48)
 z =    z (49)
with coefficients:
2
B t =  q Bz1 + q Bz2 df z + q Bz3 df z    1 + q Bz4  z + q Bz5  z    Ky   y (50)
C t = q Cz1 (51)
2 R0
D t = F z   q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z    1 + q Dz3  z + q Dz4  z   --------   t   5 (52)
F z0
24 Adams/Tire
2
E t =  q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z + q Ez3 df z  (53)
   2-  arc tan  B  C     w ith  E  1 

 1 +  q Ez4 + q Ez5  z    --
 t t t  t
 
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z +  q Hz3 + q Hz4  df z  z (54)
 Ky
B r =  q Bz9  -------- + q Bz10  B y  C y   6 (55)
  y 
Cr = 7
D r = F z    q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z    r +  q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z    z   R o    +  8 – 1 (56)
An approximation for the aligning moment stiffness reads:
M z
  – ---------
Kz = –t  Ky - at  = 0  (57)
  
Aligning Moment Coefficients at Pure Slip

qBz1 QBZ1 Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
qBz2 QBZ2 Variation of slope Bpt with load
qBz3 QBZ3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with inclination
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute inclination
qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual moment Mzr
qBz10 QBZ10 Slope factor Br of residual moment Mzr
qCz1 QCZ1 Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
qDz1 QDZ1 Peak trail Dpt = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
qDz2 QDZ2 Variation of peak Dpt with load
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with inclination
qDz4 QDZ4 Variation of peak Dpt with inclination squared.
qDz6 QDZ6 Peak residual moment Dmr = Dmr/ (Fz*R0)
qDz7 QDZ7 Variation of peak factor Dmr with load
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with inclination
25

qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with inclination and load
qEz1 QEZ1 Trail curvature Ept at Fznom
qEz2 QEZ2 Variation of curvature Ept with load
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
qEz4 QEZ4 Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with inclination and sign Alpha-t
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with inclination
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with inclination and load
Turn-slip and Parking
For situations where turn-slip may be neglected and camber remains small, the reduction factors  i that
appear in the equations for steady-state pure slip, are to be set to 1:
i = 1 i = 0. 1.8
For larger values of spin, the reduction factors are given below.
The weighting function  1 is used to let the longitudinal force diminish with increasing spin, according
to:
 i = cos  arc tan  B x R 0   

with:
B x = p Dx1  1 + p Dx2 df z  cos  arc tan  p Dx3   
The peak side force reduction factor  2 reads:
 2 = cos  arc tan  B y  R 0  + p Dy4 R 0    

with:
B y = p Dx1  1 + p Dx2 df z  cos  arc tan  p Dx3 tan   
The cornering stiffness reduction factor  3 is given by:

26 Adams/Tire
2 2
 3 = cos  arc tan  p Ky1 R 0   
The horizontal shift of the lateral force due to spin is given by:
S Hy = D Hy sin  C Hy arc tan  B Hy R o  – E Hy  B Hy R 0  – arc tan  B Hy R 0     
The factors are defined by:
C Hy
= p Hy1
D Hy =  p Hy2 + p Hy3 df z   sin  V x 
E Hy = P Hy4
K yR0
B Hy = ----------------------
C y D y K y0
The spin force stiffness KyR0 is related to the camber stiffness Kyy0:
K y0
K yR0 = -------------
1 – 
in which the camber reduction factor is given by:
  = p 1  1 + p 2 df z 
The reduction factors  0 and  4 for the vertical shift of the lateral force are given by:
0 = 0
 4 = 1 + S Hy – S Vy  K y
The reduction factor for the residual moment reads:
 8 = 1 + D r
The peak spin torque Dr  is given by:
D r = D Dr sin e  C Dr arc tan  B Dr R 0  – E Dr  B Dr R 0  – arc tan  B Dr R 0     
27
The maximum value is given by:
M z
D Dr = -----------------------------

sin  --- C Dr
2 
The pneumatic trail reduction factor due to turn slip is given by:
 5 = cos  arc tan  q Dt1 R 0   

The moment at vanishing wheel speed at constant turning is given by:
M z = q Cr1  y R 0 F z F z  F z0
The shape factors are given by:
C Dr = q Dr1
E Dr = q Dr2
K zr0
B Dr = --------------------------------------------
C Dr D Dr  1 –  y 
in which:
K zr0 = F z R 0  q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z 
The reduction factor  6 reads:
 6 = cos  arc tan  q Br1 R 0   

The spin moment at 90º slip angle is given by:
2
M z90 = M z  ---  arc tan  q Cr2 R 0    G yx   

The spin moment at 90º slip angle is multiplied by the weighing function G y to account for the action
of the longitudinal slip (see steady-state combined slip equations).
The reduction factor  7 is given by:

28 Adams/Tire
2
 7 = ---  arc cos  M z90  D Dr 

Turn-Slip and Parking Parameters
Name used in
Name: tire property file: Explanation:
p  1 PECP1 Camber spin reduction factor parameter in camber stiffness
p  2 PECP2 Camber spin reduction factor varying with load parameter in
camber stiffness
pDx  1 PDXP1 Peak Fx reduction due to spin parameter
pDx  2 PDXP2 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with varying load parameter
pDx  3 PDXP3 Peak Fx reduction due to spin with kappa parameter
pDy  1 PDYP1 Peak Fy reduction due to spin parameter
pDy  2 PDYP2 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with varying load parameter
pDy  3 PDYP3 Peak Fy reduction due to spin with alpha parameter
pDy  4 PDYP4 Peak Fy reduction due to square root of spin parameter
pKy  1 PKYP1 Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin
pHy  1 PHYP1 Fy-alpha curve lateral shift limitation
pHy  2 PHYP2 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter
pHy  3 PHYP3 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift varying with load
parameter
pHy  4 PHYP4 Fy-alpha curve maximum lateral shift parameter
qDt  1 QDTP1 Pneumatic trail reduction factor due to turn slip parameter
qBr  1 QBRP1 Residual (spin) torque reduction factor parameter due to side
slip
qCr  1 QCRP1 Turning moment at constant turning and zero forward speed
parameter
qCr  2 QCRP2 Turn slip moment (at alpha=90deg) parameter for increase
with spin
qDr  1 QDRP1 Turn slip moment peak magnitude parameter
qDr  2 QDRP2 Turn slip moment peak position parameter
The tire model parameters for turn-slip and parking are estimated automatically. In addition, you can
specify each parameter individually in the tire property file (see example).
See KB-article ## for further details about parking by means of an example.
29
Steady-State Combined Slip

PAC2002 has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies the
coefficients for the combined slip cosine 'weighing' functions, the combined slip is calculated according
to Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions (standard method). If no coefficients are supplied, the
so-called friction ellipse is used to estimate the combined slip forces and moments, see section Combined
Slip with friction ellipse
Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions

• Longitudinal Force at Combined Slip
• Lateral Force at Combined Slip
• Aligning Moment at Combined Slip
• Overturning Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
• Rolling Resistance Moment at Pure and Combined Slip
Formulas for the Longitudinal Force at Combined Slip

F x = F x0  G x    F z  (58)
with G x the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
F x = D x cos  C x arc tan  B x  s – E x  B x  s – arc tan  B x  s     (59)
 s =  + S Hx (60)
with coefficients:
B x = r Bx1 cos  arc tan  r Bx2      x (61)
C x = r Cx1 (62)
F xo
D x = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (63)
cos  C x arc tan  B x S Hx – E x  B x S Hx – arc tan  B x S Hx    
E x = r Ex1 + r Ex2 df z with E x  1 (64)
S Hx = r Hx1 (65)
The weighting function follows as:
cos  C x arc tan  B x  s – E x  B x  s – arc tan  B x  s    

G x = -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (66)
cos  C x arc tan  B x S Hx – E x  B x S Hx – arc tan  B x S Hx    
30 Adams/Tire
Longitudinal Force Coefficients at Combined Slip

rBx1 RBX1 Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
rBx2 RBX2 Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
rCx1 RCX1 Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
rEx1 REX1 Curvature factor of combined Fx
rEx2 REX2 Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
rHx1 RHX1 Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
Formulas for Lateral Force at Combined Slip

F y = F y0  G y     F z  + S Vy (67)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ‘  -induced’ side force;
therefore, the lateral force can be written as:
F y = D y cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B y  s – arc tan  B y  s     + S Vy (68)
 s =  + S Hy (69)
with the coefficients:
B y = r By1 cos  arc tan  r By2   – r By3      y (70)
C y = r Cy1 (71)
F yo
D y = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (72)
cos  C y arc tan  B y S Hy – E y  B y S Hy – arc tan  B y S Hy    
E y = r Ey1 + r Ey2 df z with E y  1 (73)
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z (74)
S Vy = D Vy sin  r Vy5 arc tan  r Vy6      Vy (75)
D Vy =  y F z   r Vy1 + r Vy2 df z + r Vy3    cos  arc tan  r Vy4    (76)

31
The weighting function appears is defined as:
cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B y  s – a rc tan  B y  s    

G y = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (77)
cos  C y arc tan  B y S Hy – E y  B y S Hy – a rc tan  B y S Hy    
Lateral Force Coefficients at Combined Slip

rBy1 RBY1 Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
rBy2 RBY2 Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
rBy3 RBY3 Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
rCy1 RCY1 Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
rEy1 REY1 Curvature factor of combined Fy
rEy2 REY2 Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
rHy1 RHY1 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
rHy2 RHY2 Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan (kappa)
Formulas for Aligning Moment at Combined Slip

 
M = – t  F y + M zr + s  F x (78)
with:
t = t   t eq  (79)
= D t cos  C t arc tan  B t  t eq – E t  B t  t eq – arc tan  B t  t eq     cos    (80)

F y  = 0 = F y – S Vy (81)
M zr = M zr   r eq  = D r cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   cos    (82)

32 Adams/Tire
t = t   t eq  (83)
with the arguments:
Kx 2 2
 t eq = arc tan tan t +  ------   sgn   t 
2
(84)
 K y
Kx 2 2
 r eq = arc tan tan r +  ------   sgn   r 
2
(85)
 K y
Aligning Moment Coefficients at Combined Slip

ssz1 SSZ1 Nominal value of s/R0 effect of Fx on Mz
ssz2 SSZ2 Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
ssz3 SSZ3 Variation of distance s/R0 with inclination
ssz4 SSZ4 Variation of distance s/R0 with load and inclination
Formulas for Overturning Moment at Pure and Combined Slip

For the overturning moment, the formula reads both for pure and combined slip situations:
 Fy 
M x = R o  F z   q Sx1  VMx – q Sx2   + q Sx3  --------  Mx (86)
 F z0 
Overturning Moment Coefficients

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force induced overturning couple
qsx2 QSX2 Inclination induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple
Formulas for Rolling Resistance Moment at Pure and Combined Slip

The rolling resistance moment is defined by:
4
M y = R o  F z   q Sy1 + q Sy3 F x  F z0 + q Sy3 V x  V ref + q Sy4  V x  V ref   (87)
33
If qsy1 and qsy2 are both zero and FITTYP is equal to 5 (MF-Tyre 5.0), then the rolling resistance is
calculated according to an old equation:
M y = R 0  S Vx + K x  S Hx  (88)
Rolling Resistance Coefficients

qsy1 QSY1 Rolling resistance moment coefficient
qsy2 QSY2 Rolling resistance moment depending on Fx
qsy3 QSY3 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed
qsy4 QSY4 Rolling resistance moment depending on speed^4
Vref LONGVL Measurement speed
Combined Slip with friction ellipse

In case the tire property file does not contain the coefficients for the 'standard' combined slip method
(cosine 'weighing functions), the friction ellipse method is used, as described in this section. Note that
the method employed here is not part of one of the Magic Formula publications by Pacejka, but is an in-
house development of MSC.Software.
S Vx
 c =  + S Hx + --------
Kx
S Vy
 c =  + S Hy + --------
Ky
 = sin   c 
 c 
 = acos  -------------------------
  2 +  2
c
The following friction coefficients are defined:
F x 0 – S Vx F y 0 – S Vy
 x act = ------------------------  y act = ------------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
 x max = ------  y max = ------
Fz Fz
34 Adams/Tire
1
 x = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  tan   2
 ------------- + ---------------
  x act   y max
tan 
 y = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  tan   2
 --------------- + -------------
  x max   y act
The forces corrected for the combined slip conditions are:
x y
F x = ------------- F x 0 F y = ------------- F y 0
 x act  y act
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (76) until and
including (85) are used with S Vyk = 0 .
Transient Behavior in PAC2002

The previous Magic Formula equations are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
the tire requires some response time on changes of the inputs. In tire modeling terminology, the low-
frequency behavior (up to 15 Hz) is called transient behavior. PAC2002 provides two methods to model
transient tire behavior:
• Stretched String
• Contact Mass
Stretched String Model

For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the stretched string tire model (see reference [1]). The
tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior shows a top-view of the string model. When
rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed). Therefore,
a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the history of the lateral
deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
35
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior
following differential equation is valid:
1 dv 1 -----
v1
----- + - = tan    + a (89)
Vx d t 
dv 1
 + V x v 1 =   V sy (90)
dt
du 1
 + V x u 1 =   V sx (91)
dt
Both the longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are defined as of the vertical load:
36 Adams/Tire
  = F z   p Tx1 + p Tx2 df z   exp  p Tx3 df z    R 0  F z0   (92)
 Fz 
  = p Ty1 sin 2arc tan  ---------------------------------    1 – p Ky3  y   R 0  Fz0    (93)
  p Ty2 F z0  Fz0  
Now the practical slip quantities,  and  , are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
' = -----  sin  V x  (94)
x
v1
' = atan  ------ (95)
  
Using these practical slip quantities,  and  , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate the
tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x  ' ' F z  (96)
F y = F y  ' '  F z  (97)
M' z = M' z  ' '  F z  (98)
 
M z = M z  ' ' F z  (99)
Coefficients and Transient Response
Name used in tire

Name: property file: Explanation:
pTx1 PTX1 Longitudinal relaxation length at Fznom
pTx2 PTX2 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with load
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent of
load
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation length for lateral direction
pTy2 PTY2 Shape factor for lateral relaxation length
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic moment constant
Mbelt MBELT Belt mass of the wheel
37
Contact Mass Model

The contact mass model is based on the separation of the contact patch slip properties and the tire carcass
compliance (see reference [1]). Instead of using relaxation lengths to describe compliance effects, the
carcass springs are explicitly incorporated in the model. The contact patch is given some inertia to ensure
computational causality. This modeling approach automatically accounts for the lagged response to slip
and load changes that diminish at higher levels of slip. The contact patch itself uses relaxation lengths to
handle simulations at low speed.
The contact patch can deflect in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw directions with respect to the lower part of
the wheel rim. A mass is attached to the contact patch to enable straightforward computations.
The differential equations that govern the dynamics of the contact patch body are:
·
m c  V· cx – V cy  c  + k x u· + c x u = F x
·
m c  V· cy – V cx  c  + k y u· + c y u = F y
·· ·
Jc c + k  + c  = Mz
The contact patch body with mass mc and inertia Jc is connected to the wheel through springs cx, cy, and
c  and dampers kx, ky, and k in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw direction, respectively.
The additional equations for the longitudinal u, lateral v, and yaw  deflections are:
u· = V cx – V sx
v· = V cy – V sy
· ·
 = c – 
·
in which Vcx, Vcy and  c are the sliding velocity of the contact body in longitudinal, lateral, and yaw
·
directions, respectively. Vsx, Vsy, and  are the corresponding velocities of the lower part of the wheel.
The transient slip equations for side slip, turn-slip, and camber are:
 c d ' + V x ' = V cy – V x  + V x  st
dt
d' t
c + V x ' t = V x '
dt
38 Adams/Tire
d' c ·
c + V x ' c =  
dt
d' F2 ·
 F2 + V x ' cF2 =  
dt
d' 1 ·
 1 + V x ' 1 =  
dt
d' 2 ·
 2 + V x ' 2 =  
dt
where the calculated deflection angle has been used:
Mz
 st = ------
c
The tire total spin velocity is:
·
  =  c –  1 –    sin 
With the transient slip equations, the composite transient turn-slip quantities are calculated:
' F = 2' c – ' F2
' M =   ' c +  12  ' 1 – ' 2 
The tire forces are calculated with ' F and the tire moments with ' M .
The relaxation lengths are reduced with slip:
c = a   1 –  
t0
 2 = ----  c
a
 F2 = b F2  c
 1 = b 1  c
 2 = b 2  c
39
Here a is half the contact length according to:
 z 
a = p A1 R 0  ------ + p A2 -----z-
 R0 R 0
The composite tire parameter reads:
K y0
 = ---------------
3 y F x
and the equivalent slip:
2
1 K x0 2  2 
 = -------------  ' + a 12 ' 1 – ' 2  +  --------  ' + --- b ' c 
2
1 + ' K y0  3 
Name used in tire

mc MC Contact body mass
Ic IC Contact body moment of inertia
kx KX Longitudinal damping
ky KY Lateral damping
k KP Yaw damping
cx CX Longitudinal stiffness
cy CY Lateral stiffness
c CP Yaw stiffness
pA1 PA1 Half contact length with vertical tire deflection
pA2 PA2 Half contact length with square root of vertical tire deflection
 EP Composite turn-slip (moment)
 12 EP12 Composite turn-slip (moment) increment
bF2 BF2 Second relaxation length factor
b 1 BP1 First moment relaxation length factor
b 2 BP2 Second moment relaxation length factor
The remaining contact mass model parameters are estimated automatically based on longitudinal and
lateral stiffness specified in the tire property file.
40 Adams/Tire
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC2002

When having fast rotations about the vertical axis in the wheel plane, the inertia of the tire belt may lead
to gyroscopic effects. To cope with this additional moment, the following contribution is added to the
total aligning moment:
dv
M z gyr = c gyr m belt V rl cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   (100)
dt
with the parameter (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1   gyr (101)
and:
cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   = 1 (102)
The total aligning moment now becomes:
M z = M' z + M z gyr (103)
Name used in
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent of
load
Left and Right Side Tires

In general, a tire produces a lateral force and aligning moment at zero slip angle due to the tire
construction, known as conicity and plysteer. In addition, the tire characteristics cannot be symmetric for
positive and negative slip angles.
A tire property file with the parameters for the model results from testing with a tire that is mounted in a
tire test bench comparable either to the left or the right side of a vehicle. If these coefficients are used for
both the left and the right side of the vehicle model, the vehicle does not drive straight at zero steering
wheel angle.
41
The latest versions of tire property files contain a keyword TYRESIDE in the [MODEL] section that
indicates for which side of the vehicle the tire parameters in that file are valid (TYRESIDE = 'LEFT' or
TYRESIDE = 'RIGHT'). .
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity and plysteer and asymmetry when using
a tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero. In Adams/View, this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the
graphical user interface: select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire.
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also set SYMMETRIC: then the tire
characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right side
corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets).Also, when you set the tire property file to
SYMMETRIC, the tire characteristics are changed to symmetric behavior.
42 Adams/Tire
Create Wheel and Tire Dialog Box in Adams/View
USE_MODES of PAC2002: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC2002 tire
model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering and
braking).
The options for the USE_MODE and the output of the model have been listed in the table below.
43
USE_MODE Values of PAC2002 and Related Tire Model Output
PAC2002 output
(forces and
USE_MODE: State: Slip conditions: moments):
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical spring & 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
damper
1 Steady state Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
2 Steady state Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
3 Steady state Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
4 Steady state Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
11 Transient Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, 0, My, 0
12 Transient Pure lateral (cornering) slip 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
13 Transient Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
14 Transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
15 Transient Combined slip and turn-slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
21 Advanced transient Pure longitudinal slip Fx, 0, Fz, My, 0
22 Advanced transient Pure lateral (cornering slip) 0, Fy, Fz, Mx, 0, Mz
23 Advanced transient Longitudinal and lateral (not Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
combined)
24 Advanced transient Combined slip Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
25 Advanced transient Combined slip and turn- Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
slip/parking
Quality Checks for the Tire Model Parameters

Because PAC2002 uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect
parameters can easily result in non-realistic tire behavior. Below is a list of the most important items to
ensure the quality of the parameters in a tire property file:
• Rolling Resistance
• Camber (Inclination) Effects
• Validity Range of the Tire Model Input
Note: Do not change Fz0 (FNOMIN) and R0 (UNLOADED_RADIUS) in your tire property
file. It will change the complete tire characteristics because these two parameters are used
to make all parameters without dimension.
44 Adams/Tire
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%); for heavy commercial truck tires, it can be around 0.006 (0.6%).
Tire property files with the keyword FITTYP=5 determine the rolling resistance in a different way (see
equation (88)). To avoid the ‘old’ rolling resistance calculation, remove the keyword FITTYP and add a
section like the following:
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
QSY4 = 0
Camber (Inclination) Effects

Camber stiffness has not been explicitly defined in PAC2002; however, for car tires, positive inclination
should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle. If positive inclination results in an increase of
the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO but for the SAE coordinate system. Note
that PAC2002 only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
Effect of Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System
45
The table below lists further checks on the PAC2002 parameters.

Checklist for PAC2002 Parameters and Properties
Parameter/property: Requirement: Explanation:

LONGVL 1 m/s Reference velocity at which parameters are
measured
VXLOW Approximately 1 m/s Threshold for scaling down forces and moments
Dx >0 Peak friction (see equation (22))
pDx1/pDx2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Kx >0 Long slip stiffness (see equation (25))
Dy >0 Peak friction (see equation (34))
pDy1/pDy2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Ky <0 Cornering stiffness (see equation (37))
qsy1 >0 Rolling resistance, in the range of 0.005 - 0.015
Validity Range of the Tire Model Input

In the tire property file, a range of the input variables has been given in which the tire properties are
supposed to be valid. These validity range parameters are (the listed values can be different):
$--------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
KPUMIN = -1.5 $Minimum valid wheel slip
KPUMAX = 1.5 $Maximum valid wheel slip
$-------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708 $Minimum valid slip angle
ALPMAX = 1.5708 $Maximum valid slip angle
$--------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
[INCLINATION_ANGLE_RANGE]
CAMMIN = -0.26181 $Minimum valid camber angle
CAMMAX = 0.26181 $Maximum valid camber angle
$----------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
[VERTICAL_FORCE_RANGE]
FZMIN = 225 $Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX = 10125 $Maximum allowed wheel load
If one of the input parameters exceeds a minimum or maximum validity value, the calculation in the tire
model is performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
behavior. In that case, a message appears warning you that one of the inputs exceeds a validity value.
46 Adams/Tire
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC2002

Because all Adams products use the Standard Tire Interface (STI) for linking the tire models to
Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see also reference [4]).
At the First International Colloquium on Tire Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis on October 21-22,
1991, the International Tire Workshop working group was established (TYDEX).
The working group concentrated on tire measurements and tire models used for vehicle simulation
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people used to develop their own tire models. Because all
car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires to improve
dynamic safety of the vehicle) it aimed for standardization in tire behavior description.
In TYDEX, two expert groups, consisting of participants of vehicle industry (passenger cars and trucks),
tire manufacturers, other suppliers and research laboratories, had been defined with following goals:
• The first expert group's (Tire Measurements - Tire Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire measurements and tire models. The result was the TYDEX-Format [2] to
describe tire measurement data.
• The second expert group's (Tire Modeling - Vehicle Modeling) main goal was to specify an
interface between tire models and simulation tools, which resulted in the Standard Tire Interface
(STI) [3]. The use of this interface should ensure that a wide range of simulation software can be
linked to a wide range of tire modeling software.
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
• Force and Moments
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
Road tangent plane Plane with the normal unit vector (tangent to the road) in the tire-road contact
point C.
C-axis system Coordinate system mounted on the wheel carrier at the wheel center according to
TYDEX, ISO orientation.
Wheel plane The plane in the wheel center that is formed by the wheel when considered a rigid
disc with zero width.
47
Term: Definition:
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
W-axis system Coordinate system at the tire contact point C, according to TYDEX, ISO
orientation.
Tire Kinematics
Tire Kinematics Definitions
Parameter: Definition: Units:

R0 Unloaded tire radius [m]
R Loaded tire radius [m]
Re Effective tire radius [m]
 Radial tire deflection [m]
d Dimensionless radial tire deflection [-]

 FZ0 Radial tire deflection at nominal load [m]
mbelt Tire belt mass [kg]

 Rotational velocity of the wheel [rads-1]
Slip Quantities
Slip Quantities Definitions

V Vehicle speed [ms-1]
Vsx Slip speed in x direction [ms-1]
Vsy Slip speed in y direction [ms-1]
Vs Resulting slip speed [ms-1]
Vx Rolling speed in x direction [ms-1]
Vy Lateral speed of tire contact center [ms-1]
Vr Linear speed of rolling [ms-1]
 Longitudinal slip [-]
 Slip angle [rad]
 Inclination angle [rad]

48 Adams/Tire
Forces and Moments

Force and Moment Definitions
Abbreviation: Definition: Units:

Fz Vertical wheel load [N]
Fz0 Nominal load [N]
dfz Dimensionless vertical load [-]
Fx Longitudinal force [N]
Fy Lateral force [N]
Mx Overturning moment [Nm]
My Braking/driving moment [Nm]
Mz Aligning moment [Nm]
References
1. H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5.
2. H.-J. Unrau, J. Zamow, TYDEX-Format, Description and Reference Manual, Release 1.1,
Initiated by the International Tire Working Group, July 1995.
3. A. Riedel, Standard Tire Interface, Release 1.2, Initiated by the Tire Workgroup, June 1995.
4. J.J.M. van Oosten, H.-J. Unrau, G. Riedel, E. Bakker, TYDEX Workshop: Standardisation of
Data Exchange in Tyre Testing and Tyre Modelling, Proceedings of the 2nd International
Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Vehicle System Dynamics, Volume
27, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam/Lisse, 1996.
Example of PAC2002 Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE ='tir'
FILE_VERSION =3.0
FILE_FORMAT ='ASCII'
! : TIRE_VERSION : PAC2002
! : COMMENT : Tire 235/60R16
! : COMMENT : Manufacturer
! : COMMENT : Nom. section with (m) 0.235
! : COMMENT : Nom. aspect ratio (-) 60
! : COMMENT : Infl. pressure (Pa) 200000
! : COMMENT : Rim radius (m) 0.19
! : COMMENT : Measurement ID
! : COMMENT : Test speed (m/s) 16.6
! : COMMENT : Road surface
! : COMMENT : Road condition Dry
! : FILE_FORMAT : ASCII
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Fri Jan 23 14:30:06 2004
!
! USE_MODE specifies the type of calculation performed:
! 0: Fz only, no Magic Formula evaluation
49
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
! 3: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz uncombined force/moment calculation
! 4: Fx,Fy,Mx,My,Mz combined force/moment calculation
! +10: including relaxation behaviour
! *-1: mirroring of tyre characteristics
!
! example: USE_MODE = -12 implies:
! -calculation of Fy,Mx,Mz only
! -including relaxation effects
! -mirrored tyre characteristics
!
$--------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH ='meter'
FORCE ='newton'
ANGLE ='radians'
MASS ='kg'
TIME ='second'
$--------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC2002'
USE_MODE = 14 $Tyre use switch (IUSED)
VXLOW = 1
LONGVL = 16.6 $Measurement speed
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT' $Mounted side of tyre at
vehicle/test bench
$---------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = 0.344 $Free tyre radius
WIDTH = 0.235 $Nominal section width of the
tyre
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.6 $Nominal aspect ratio
RIM_RADIUS = 0.19 $Nominal rim radius
RIM_WIDTH = 0.16 $Rim width
$----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2.1e+005 $Tyre vertical stiffness
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 50 $Tyre vertical damping
BREFF = 8.4 $Low load stiffness e.r.r.
DREFF = 0.27 $Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF = 0.07 $High load stiffness e.r.r.
FNOMIN = 4850 $Nominal wheel load
$----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
$---------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
$---------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
$------------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
$-------------------------------------------------------------scaling
50 Adams/Tire
[SCALING_COEFFICIENTS]
LFZO = 1 $Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
LCX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx shape factor
LMUX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
LEX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx curvature factor
LKX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx slip stiffness
LHX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
LVX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx vertical shift
LGAX = 1 $Scale factor of camber for Fx
LCY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy shape factor
LMUY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy peak friction coefficient
LEY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy curvature factor
LKY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy cornering stiffness
LHY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy horizontal shift
LVY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
LGAY = 1 $Scale factor of camber for Fy
LTR = 1 $Scale factor of Peak of pneumatic trail
LRES = 1 $Scale factor for offset of residual torque
LGAZ = 1 $Scale factor of camber for Mz
LXAL = 1 $Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LYKA = 1 $Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
LVYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
LS = 1 $Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
LSGKP = 1 $Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL = 1 $Scale factor of Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR = 1 $Scale factor of gyroscopic torque
LMX = 1 $Scale factor of overturning couple
LVMX = 1 $Scale factor of Mx vertical shift
LMY = 1 $Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
$-------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
[LONGITUDINAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCX1 = 1.6411 $Shape factor Cfx for longitudinal force
PDX1 = 1.1739 $Longitudinal friction Mux at Fznom
PDX2 = -0.16395 $Variation of friction Mux with load
PDX3 = 0 $Variation of friction Mux with camber
PEX1 = 0.46403 $Longitudinal curvature Efx at Fznom
PEX2 = 0.25022 $Variation of curvature Efx with load
PEX3 = 0.067842 $Variation of curvature Efx with load squared
PEX4 = -3.7604e-005 $Factor in curvature Efx while driving
PKX1 = 22.303 $Longitudinal slip stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2 = 0.48896 $Variation of slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3 = 0.21253 $Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PHX1 = 0.0012297 $Horizontal shift Shx at Fznom
PHX2 = 0.0004318 $Variation of shift Shx with load
PVX1 = -8.8098e-006 $Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
PVX2 = 1.862e-005 $Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load
RBX1 = 13.276 $Slope factor for combined slip Fx reduction
RBX2 = -13.778 $Variation of slope Fx reduction with kappa
RCX1 = 1.2568 $Shape factor for combined slip Fx reduction
REX1 = 0.65225 $Curvature factor of combined Fx
REX2 = -0.24948 $Curvature factor of combined Fx with load
RHX1 = 0.0050722 $Shift factor for combined slip Fx reduction
PTX1 = 2.3657 $Relaxation length SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2 = 1.4112 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz with load
PTX3 = 0.56626 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
$--------------------------------------------------------overturning
[OVERTURNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSX1 = 0 $Lateral force induced overturning moment
QSX2 = 0 $Camber induced overturning couple
QSX3 = 0 $Fy induced overturning couple
51
$------------------------------------------------------------lateral
[LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS]
PCY1 = 1.3507 $Shape factor Cfy for lateral forces
PDY1 = 1.0489 $Lateral friction Muy
PDY2 = -0.18033 $Variation of friction Muy with load
PDY3 = -2.8821 $Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
PEY1 = -0.0074722 $Lateral curvature Efy at Fznom
PEY2 = -0.0063208 $Variation of curvature Efy with load
PEY3 = -9.9935 $Zero order camber dependency of curvature Efy
PEY4 = -760.14 $Variation of curvature Efy with camber
PKY1 = -21.92 $Maximum value of stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2 = 2.0012 $Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
PKY3 = -0.024778 $Variation of Kfy/Fznom with camber
PHY1 = 0.0026747 $Horizontal shift Shy at Fznom
PHY2 = 8.9094e-005 $Variation of shift Shy with load
PHY3 = 0.031415 $Variation of shift Shy with camber
PVY1 = 0.037318 $Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
PVY2 = -0.010049 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load
PVY3 = -0.32931 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber
PVY4 = -0.69553 $Variation of shift Svy/Fz with camber and load
RBY1 = 7.1433 $Slope factor for combined Fy reduction
RBY2 = 9.1916 $Variation of slope Fy reduction with alpha
RBY3 = -0.027856 $Shift term for alpha in slope Fy reduction
RCY1 = 1.0719 $Shape factor for combined Fy reduction
REY1 = -0.27572 $Curvature factor of combined Fy
REY2 = 0.32802 $Curvature factor of combined Fy with load
RHY1 = 5.7448e-006 $Shift factor for combined Fy reduction
RHY2 = -3.1368e-005 $Shift factor for combined Fy reduction with load
RVY1 = -0.027825 $Kappa induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2 = 0.053604 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
RVY3 = -0.27568 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4 = 12.12 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5 = 1.9 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
RVY6 = -10.704 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1 = 2.1439 $Peak value of relaxation length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2 = 1.9829 $Value of Fz/Fznom where SigAlp0 is extreme
$-------------------------------------------------rolling resistance
[ROLLING_COEFFICIENTS]
QSY1 = 0.01 $Rolling resistance torque coefficient
QSY2 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque depending on Fx
QSY3 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque depending on speed
QSY4 = 0 $Rolling resistance torque depending on speed ^4
$-----------------------------------------------------------aligning
[ALIGNING_COEFFICIENTS]
QBZ1 = 10.904 $Trail slope factor for trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2 = -1.8412 $Variation of slope Bpt with load
QBZ3 = -0.52041 $Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
QBZ4 = 0.039211 $Variation of slope Bpt with camber
QBZ5 = 0.41511 $Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
QBZ9 = 8.9846 $Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QBZ10 = 0 $Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
QCZ1 = 1.2136 $Shape factor Cpt for pneumatic trail
QDZ1 = 0.093509 $Peak trail Dpt" = Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2 = -0.0092183 $Variation of peak Dpt" with load
QDZ3 = -0.057061 $Variation of peak Dpt" with camber
QDZ4 = 0.73954 $Variation of peak Dpt" with camber squared
QDZ6 = -0.0067783 $Peak residual torque Dmr" = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7 = 0.0052254 $Variation of peak factor Dmr" with load
QDZ8 = -0.18175 $Variation of peak factor Dmr" with camber
QDZ9 = 0.029952 $Variation of peak factor Dmr" with camber and load
52 Adams/Tire
QEZ1 = -1.5697 $Trail curvature Ept at Fznom

QEZ2 = 0.33394 $Variation of curvature Ept with load
QEZ3 = 0 $Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
QEZ4 = 0.26711 $Variation of curvature Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QEZ5 = -3.594 $Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t
QHZ1 = 0.0047326 $Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
QHZ2 = 0.0026687 $Variation of shift Sht with load
QHZ3 = 0.11998 $Variation of shift Sht with camber
QHZ4 = 0.059083 $Variation of shift Sht with camber and load
SSZ1 = 0.033372 $Nominal value of s/R0: effect of Fx on Mz
SSZ2 = 0.0043624 $Variation of distance s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
SSZ3 = 0.56742 $Variation of distance s/R0 with camber
SSZ4 = -0.24116 $Variation of distance s/R0 with load and camber
QTZ1 = 0.2 $Gyration torque constant
MBELT = 5.4 $Belt mass of the wheel
$-----------------------------------------------turn-slip parameters
[TURNSLIP_COEFFICIENTS]
PECP1 = 0.7 $Camber stiffness reduction factor
PECP2 = 0.0 $Camber stiffness reduction factor with load
PDXP1 = 0.4 $Peak Fx reduction due to spin
PDXP2 = 0.0 $Peak Fx reduction due to spin with load
PDXP3 = 0.0 $Peak Fx reduction due to spin with longitudinal slip
PDYP1 = 0.4 $Peak Fy reduction due to spin
PDYP2 = 0.0 $Peak Fy reduction due to spin with load
PDYP3 = 0.0 $Peak Fy reduction due to spin with lateral slip
PDYP4 = 0.0 $Peak Fy reduction with square root of spin
PKYP1 = 1.0 $Cornering stiffness reduction due to spin
PHYP1 = 1.0 $Fy lateral shift shape factor
PHYP2 = 0.15 $Maximum Fy lateral shift
PHYP3 = 0.0 $Maximum Fy lateral shift with load
PHYP4 = -4.0 $Fy lateral shift curvature factor
QDTP1 = 10.0 $Pneumatic trail reduction factor
QBRP1 = 0.1 $Residual torque reduction factor with lateral slip
QCRP1 = 0.2 $Turning moment at constant turning with zero speed
QCRP2 = 0.1 $Turning moment at 90 deg lateral slip
QDRP1 = 1.0 $Maximum turning moment
QDRP2 = -1.5 $Location of maximum turning moment
$--------------------------------------------contact patch parameters
[CONTACT_COEFFICIENTS]
PA1 = 0.4147 $Half contact length dependency on Fz)
PA2 = 1.9129 $Half contact length dependency on sqrt(Fz/R0)
$--------------------------------------------contact patch slip model
[DYNAMIC_COEFFICIENTS]
MC = 1.0 $Contact mass
IC = 0.05 $Contact moment of inertia
KX = 409.0 $Contact longitudinal damping
KY = 320.8 $Contact lateral damping
KP = 11.9 $Contact yaw damping
CX = 4.350e+005 $Contact longitudinal stiffness
CY = 1.665e+005 $Contact lateral stiffness
CP = 20319 $Contact yaw stiffness
EP = 1.0
EP12 = 4.0
BF2 = 0.5
BP1 = 0.5
BP2 = 0.67
$------------------------------------------------------loaded radius
[LOADED_RADIUS_COEFFICIENTS]
QV1 = 0.000071 $Tire radius growth coefficient
QV2 = 2.489 $Tire stiffness variation coefficient with speed
53
QFCX1 = 0.1 $Tire stiffness interaction with Fx

QFCY1 = 0.3 $Tire stiffness interaction with Fy
QFCG1 = 0.0 $Tire stiffness interaction with camber
QFZ1 = 0.0 $Linear stiffness coefficient, if zero,
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS is taken
QFZ2 = 14.35 $Tire vertical stiffness coefficient (quadratic)
Contact Methods
The PAC2002 model supports the following roads:
• 2D Roads, see Using the 2D Road Model
Note that the PAC2002 model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the
wavelength of road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
In addition, the contact force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore,
the contact point does not generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such
as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
54 Adams/Tire
Using the PAC-TIME Tire Model
The PAC-TIME Magic-Formula tire model has been developed by MSC.Software according to a
publication, A New Tyre Model for TIME Measurement Data, by J.J.M. van Oosten e.a. [5]. PAC-TIME
has improved equations for side force and aligning moment under pure slip conditions. For longitudinal
pure slip and combined slip, the tire model is similar to PAC-TIME.
Learn about:
• When to Use PAC-TIME
• Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces
• Axis Systems and Slip Definitions
• Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation
• Basics of Magic Formula
• Steady-State: Magic Formula
• Transient Behavior
• Gyroscopic Couple
• USE_MODES OF PAC-TIME: from Simple to Complex
• Quality Checks for Tire Model Parameters
• Standard Tire Interface (STI)
• Definitions
• References
• Example of PAC-TIME Tire Property File
• Contact Methods
When to Use PAC-TIME

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling tire-road interaction
forces in vehicle dynamics applications. Since 1987, Pacejka and others have published several versions
of this type of tire model. The PAC-TIME model is similar to PAC2002, but has improved equations for
side force (Fy) and aligning moment (Mz) under pure side slip conditions.
The following is background information about the PAC-TIME tire model, as stated in the paper, A New
Tyre Model for TIME Measurement Data, J.J.M. van Oosten, E. Kuiper, G. Leister, D. Bode, H.
Schindler, J. Tischleder, S. Köhne [5]:
In 1999 a new method for tyre Force and Moment (F&M) testing has been developed by a consortium of
European tyre and vehicle manufacturers: the TIME procedure. For Vehicle Dynamics studies often a
Magic Formula (MF) tyre model is used based upon such F&M data. However when calculating MF
parameters for a standard MF model out of the TIME F&M data, several difficulties are observed. These
are mainly due to the non-uniform distribution of the data points over the slip angle, camber and load
area and the mutual dependency in between the slip angle, camber and load. A new MF model for pure
2 Adams/Tire
cornering slip conditions has been developed that allows the calculation of the MF parameters despite
of the dependency of the three input variables in the F&M data and shows better agreement with the
measured F&M data points. From mathematical point of view the optimisation process for deriving MF
parameters is better conditioned with the new MF-TIME, resulting in less sensitivity to starting values
and better convergence to a global minimum. In addition the MF-TIME has improved extrapolation
performance compared to the standard MF models for areas where no F&M data points are available.
Next to the use for TIME F&M data, the new model is expected to have interesting prospects for
converting ‘on-vehicle’ measured tyre data into a robust set of MF parameters.
In general, an MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
• Single- or double-lane change
• Other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth roads (wavelength of road
For modeling roll-over of a vehicle, you must pay special attention to the overturning moment
characteristics of the tire (Mx), and the loaded radius modeling. The last item may not be sufficiently
addressed in this model.
The PAC-TIME model has been developed for car tires with camber (inclination) angles to the road not
exceeding 15 degrees.
Modeling of Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, an accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
forces depend on both road and tire properties, and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road, the contact forces in
road.
vectors of the PAC2002 tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) [3]. The input through the STI consists of:
3

• Road parameters
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load (Fz), the
longitudinal and lateral slip (  ,  ), and inclination angle (  ) with the road. The output is the forces (Fx,
Fy) and moments (Mx, My, Mz) in the contact point between the tire and the road. For calculating these
forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing data.
Adams/Solver through STI.

• Axis Systems
• Units
Axis Systems
The PAC-TIME model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions, as described in the
4 Adams/Tire
The STI interface between the MF-TIME model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC-TIME , Source [2]
The forces and moments calculated by PAC-TIME using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
to Adams/Solver.
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC-TIME are
according to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC-TIME described in this guide have been
developed for use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire
property file. Because of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have to be changed.
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below.
5
SI Units Used in PAC-TIME
Variable type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz
Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed Vsx
Lateral slip speed Vsy

Rotational speed Tire rolling speed  Radians per second

The longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact point (W-axis system, see Slip Quantities at Combined
Cornering and Braking/Traction) is defined using the longitudinal speed Vx, the wheel rotational velocity
 , and the effective rolling radius Re:
6 Adams/Tire
V sx = V x – R e (1)
V sy = V y (2)
V sx
 = – ------- (3)
Vx
V sy
tan  = -------- (4)
Vx
Vr = Re  (5)
Contact Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
Contact Point
at the road point right below the wheel center (see the figure below).
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
7
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load Fz of the tire is calculated with:
·
Fz = Cz  + Kz   (6)
·
where  is the tire deflection and  is the deflection rate of the tire.
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, you can also define an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] (see the Example of PAC-TIME
Tire Property File). If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection data
points with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of
the tire. Note that you must specify Cz in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.

With the loaded rolling tire radius R defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of the
tire with the road, where  is the deflection of the tire, and R0 is the free (unloaded) tire radius, then the
loaded tire radius Re is:
Re = R0 –  (7)
8 Adams/Tire
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness Cz is assumed; therefore, the tire deflection 
can be calculated using:
Fz
 = ----- (8)
Cz
Vx
R e = ----- (9)

decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
9
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, an MF type of equation is used:
d d
R e = R 0 –  Fz0  Darc tan  B  + F  (10)
F z0
 Fz0 = -------- (11)
Cz
d

 d = --------- (12)
 Fz0

Fz0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
Ro UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
10 Adams/Tire

B BREFF Low load stiffness effective rolling radius
D DREFF Peak value of effective rolling radius
F FREFF High load stiffness effective rolling radius
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness
Kz VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC-TIME

We distinguish:
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip  , have a similar shape. Because of the sine -
arctangent combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
where Y(x) is either Fx with x the longitudinal slip  , or Fy and x the lateral slip  .
11
The self-aligning moment Mz is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment Mzr. In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,

12 Adams/Tire
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force Fy will decrease due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force Fx will decrease due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip
conditions are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions.
Again, these weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force

From a historical point of view, the camber stiffness always has been modeled implicit in the Magic
Formulas. For deriving coefficients of a Pacejka tire model usually so-called tire tests with slip angle
sweeps at various values of constant load and inclination are performed. In the resulting Force & Moment
measurement data, the effects of camber on the side force Fy are relatively small compared to side force
effects by slip angle, which can easily result in non-realistic camber stiffness properties. Because there
is no explicit definition of the camber stiffness, the effects on camber stiffness cannot be controlled in the
coefficient optimization process.
13
The TIME measurement procedure guarantees more realistic tire test data, because they are performed
under realistic tire operating conditions and specific parts of the test program concentrate on getting
accurate cornering and camber stiffness. Because the inputs to the test program (side and longitudinal
slip, inclination, and load) are not independent, for the parameter optimization process, a Pacejka tire
model was required that has a better definition of cornering and camber stiffness from mathematical point
of view (for a more detailed explanation, see [5]).
Therefore, the PAC-TIME tire model has an explicit definition of camber effects, similar to the tire model
for motorcycle tires (PAC_MC). The basic Magic Formula sine function for the lateral force Fy has been
extended with an argument for the inclination  as follows:
F y0 = D y sin  C y arc tan  B y  y – E y  B y  y – arc tan  B y  y    (15)

+ C  arc tan  B   y – E   B   y – arc tan  B       
In the PAC-TIME tire model, C  has been set to ½, and E  is not used (zero value). This approach results
in an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because:
F yo
K  = B  C  D  = ----------- at   = 0 (16)

Input Variables
Input Variables

Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables.

Rolling resistance moment My [Nm]
14 Adams/Tire

are:

F z – F' z0
df z = -------------------- (17)
F' z0
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor,  Fz0 ):
F' z0 = F z0   F z0 (18)

logic:
15
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
k= 1, 2, ...

You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors, factors,  and
 ', are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and Adams/3D Road. An
overview of all scaling factors is shown in the next tables.
Name used in
F LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
zo
 cx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor

  LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
 Hx LHX Scale factor of Fx horizontal shift
 x LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx
 Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor for side slip
16 Adams/Tire
Name used in
 Vy LVY Scale factor of Fy vertical shift
 K LKC Scale factor of camber stiffness (K-factor)
  LGAY Scale factor of camber force stiffness
 Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque
 z LGAZ Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
 My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
Name used in tire

x  LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
 Vy LVYKA Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
s LS Scale factor of moment arm of Fx
Name used in tire

  LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
Steady-State: Magic Formula in PAC-TIME

17


F x = F x0   F z   (19)
F x0 = D x sin  C x arc tan  B x  x – E x  B x  x – arc tan  B x  s     + S Vx (20)
 x =  + S Hx (21)
 x =    x (22)
C x = p Cx1   Cx (23)
Dx = x  Fz (24)
 x =  p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z    1 – p Dx3   x2  x (25)
E x =  p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex3 df z2    1 – p Ex4 sgn   x     Ex with E x  1 (26)
K x = F z  p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z   exp  p Kx3 df z    Kx
 K = B C D = F x0
----------- at  x = 0 (27)
 x x x x  x 
Bx = Kx   Cx Dx  (28)
S Hx =  p Hx1 + p Hx2  d f z  Hx (29)
S Vx = F z   p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z    Vx   x
18 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with inclination

F y = F y0    F z  (30)
1
F y0 = D y sin C y arc tan  B y  y – E y  B y  y – arc tan  B y  y    + --- arc tan  B   y  + S Vy (31)
2
 y =  + S Hy (32)
 y =    y (33)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1   Cy (34)
Dy = y  Fz (35)
 y =  p Dy1 + p Dy2 df z    1 – p Dy3  y2    y (36)
E y =  p Ey1 + p Ey2 df z +  p Ey3 + p Ey4  y  sgn   y     Ey (37)

19
F y  Fz 
Ky = = p Ky1 F z0 sin p Ky4 arc tan  ------------------------------    1 – p Ky3  y2    Ky  Fz0 (38)
  p Ky2 F z0  Fz0 
with p Ky4  2
F y
K = = F z  p Ky5 + p Ky6 df z    Ky (39)

Ky
B y = ------------- (40)
Cy Dy
2K 
B  = --------- (41)
Dy
S Hy =  p Hy1 + p Hy2 df z    Hy (42)
S Vy = F z  p Vy1 + p Vy2 df z    Vy  y (43)
Name used in tire

pDy2 PDY2 Variation of friction Muy with load
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared inclination
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with load
pEy3 PEY3 Inclination dependency of curvature Efy
pEy4 PEY4 Variation of curvature Efy with inclination
pKy2 PKY2 Load at which Kfy reaches maximum value
pKy3 PKY3 Variation of Kfy/Fznom with inclination
pKy4 PKY4 Shape factor of Kfy
pKy5 PKY5 Linear variation of K with load
pKy6 PKY6 Quadratic variation of K with load
20 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

pHy2 PHY2 Variation of shift Shy with load
pVy1 PVY1 Vertical shift in Svy/Fz at Fznom
pVy2 PVY2 Variation of shift Svy/Fz with load

M' z = M z0    F z  (44)
M z0 = – t   F y0 – S Vy   = 0 + M zr
 t =  + S Ht
M zr   r  = D r cos  arc tan  B r  r   cos    (46)
 r =  + S Hr (47)
S Hr = 0 (48)
 z =    z (49)
with coefficients:
B t =  q Bz1 + q Bz2 df z   1 + q Bz4  z2 + q Bz5  z    Ky   y (50)
C t = q Cz1 (51)
D t = F z  q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z   R 0  F z0    t (52)

21
 2 
E t =  q Ez1 + q Ez2 df z   1 + q Ez4 --- arc tan  B t C t  t   (53)
  
with E t  1
S Ht = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z +  q Hz3 + q Hz4 df z  z (54)
B r =  Kz   y (55)
D r = F z   q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z  r +  q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z  z R 0  y (56)
M z
= – tK y = F z  q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z   R 0  F z0   p Ky5 + p Ky6 df z F z   t  Ky (57)

and the aligning stiffness for inclination is:
M z
---------- =  q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z F z R 0  y (58)

Name used in tire

qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with inclination
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute inclination
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with inclination
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with inclination and load
22 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Sht at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Sht with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Sht with inclination
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with inclination and load

PAC-TIME has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies
the coefficients for the combined slip cosine 'weighing' functions, the combined slip is calculated
according to Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions (standard method). If no coefficients are
supplied, the so-called friction ellipse is used to estimate the combined slip forces and moments, see
section Combined Slip with friction ellipse


F x = F x0  G x    F z  (59)
with G x  the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
 s =  + S Hx (61)
with coefficients:
B x = r Bx1 cos  arc tan  r Bx2      x (62)
C x = r Cx1 (63)
23
F xo
D x = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (64)
S Hx = r Hx1 (66)

G x = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (67)
Name used in tire


F y = F y0  G y     F z  + S Vy (68)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the '  -induced' side force;
F y = D y cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B yk  s – arc tan  B y  s     + S Vy (69)
 s =  + S Hy (70)
B y = r By1 cos  arc tan  r By2   – r By3      y (71)
C y = r Cy1 (72)
24 Adams/Tire
F yo
D y = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (73)
cos  C y arc tan  B y S Hy – E y  B yk S Hy – arc tan  B y S Hy    
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z (75)
cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B x  s – arc tan  B y  s    

G y = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ (77)
cos  C y arc tan  B y S Hy – E y  B yk S Hy – arc tan  B y S Hy    
Name used in tire

rVy1 RVY1 Kappa induced side force SVyk/y·Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of SVyk/y·Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of SVyk/y·Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of SVyk/y·Fz with 
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of SVyk/y·Fz with 
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of SVyk/y·Fz with atan()

M' z = – t  F' y + M zr + s  F x (78)
with:
25
t = t   t eq  (79)
F' y  = 0 = F y – S Vy (81)
t = t   t eq 
with the arguments:
Kx 2
 t eq = arc tan tan t +  ------  2  sgn   t 
2
(83)
Ky
Kx 2
 r eq = arc tan tan r +  ------  2  sgn   r 
2
(84)
 K y
Name used in tire


 Fy 
M x = R o  F z   q sx1  VMx – q sx2   + q sx3  --------  Mx (85)
 F z0 
Name used in tire

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force induced overturning couple
26 Adams/Tire
Name used in tire

qsx2 QSX2 Inclination induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy induced overturning couple

M y = R o  F z   q Sy1 + q Sy2 F x  F z0 + q Sy3 V x  V ref + q Sy4  V x  V ref  4  (86)
Name used in tire


S Vx
 c =  + S Hx + --------
Kx
S Vy
 c =  + S Hy + --------
Ky
 = sin   c 
 c 
 = acos  -------------------------
  2 +  2
c

27
F x 0 – S Vx F y 0 – S Vy
 x act = ------------------------  y act = ------------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
 x max = ------  y max = ------
Fz Fz
1
 x = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  ---------------
 ------------- tan   2
+
  x act   y max
tan 
 y = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  -------------
 --------------- tan   2
+
  x max   y act
x y
F x = ------------- F x 0 F y = ------------- F y 0
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae (76) until and
including (84) are used with S Vy = 0.
Transient Behavior in PAC-TIME

The previous Magic Formula equations are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
frequency behavior (up to 8 Hz) is called transient behavior.
For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the stretched string tire model (see reference [1]). The
tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior shows a top-view of the string model. When
rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed). Therefore,
a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the history of the lateral
deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
28 Adams/Tire
1 dv 1 -----
v1
----- + - = tan    + a (87)
Vx d t 
dv 1
 + V x v 1 =   V sy (88)
dt
29
du 1
 + V x u 1 = –   V sx (89)
dt
 Fz 
  = p Ty1 F z0 sin p Ky4 arc tan  ----------------------------    1 – p Ky3  2   R 0  Fz0   (91)
 p Ty2 F z0  Fz0 
u1
' = ------ sin  V x  (92)

v1
' = atan  ------ (93)
  
Using these practical slip quantities, ' and ' , the Magic Formula equations can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x  ' ' F z  (94)
F y = F y  ' '  F z  (95)
M z' = M z'  ' '  F z  (96)
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC-TIME

dv
M z gyr = c gyr m belt V r1 cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   (97)
dt
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1   gyr (98)
and:
30 Adams/Tire
cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   = 1 (99)
M z = M z' + M z gyr
Name used in tire

pTx3 PTX3 Variation of longitudinal relaxation length with exponent of load

wheel angle.
indicates for which side of the vehicle the tire parameters in that file are valid (TIRESIDE = 'LEFT' or
TIRESIDE = 'RIGHT').
If this keyword is available, Adams/Car corrects for the conicity, plysteer, and asymmetry when using a
tire property file on the opposite side of the vehicle. In fact, the tire characteristics are mirrored with
respect to slip angle zero. In Adams/View, this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the
graphical user interface: select Build  Forces  Special Force: Tire, as shown in the figure below.
31
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also set SYMMETRIC: then the tire
characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right side
corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
USE_MODES of PAC-TIME: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC-TIME
tire model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering
and braking).
The options for the USE_MODE and the output of the model have been listed in the table below.
32 Adams/Tire
USE_MODE Values of PAC-TIME and Related Tire Model Output
PAC-TIME output
USE_MODE: State: Slip conditions: (forces and moments):
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical spring and damper 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
3 Steady state Longitudinal and lateral (not combined) Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
13 Transient Longitudinal and lateral (not combined) Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz

Because PAC-TIME uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect
Rolling Resistance
For a realistic rolling resistance, the parameter qsy1 must be positive. For car tires, it can be in the order
of 0.006 - 0.01 (0.6% - 1.0%).
$---------------------------------------------------rolling
resistance
QSY1 = 0.01
QSY2 = 0
QSY3 = 0
QSY4 = 0
33

Camber stiffness has been explicitly defined in PAC-TIME, so camber stiffness can be easily checked by
the tire model parameters itself, see the table, Checklist for PAC-TIME Parameters and Properties, below.
For car tires, positive inclination should result in a negative lateral force at zero slip angle (see Effect of
Positive Camber on the Lateral Force in TYDEX W-axis (ISO) System below). If positive inclination
results in an increase of the lateral force, the coefficient may not be valid for the ISO, but for the SAE
coordinate system. Note that PAC-TIME only uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
The following table lists further checks on the PAC-TIME parameters.

Checklist for PAC-TIME Parameters and Properties

LONGVL 1 m/s Reference velocity at which parameters are measured
VXLOW Approximately 1 m/s Threshold for scaling down forces and moments
Dx >0 Peak friction (see equation (24))
pDx1/pDx2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Kx >0 Long slip stiffness (see equation (27))
34 Adams/Tire

Dy >0 Peak friction (see equation (35))
pDy1/pDy2 <0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Ky <0 Cornering stiffness (see equation (38))
K <0 Camber stiffness (see equation (39))
qsy1 >0 Rolling resistance, in the range of 0.005 - 0.015

$-----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
$----------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
$----------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
$------------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
model is performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC-TIME

Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see reference [4]).
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people previously developed their own tire models.
Because all car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires to
improve dynamic safety of the vehicle), it aimed for standardization in the tire behavior description.
35
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
point C.
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel
plane and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
orientation.
Tire Kinematics

36 Adams/Tire

d Dimensionless radial tire deflection [-]
 Fz0 Radial tire deflection at nominal load [m]
Slip Quantities

Forces and Moments


37
References
5. J.J.M. van Oosten, E. Kuiper, G. Leister, D. Bode, H. Schindler, J. Tischleder, S. Köhne, A new
tyre model for TIME measurement data,Tire Technology Expo 2003, Hannover.
Example of PAC-TIME Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE ='tir'
FILE_VERSION =3.0
! : TIRE_VERSION : MF-TIME
! : COMMENT : Tire 205/55 R16 90H
! : COMMENT : Manufacturer Continental
! : COMMENT : Road condition
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Thu Oct 14 13:52:26 2004
!
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
!
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH ='meter'
38 Adams/Tire
FORCE ='newton'
ANGLE ='radians'
MASS ='kg'
TIME ='second'
$---------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC-TIME'
VXLOW = 2
LONGVL = 30 $Measurement speed
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT' $Mounted side of tyre
at vehicle/test bench
$----------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 0.205 $Nominal section width
of the tyre
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.55 $Nominal aspect ratio
$-----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2.648e+005 $Tyre vertical
stiffness
BREFF = 4.90 $Low load stiffness
e.r.r.
DREFF = 0.41 $Peak value of e.r.r.
FREFF = 0.09 $High load stiffness
e.r.r.
$-----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
$----------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708 $Minimum valid slip
angle
ALPMAX = 1.5708 $Maximum valid slip
angle
$----------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
CAMMIN = -0.26181 $Minimum valid camber
angle
CAMMAX = 0.26181 $Maximum valid camber
angle
$-----------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
FZMIN = 140 $Minimum allowed wheel
load
FZMAX = 10800 $Maximum allowed wheel
load
$------------------------------------------------------------scaling
39
LFZO = 1 $Scale factor of nominal
load
LCX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
shape factor
LMUX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
peak friction coefficient
LEX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
curvature factor
LKX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
slip stiffness
LHX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
horizontal shift
LVX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
vertical shift
LGAX = 1 $Scale factor of camber
for Fx
LCY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
shape factor
LMUY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
LEY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
curvature factor
LKY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
cornering stiffness
LHY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
horizontal shift
LVY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
vertical shift
LKC = 1 $Scale factor of camber
stiffness
LGAY = 1 $Scale factor of camber
for Fy
LTR = 1 $Scale factor of Peak
of pneumatic trail
LRES = 1 $Scale factor of Peak
of residual torque
LGAZ = 1 $Scale factor of camber
torque stiffness
LXAL = 1 $Scale factor of alpha
influence on Fx
LYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa
influence on Fy
LVYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa
induced Fy
LS = 1 $Scale factor of Moment
arm of Fx
LSGKP = 1 $Scale factor of
Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL = 1 $Scale factor of
Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR = 1 $Scale factor of
gyroscopic torque
40 Adams/Tire
LMX = 1 $Scale factor of

overturning couple
LVMX = 1 $Scale factor of Mx
vertical shift
LMY = 1 $Scale factor of rolling
resistance torque
$--------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
PCX1 = 1.3178 $Shape factor Cfx for
longitudinal force
PDX1 = 1.0455 $Longitudinal friction
Mux at Fznom
PDX2 = 0.063954 $Variation of friction
Mux with load
PDX3 = 0 $Variation of friction
Mux with camber
PEX1 = 0.15798 $Longitudinal curvature
Efx at Fznom
PEX2 = 0.41141 $Variation of curvature
Efx with load
Efx with load squared
PEX4 = 3.0004 $Factor in curvature
Efx while driving
PKX1 = 23.181 $Longitudinal slip
stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2 = -0.037391 $Variation of slip
stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
PKX3 = 0.80348 $Exponent in slip
PHX1 = -0.00058264 $Horizontal shift Shx
at Fznom
PHX2 = -0.0037992 $Variation of shift Shx
with load
PVX1 = 0.045118 $Vertical shift Svx/Fz
at Fznom
PVX2 = 0.058244 $Variation of shift
Svx/Fz with load
RBX1 = 13.276 $Slope factor for
combined slip Fx reduction
RBX2 = -13.778 $Variation of slope Fx
reduction with kappa
RCX1 = 1.0 $Shape factor for
REX1 = 0 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx
REX2 = 0 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx with load
RHX1 = 0 $Shift factor for
PTX1 = 0.85683 $Relaxation length
SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
PTX2 = 0.00011176 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz
with load
41
PTX3 = -1.3131 $Variation of SigKap0/Fz

with exponent of load
$--------------------------------------------------------overturning
QSX1 = 0 $Lateral force induced
overturning moment
QSX2 = 0 $Camber induced
overturning moment
QSX3 = 0 $Fy induced overturning
moment
$------------------------------------------------------------lateral
PCY1 = 1.18 $Shape factor Cfy for
lateral forces
PDY2 = -0.17023 $Exponent lateral
friction Muy
PDY3 = -0.76512 $Variation of friction
Muy with squared camber
PEY1 = -0.57264 $Lateral curvature Efy
at Fznom
PEY2 = -0.13945 $Variation of curvature
Efy with load
PEY3 = 0.030873 $Zero order camber
dependency of curvature Efy
PEY4 = 0 $Variation of curvature
Efy with camber
PKY1 = -25.128 $Maximum value of
stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2 = 3.2018 $Load with peak of
cornering stiffness
PKY3 = 0 $Variation with camber
squared of cornering stiffness
PKY4 = 1.9998 $Shape factor for
cornering stiffness with load
PKY5 = -0.50726 $Camber stiffness/Fznom
PKY6 = 0 $Camber stiffness
depending on Fz squared
PHY1 = 0.0031414 $Horizontal shift Shy
at Fznom
PHY2 = 0 $Variation of shift Shy
with load
PVY1 = 0.0068801 $Vertical shift in
Svy/Fz at Fznom
PVY2 = -0.0051 $Variation of shift Shv
with load
RBY1 = 7.1433 $Slope factor for
combined Fy reduction
RBY2 = 9.1916 $Variation of slope Fy
reduction with alpha
RBY3 = -0.027856 $Shift term for alpha
in slope Fy reduction
RCY1 = 1.0 $Shape factor for
42 Adams/Tire
REY1 = 0 $Curvature factor of

combined Fy
REY2 = 0 $Curvature factor of
combined Fy with load
RHY1 = 0 $Shift factor for
RHY2 = 0 $Shift factor for
combined Fy reduction with load
RVY1 = 0 $Kappa induced side
force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
RVY2 = 0 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with load
with camber
with alpha
with kappa
with atan(kappa)
PTY1 = 4.1114 $Peak value of relaxation
length SigAlp0/R0
PTY2 = 6.1149 $Value of Fz/Fznom where
SigAlp0 is extreme
$--------------------------------------------------rolling resistance
QSY1 = 0.01 $Rolling resistance
torque coefficient
QSY2 = 0 $Rolling resistance
torque depending on Fx
torque depending on speed
torque depending on speed^4
$-----------------------------------------------------------aligning
QBZ1 = 5.6241 $Trail slope factor for
trail Bpt at Fznom
QBZ2 = -2.2687 $Variation of slope Bpt
with load
QBZ4 = 6.891 $Variation of slope Bpt
with camber
with absolute camber
QCZ1 = 1.0904 $Shape factor Cpt for
pneumatic trail
QDZ1 = 0.082871 $Peak trail Dpt =
Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
QDZ2 = -0.012677 $Variation of peak Dpt
with load
QDZ6 = 0.00038069 $Peak residual torque
Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7 = 0.00075331 $Variation of peak
factor Dmr with load
43
QDZ8 = -0.083385 $Variation of peak

factor Dmr with camber
QDZ9 = 0 $Variation of peak
factor Dmr with camber and load
QEZ1 = -34.759 $Trail curvature Ept
at Fznom
QEZ2 = -37.828 $Variation of curvature
Ept with load
QEZ4 = 0.59942 $Variation of curvature
Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QHZ1 = 0.0025743 $Trail horizontal shift
Sht at Fznom
QHZ2 = -0.0012175 $Variation of shift Sht
with load
QHZ3 = 0.038299 $Variation of shift Sht
with camber
QHZ4 = 0.044776 $Variation of shift Sht
with camber and load
SSZ1 = 0.0097546 $Nominal value of s/R0:
effect of Fx on Mz
SSZ2 = 0.0043624 $Variation of distance
s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
SSZ3 = 0 $Variation of distance
s/R0 with camber
SSZ4 = 0 $Variation of distance
s/R0 with load and camber
QTZ1 = 0 $Gyroscopic torque
constant
MBELT = 0 $Belt mass of the wheel
-kg-
Contact Methods
The PAC-TIME model supports the following roads:
Note that the PAC-TIME model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the
wavelength of road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
In addition, the contact force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore,
the contact point does not generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such
as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analyses, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.
Using Pacejka '89 and '94 Models
Adams/Tire provides you with the handling force models, Pacejka '89 and Pacejka '94.
• About Pacejka '89 and '94
• Using Pacejka '89 Handling Force Model
• Using Pacejka '94 Handling Force Model
• Combined Slip
• Contact Methods
About Pacejka '89 and '94

The Pacejka '89 and '94 handling models are special versions of the Magic-Formula Tyre model as cited
in the following publications:
• Pacejka '89 - H.B Pacejka, E. Bakker, and L. Lidner. A New Tire Model with an Application in
Vehicle Dynamics Studies, SAE paper 890087, 1989.
• Pacejka '94 - H.B Pacejka and E. Bakker. The Magic Formula Tyre Model. Proceedings of the 1st
International Colloquium on Tyre Models for Vehicle Dynamics Analysis, Swets & Zeitlinger
B.V., Amsterdam/Lisse, 1993.
PAC2002 is technically superior, continuously kept up to date with latest Magic Formula developments,
and MSC’s recommended handling model. However, because many Adams/Tire users have pre-existing
tire data or new data from tire suppliers and testing organizations in a format that is compatible with the
Pacejka '89 and '94 models, the Adams/Tire Handling module includes these models in addition to the
PAC2002.
The material in this help is intended to illustrate only the formulas used in the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire
models. For general information on the PAC2002 and the Magic Formula method, see the papers cited
above or the PAC2002 help.
• History of the Pacejka Name in Adams/Tire
• About Coordinate Systems
• Normal Force
History of the Pacejka Name in Adams/Tire

The formulas used in the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models are derived from publications by Dr. H.B.
Pacejka, and are commonly referred to as the Pacejka method in the automotive industry. Dr. Pacejka
himself is not personally associated with the development of these tire models, nor does he endorse them
in any way.
2 Adams/Tire
About Coordinate Systems

The coordinate systems used in tire modeling and measurement are sometimes confusing. The coordinate
systems employed in the Pacejka ’89 and ’94 tire models are no exception. They are derived from the
tire-measurement systems that the majority of Adams/Tire customers were using at the time when the
models were originally developed.
The Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models were developed before the implementation of the TYDEX STI. As a
result, Pacejka ’89 conforms to a modified SAE-based tire coordinate system and sign conventions, and
Pacejka ’94 conforms to the standard SAE tire coordinate system and sign conventions. MSC maintains
these conventions to ensure file compatibility for Adams/Tire customers.
Future tire models will adhere to one single coordinate system standard, the TYDEX C-axis and W-axis
system. For more information on the TYDEX standard, see Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC2002.
Normal Force
The normal force Fz is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: kz) and damper (damping constant
·
cz), so the next equation holds: F z = kz  + cz 
·
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection  and deflection velocity  become zero, so the
resulting normal force Fz will also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections, the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the example tire
property files, Example of Pacejka ’89 Property File and Example of Pacejka ’94 Property File. If a section
called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic spline for
inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that you must
specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property, but it does not play any role.
3
Slip Quantities at combined cornering and braking/traction
wheel rotational velocity  , and the loaded rolling radius Re:
V sy = V y
V sx
 = – -------
Vx
and
V sy
tan  = --------
Vr
Vr = Re 
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 900 and the longitudinal slip Ss (=  ) in
4 Adams/Tire

be estimated (see H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0
7506 5141 5). The figure below shows a top-view of the string model.
Stretched String Model for Transient Tire behavior
1 dv v
----- -------1- + -----1- = tan  + a
V x dt  
5
dv 1
  -------- + V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
u1
' = ------ sign  V x 

v1
' = atan  ------
  
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are estimated with the longitudinal and lateral stiffness of
the non-rolling tire:
BCD x BCD y
  = -------------------------------------------------------- and   = --------------------------------------------
longitudinal_stiffness lateral_stiffness
For BCDx and BCDy see section Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '94.
In case the longitudinal stiffness is not available in the tire property file the longitudinal stiffness is
estimated with:
longitudinal_stiffness = 4  lateral_stiffness
Using Pacejka '89 Handling Force Model

Learn about the Pacejka '89 handling force model:
• Using Correct Coordinate System and Units
• Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka ’89
• Example of Pacejka ’89 Property File
6 Adams/Tire
Using Correct Coordinate System and Units in Pacejka '89

The test data and resulting coefficients that come from the Pacejka '89 tire model conform to a modified
SAE tire coordinate system. The standard SAE tire coordinate system is shown next and the modified
sign conventions for Pacejka '89 are described in the table below.
Note: The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.
Figure 1 SAE Tire Coordinate System
Variable name and abbreviation: Description:

Normal load Fz (kN) Positive when the tire is penetrating the road.*
Lateral force Fy (N) Positive in a right turn.
Negative in a left turn.
Longitudinal force Fx (N) Positive during traction.
Negative during braking.
Self-aligning torque Mz (Nm) Positive in a left turn.
Negative in a right turn.
7

Inclination angle  (deg) Positive when the top of the tire tilts to the right (when
viewing the tire from the rear).*
Sideslip angle  (deg) Positive in a right turn.*
Longitudinal slip  (%) Negative in braking (-100%: wheel lock).
Positive in traction.
* Opposite convention to standard SAE coordinate system shown in SAE Tire Coordinate System.
Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '89

• Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '89
• Lateral Force
• Self-Aligning Torque
• Overturning Moment
• Smoothing
Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '89

C - Shape Factor
C=B0
D - Peak Factor
D=(B1*FZ2+B2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=(B3*FZ2+B4*FZ)*EXP(-B5*FZ)
B - Stiffness Factor
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=B9*FZ+B10
Vertical Shift
Sv=0.0
Composite
X1=(+Sh)
8 Adams/Tire
E Curvature Factor
E=(B6*FZ2+B7*FZ+B8)
FX Equation
FX=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Longitudinal Force
Parameters: Description:
B0 Shape factor
B1 , B2 Peak factor
B3 , B4 , B5 BCD calculation
B6 , B7 , B8 Curvature factor
B9, B10 Horizontal shift
Example Longitudinal Force Plot for Pacejka ’89
Lateral Force for Pacejka '89

C - Shape Factor
C=A0
9
D - Peak Factor
D=(A1*FZ2+A2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=A3*SIN(ATAN(FZ/A4)*2.0)*(1.0-A5*ABS())
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=A9*FZ+A10+A8*
Vertical Shift
Sv=A11*FZ*+A12*FZ+A13
Composite
X1=(+Sh)
E - Curvature Factor
E=(A6*FZ+A7)
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
A0 Shape factor
A1, A2 Peak factor
A3, A4, A5 BCD calculation
A6, A7 Curvature factor
A8, A9, A10 Horizontal shift
A11, A12, A13 Vertical shift
10 Adams/Tire
Example Lateral Force Plot for Pacejka ’89
Self-Aligning Torque
C - Shape Factor
C=C0
D - Peak Factor
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-C6*ABS())*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*+C12*FZ+C13
Vertical Shift
Sv= (C14*FZ2+C15*FZ)*+C16*FZ+C17
11
Composite
X1=(+Sh)
E=(C7*FZ2+C8*FZ+C9)*(1.0-C10*ABS())
MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
C0 Shape factor
C1 , C2 Peak factor
C3, C4, C5, C6 BCD calculation
C7, C8, C9, C10 Curvature factor
C11, C12, C13 Horizontal shift
C14, C15, C16, C17 Vertical shift
Example Self-Aligning Torque Plot for Pacejka ’89

12 Adams/Tire
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
And an incremental aligning torque due to longtiudinal force (Fx)
Mz = Mz,Magic Formula + Fx * deflection
Here Mz,Magic Formula is the magic formula for aligning torque and Fx * deflection is the contribution due
to the longitudinal force.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance moment My is opposite to the wheel angular velocity. The magnitude is given by:
My = Fz * Lrad * rolling_resistance
Where Fz equals the vertical force and Lrad is the tyre loaded radius. The rolling resistance coefficient
can be entered in the tire property file:
[PARAMETER]
A value of 0.01 introduces a rolling resistance force that is 1% of the vertical load.
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The longitudinal force,
lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force
FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force
FLat = S*FLat
Overturning Moment
Mx = S*Mx
Rolling resistance moment

13
My = S*My
Aligning Torque
Mz = S*Mz
• USE_MODE = 1 or 2, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 3 or 4, smoothing is on
Example of Pacejka '89 Property File

$---------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 2.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------MODEL
[MODEL]
! use mode 1 2 3 4
! -----------------------------------------------------------------
! smoothing X X
! combined X X
! transient X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'PAC89'
USE_MODE = 12.0
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT'
$----------------------------------------------------------DIMENSION
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 245.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.35
$----------------------------------------------------------PARAMETER
[PARAMETER]
LATERAL_STIFFNESS = 190.0
14 Adams/Tire
$---------------------------------------------------------LOAD_CURVE
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
$ Maximum of 100 points
{pen fz}
0 0.0
1 212.0
2 428.0
3 648.0
5 1100.0
10 2300.0
20 5000.0
30 8100.0
$-----------------------------------------------LATERAL_COEFFICIENTS
a0 = 1.65000
a1 = -34.0
a2 = 1250.00
a3 = 3036.00
a4 = 12.80
a5 = 0.00501
a6 = -0.02103
a7 = 0.77394
a8 = 0.0022890
a9 = 0.013442
a10 = 0.003709
a11 = 19.1656
a12 = 1.21356
a13 = 6.26206
$--------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
b0 = 1.67272
b1 = -9.46000
b2 = 1490.00
b3 = 30.000
b4 = 176.000
b5 = 0.08860
b6 = 0.00402
b7 = -0.06150
b8 = 0.20000
b9 = 0.02990
b10 = -0.17600
$----------------------------------------------------------aligning
c0 = 2.34000
c1 = 1.4950
c2 = 6.416654
c3 = -3.57403
c4 = -0.087737
c5 = 0.098410
c6 = 0.0027699
c7 = -0.0001151
c8 = 0.1000
c9 = -1.33329
15
c10 = 0.025501
c11 = -0.02357
c12 = 0.03027
c13 = -0.0647
c14 = 0.0211329
c15 = 0.89469
c16 = -0.099443
c17 = -3.336941
$--------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.5
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.7
1.0 0.8
1.0 0.85
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
Using Pacejka '94 Handling Force Model

Learn about the Pacejka '94 handling force model:
• Using Correct Coordinate System and Units
• Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka ’94
• Example of Pacejka ’94 Property File
Using Correct Coordinate System and Units in Pacejka '94

The test data and resulting coefficients that come from the Pacejka '94 tire model conform to the standard
SAE tire coordinate system. The standard SAE coordinates are shown in SAE Tire Coordinate System.
(See also About Coordinate Systems.) The corresponding sign conventions for Pacejka '94 are described
next
Note: The section [UNITS] in the tire property file does not apply to the Magic Formula
coefficients.

Normal load Fz (kN) Positive when the tire is penetrating the road.
Lateral force Fy (N) Positive in a right turn.
Negative in a left turn.
16 Adams/Tire

Longitudinal force Fx (N) Positive during traction.
Negative during braking.
Self-aligning torque Mz (Nm) Positive in a left turn.
Negative in a right turn.
Inclination angle  (deg) Positive when the top of the tire tilts to the right
(when viewing the tire from the rear).
Sideslip angle  (deg) Positive in a left turn.
Longitudinal slip  (%) Negative in braking (-100%: wheel lock).
Positive in traction.
Force and Moment Formulation for Pacejka '94

• Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '94
• Lateral Force for Pacejka '94
• Self-Aligning Torque
• Overturning Moment
• Smoothing
Longitudinal Force for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=B0
D - Peak Factor
D=(B1*FZ2+B2*FZ) * DLON
BCD
BCD=((B3*FZ2+B4*FZ)*EXP(-B5*FZ)) * BCDLON
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=B9*Fz+B10
Vertical Shift
Sv=B11*FZ+B12
17
Composite
X1=(+Sh)
E Curvature Factor
E=((B6*FZ+B7)*FZ+B8)*(1-(B13*SIGN(1,X1))))
FX Equation
FX=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Longitudinal Force
B0 Shape factor
B1 , B2 Peak factor
B3 , B4 , B 5 BCD calculation
B6, B7, B8, B13 Curvature factor
B9, B10 Horizontal shift
B11, B12 Vertical shift
DLON, BCDLON Scale factor
Lateral Force for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=A0
D - Peak Factor
2
D=((A1*FZ+A2) *(1-A15*  )*FZ) * DLAT
BCD
BCD=(A3*SIN(ATAN(FZ/A4)*2.0)*(1-A5*ABS(  )))* BCDLAT
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=A8*FZ+A9+A10* 
Vertical Shift
18 Adams/Tire
Sv=A11*FZ+A12+(A13*FZ2+A14*FZ)* 
Composite
X1=(+Sh)
E=(A6*FZ+A7)*(1-(((A16*)+A17)*SIGN(1,X1))))
FY Equation
FY=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Lateral Force
A0 Shape factor
A1, A2, A15 Peak factor
A3 , A4 , A 5 BCD calculation
A6, A7, A16, A17 Curvature factor
A8, A9, A10 Horizontal shift
A11, A12, A13, A14 Vertical shift
DLAT, BCDLAT Scale factor
Self-Aligning Torque for Pacejka '94

C - Shape Factor
C=C0
D - Peak Factor
2
D=(C1*FZ2+C2*FZ)*(1-C18*  )
BCD
BCD=(C3*FZ2+C4*FZ)*(1-(C6*ABS()))*EXP(-C5*FZ)
B=BCD/(C*D)
Horizontal Shift
Sh=C11*FZ+C12+C13* 
19
Vertical Shift
Sv=C14*FZ+C15+(C16*FZ2+C17*FZ)* 
Composite
X1=(  +Sh)
E=(((C7*FZ2)+(C8*FZ)+C9)*(1-(((C19*  )+C20)*SIGN(1,X1))))/(1-(C10*ABS(  )))
MZ Equation
MZ=(D*SIN(C*ATAN(B*X1-E*(B*X1-ATAN(B*X1)))))+Sv
Parameters for Self-Aligning Torque
C0 Shape factor
C1, C2, C18 Peak factor
C3, C4, C5, C6 BCD calculation
C7, C8, C9, C19, C20 Curvature factor
C11, C12, C13 Horizontal shift
C14, C15, C16, C17 Vertical shift
Overturning Moment
The lateral stiffness is used to calculate an approximate lateral deflection of the contact patch when there
is a lateral force present:
deflection = Fy / lateral_stiffness
This deflection, in turn, is used to calculate an overturning moment due to the vertical force:
Mx (overturning moment) = -Fz * deflection
And an incremental aligning torque due to longtiudinal force (Fx):
Mz = Mz,Magic Formula + Fx * deflection
Here Mz,Magic Formula is the magic formula for aligning torque and Fx * deflection is the contribution due
to the longitudinal force.
Rolling Resistance
The rolling resistance moment My is opposite to the wheel angular velocity. The magnitude is given by:
20 Adams/Tire
My = Fz * Lrad * rolling_resistance
Where Fz equals the vertical force and Lrad is the tyre loaded radius. The rolling resistance coefficient
can be entered in the tire property file:
[PARAMETER]
A value of 0.01 will introduce a rolling resistance force, which is 1% of the vertical load.
Smoothing
Adams/Tire smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation. The
longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See
STEP in the Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force
FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force
FLat = S*FLat
Overturning Moment
Mx = S*Mx
Rolling resistance moment

My = S*My
Aligning Torque
Mz = S*Mz
• USE_MODE = 1 or 2, smoothing is off
• USE_MODE = 3 or 4, smoothing is on
Example of Pacejka '94 Property File

!:FILE_TYPE: tir
!:FILE_VERSION: 2
!:TIRE_VERSION: PAC94
!:COMMENT: New File Format v2.1
!:FILE_FORMAT: ASCII
!:TIMESTAMP: 1996/02/15,13:22:12
!:USER: ncos
$--------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
21
LENGTH = 'inch'
FORCE = 'pound_force'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'pound_mass'
TIME = 'second'
$--------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 12341234
! ---------------------------------------------------------------
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'PAC94'
USE_MODE = 12.0
TYRESIDE = 'LEFT'
$---------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 10.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.30
$---------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2500
LATERAL_STIFFNESS = 1210.0
$---------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ Maximum of 100 points (optional)
{pen fz}
0.000 0
0.039 943
0.079 1904
0.118 2882
0.197 4893
0.394 10231
0.787 22241
1.181 36031
$-----------------------------------------------------------scaling
DLAT = 0.10000E+01
DLON = 0.10000E+01
BCDLAT = 0.10000E+01
BCDLON = 0.10000E+01
$-----------------------------------------------------------lateral
A0 = 1.5535430E+00
A1 = -1.2854474E+01
A2 = -1.1133711E+03
A3 = -4.4104698E+03
A4 = -1.2518279E+01
A5 = -2.4000120E-03
A6 = 6.5642332E-02
22 Adams/Tire
A7 = 2.0865589E-01
A8 = -1.5717978E-02
A9 = 5.8287762E-02
A10 = -9.2761963E-02
A11 = 1.8649096E+01
A12 = -1.8642199E+02
A13 = 1.3462023E+00
A14 = -2.0845180E-01
A15 = 2.3183540E-03
A16 = 6.6483573E-01
A17 = 3.5017404E-01
$------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
B0 = 1.4900000E+00
B1 = -2.8808998E+01
B2 = -1.4016957E+03
B3 = 1.0133759E+02
B4 = -1.7259867E+02
B5 = -6.1757933E-02
B6 = 1.5667623E-02
B7 = 1.8554619E-01
B8 = 1.0000000E+00
B9 = 0.0000000E+00
B10 = 0.0000000E+00
B11 = 0.0000000E+00
B12 = 0.0000000E+00
B13 = 0.0000000E+00
$----------------------------------------------------------aligning
C0 = 2.2300000E+00
C1 = 3.1552342E+00
C2 = -7.1338826E-01
C3 = 8.7134880E+00
C4 = 1.3411892E+01
C5 = -1.0375348E-01
C6 = -5.0880786E-03
C7 = -1.3726071E-02
C8 = -1.0000000E-01
C9 = -6.1144302E-01
C10 = 3.6187314E-02
C11 = -2.3679781E-03
C12 = 1.7324400E-01
C13 = -1.7680388E-02
C14 = -3.4007351E-01
C15 = -1.6418691E+00
C16 = 4.1322424E-01
C17 = -2.3573702E-01
C18 = 6.0754417E-03
C19 = -4.2525059E-01
C20 = -2.1503067E-01
$--------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
23
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.5
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.7
1.0 0.8
1.0 0.85
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
Combined Slip of Pacejka '89 and '94

The combined slip calculation of the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models is identical. Note that the method
employed here is not part of the Magic Formula as developed by Professor Pacejka, but is an in-house
development of MSC.
Inputs:
• Dimensionless longitudinal slip  (range –1 to 1) and side slip angle  in radians
• Longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy calculated using the Magic Formula
• Horizontal/vertical shifts and peak values of the Magic Formula (Sh, Sv, D)
Output:
• Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy to incorporate the reduction due to combined
slip:
 * =  + S hx
 * =  + S hy
SAG = sin   * 
 * 
 = arc cos  --------------------------------------
   *  2 + SAG 2
Friction coefficients:
24 Adams/Tire
F x – S vx F y – S vy
 x act = -------------------  y act = -------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
 x max = ------  y max = ------
Fz Fz
1 tan 
 x = ---------------------------------------------------------  y = ---------------------------------------------------------
1  2  ---------------
 ------------- tan   2 1  2  -------------
 --------------- tan   2
+ +
  x act   y max   x max   y act
Forces corrected for combined slip conditions:
x y
F x comb = -------------  F x + S vx  F y comb = -------------  F y + S vy 

wheel angle.
respect to slip angle zero.
In AdamsS/View this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the graphical user interface:
select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire.
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also select SYMMETRIC: then the
tire characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right
25
side corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
Figure 6-1 Create Wheel and Tire Dialog Box in Adams/View
Contact Methods
The Pacejka '89 and '94 models support the following roads:
• 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D Spline roads, see Adams/3D Spline Road Model
26 Adams/Tire
These tire models use a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road obstacles
must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
• 3D Shell roads, see Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model
PAC MC
Learn about using the University of Arizona (UA) tire model:
When to Use PAC Motorcycle

Magic-Formula (MF) tire models are considered the state-of-the-art for modeling of the tire-road
interaction forces in Vehicle Dynamics applications. First versions of the mode that were published by
Pacejka considered tire models for car and truck tires. In his book, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics [1], he
also described a model for motorcycle tires that is backwards compatible with the MF-MCTyre,
previously resold by MSC.Software, and contains the latest developments in this field.
In general, a MF tire model describes the tire behavior for rather smooth roads (road obstacle
• Lane-change maneuvers
• Shimmy and weave phenomena, which can be analyzed when the tire model is used in transient
mode (see USE_MODES of PAC MC: from Simple to Complex)
• All other common vehicle dynamics maneuvers on rather smooth road (wavelength of road
The PAC MC model has proven to be applicable to motorcycle tires with inclination angles to the road
up to 60 degrees. In some cases, it can be used for car tires when exposed to large camber.
PAC MC and Previous Magic Formula Models

Compared to previous versions, PAC MC is backward compatible with all MF-MCTyre 1.x tire models,
generates the same output, and deals with all previous versions of MF-MCTyre property files.
In addition to PAC MC in Adams, the PAC MC in v2 contins a more advanced tire-road contact modeling
method that takes the tire's cross-section shape into account, which plays an important role at large
inclination angles of the wheel with the road. Learn more about the tire cross-section profile contact
method.
2 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
Modeling Tire-Road Interaction Forces

For vehicle dynamics applications, accurate knowledge of tire-road interaction forces is inevitable
forces depend on both road and tire properties and the motion of the tire with respect to the road.
the tire and wheel as a rigid disc. In the contact point between the tire and the road the contact forces in
road.
vectors of the PAC MC tire model. The tire model subroutine is linked to the Adams/Solver through the
Standard Tire Interface (STI) ([3]). The input through the STI consists of the:
• Road parameters
the wheel with respect to the road. The input for the Magic Formula consists of the wheel load  F z  , the
longitudinal and lateral slip    , and inclination angle    with the road. The output is the forces
 F x F y  , and moments  M x M y M z  in the contact point between the tire and the road. For
calculating these forces, the MF equations use a set of MF parameters, which are derived from tire testing
data.
Adams/Solver through the STI.
3
PAC MC

• Axis System
• Units
Axis System
The PAC MC model is linked to Adams/Solver using the TYDEX STI conventions as described in the
The STI interface between the PAC MC model and Adams/Solver mainly passes information to the tire
because all the modeling of the tire behavior, as described in this help, assumes to deal with the slip
axis systems have the ISO orientation but have a different origin as can be seen in the figure below.
4 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
TYDEX C- and W-Axis Systems Used in PAC MC, Source[2]
The forces and moments calculated by PAC MC using the MF equations in this guide are in the W-axis
to Adams/Solver.
Units
The units of information transferred through the STI between Adams/Solver and PAC MC are according
to the SI unit system. Also, the equations for PAC MC described in this guide have been developed for
use with SI units, although you can easily switch to another unit system in your tire property file. Because
of the non-dimensional parameters, only a few parameters have units to be changed.
(ISO oriented). The basic SI units are listed in the table below (also see Definitions).
5
PAC MC
SI Units Used in PAC MC
Variable Type: Name: Abbreviation: Unit:

Lateral force Fy
Vertical load Fz

Lateral speed Vy
Longitudinal slip speed V sx
Lateral slip speed V sy
Rotational speed Tire rolling speed  Radians per second

The longitudinal slip velocity V sx in the contact point (W-axis system, see the figure, Slip Quantities at
Combined Cornering) is defined using the longitudinal speed V x , the wheel rotational velocity  , and
the effective rolling radius R e :
6 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
V sy = V y
V sx
 = – -------
Vx
V sy
tan    = --------
Vx
Vr = Re 
Contact-Point and Normal Load Calculation

• Contact Point
Contact Point
at the road point right below the wheel center (see figure below).
7
PAC MC
Contact Point C: Intersection between Road Tangent Plane, Spin Axis Plane, and Wheel Plane
(ground) plane and the line of intersection of the wheel center-plane with the plane though the wheel spin
axis.
The normal load F z of the tire is calculated with:
·
Fz = Cz  + Kz  
·
where  is the tire deflection and  is the deflection rate of the tire.
To take into account the effect of the tire cross-section profile, you can choose a more advanced method
(see the Tire Cross Section Profile Contact Method).
Instead of the linear vertical tire stiffness Cz, also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. If a section called
[DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and
extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force of the tire. Note that you must specify C z
in the tire property file, but it does not play any role.
8 Adams/Tire
PAC MC

With the loaded rolling tire radius R defined as the distance of the wheel center to the contact point of the
tire with the road (see Effective Rolling Radius and Longitudinal Slip), where  is the deflection of the tire,
and R0 is the free (unloaded) tire radius, then the loaded tire radius Rl reads:
R1 = R0 – 
In this tire model, a constant (linear) vertical tire stiffness C z is assumed; therefore, the tire deflection
 can be calculated using:
Fz
 = -----
Cz
Vx
R e = -----

For radial tires, the effective rolling radius is rather independent of load in its load range of operation due
to the high stiffness of the tire belt circumference. Only at low loads does the effective tire radius decrease
with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness. See the figure below.
9
PAC MC
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a MF-type of equation is used:
R e = R 0 –  Fz0  D  arc tan   B d  + F d  
F z0
 Fz0 = --------
Cz
d
10 Adams/Tire
PAC MC

 d = ---------
 Fz0
Example of the Loaded and Effective Tire Rolling Radius as a Function of the Vertical Load
Name Used in Tire

Name: Property File: Explanation:
F z0 FNOMIN Nominal wheel load
R0 UNLOADED_RADIUS Free tire radius
B BREFF Low load stiffness effective rolling radius
D DREFF Peak value of effective rolling radius
F FREFF High load stiffness effective rolling radius
Cz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS Tire vertical stiffness
KZ VERTICAL_DAMPING Tire vertical damping
11
PAC MC
Basics of the Magic Formula in PAC MC

We distinguish:
longitudinal force Fx as a function of longitudinal slip  , have a similar shape (see the figure,
Characteristic Curves for Fx and Fy Under Pure Slip Conditions). Because of the sine - arctangent
combination, the basic Magic Formula example is capable of describing this shape:
(1)
Y  x  = D  cos  c  arc tan  B x – E  B x – arc tan  B x    
where Y(x) is either Fx with x the longitudinal slip  , or Fy and x the lateral slip .

12 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
The self-aligning moment M z is calculated as a product of the lateral force Fy and the pneumatic trail t
added with the residual moment M zr . In fact, the aligning moment is due to the offset of lateral force Fy,
Y  x  = D  cos  c  arc tan  B x – E  B x – arc tan  B x     (2)

13
PAC MC
In combined slip conditions, the lateral force F y decreases due to longitudinal slip or the opposite, the
longitudinal force F x decreases due to lateral slip. The forces and moments in combined slip conditions
are based on the pure slip characteristics multiplied by the so-called weighting functions. Again, these
weighting functions have a cosine-shaped MF examples.
14 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
Inclination Effects in the Lateral Force

From a historical point of view, the basic Magic Formulas have always been developed for car and truck
tires, which cope with inclinations angles of not more than 10 degrees. To be able to describe the effects
at large inclinations, an extension of the basic Magic Formula for the lateral force Fy has been developed.
A contribution of the inclination  has also been added within the MF sine function:

+ C  arc tan  B   y – E   B   y – arc tan  B   y    
This elegant formulation has the advantage of an explicit definition of the camber stiffness, because this
results now in:
F yo at y = 0
K = B C D =
 (4)
Input Variables
Input Variables

Output Variables
Its output variables are:
Output Variables

Rolling resistance moment My [Nm]
15
PAC MC

are:

F z – F' z0
df z = -------------------- (5)
F' z0
with the possibly adapted nominal load (using the user-scaling factor,  F z0 ):
F' z0 = F z0   Fz0 (6)

logic:
Parameter
: Definition:
16 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
Parameter
: Definition:
C Shape factor
D Peak value
E Curvature factor
H Horizontal shift
V Vertical shift
k = 1, 2, ...

You can change the factors in the tire property file. The peak friction scaling factors,  and  ,
are also used for the position-dependent friction in 3D Road Contact and Adams/3D Road. An overview
of all scaling factors is shown in the next tables.
Name used in
 Fz0 LFZO Scale factor of nominal (rated) load
 Cx LCX Scale factor of Fx shape factor
 LMUX Scale factor of Fx peak friction coefficient
x LGAX Scale factor of camber for Fx
 Cy LCY Scale factor of Fy shape factor
17
PAC MC
Name used in
 C LCC Scale factor of camber shape factor
 K LKC Scale factor of camber stiffness (K-factor)
 E LEC Scale factor of camber curvature factor
 LGAY Scale factor of camber force stiffness
 Mr LRES Scale factor for offset of residual torque
 gz LGAZ Scale factor of camber torque stiffness
 My LMY Scale factor of rolling resistance torque
Name used in tire

 x LXAL Scale factor of alpha influence on Fx
 Vy LVYKA Scale factor of kappa induced Fy
s LS Scale factor of Moment arm of Fx
Name used in tire

 LSGKP Scale factor of relaxation length of Fx
Steady-State: Magic Formula for PAC MC

18 Adams/Tire
PAC MC


F x = F x0   F z   (7)
F x0 = D x sin  C x arc tan  B x  x – E x  B x  x – arc tan  B x  x     + S Vx (8)
 x =  + S Hx (9)
 x =    x (10)
C x = p Cx1   Cx (11)
Dx = x  Fz  1 (12)
 x =  p Dx1 + p Dx2 df z    1 – p Dx3   x2  x (13)
E x =  p Ex1 + p Ex2 df z + p Ex3 df z2    1 – p Ex4 sgn   x     Ex with E x  1 (14)
K x = F z   p Kx1 + p Kx2 df z   exp  p Kx3 df z    Kx (15)
F x0
(K x = B x C x D x = at  x = 0 
 x
Bx = Kx   Cx Dx  (16)
S Hx = –  q sy1 F z  My + S Vx   K x (17)
S Vx = F z   p Vx1 + p Vx2 df z    Vx   x   1 (18)

19
PAC MC
Name used in tire

pDx3 PDX3 Variation of friction Mux with camber
pKx3 PKX3 Exponent in slip stiffness Kfx/Fz with load
pVx1 PVX1 Vertical shift Svx/Fz at Fznom
pVx2 PVX2 Variation of shift Svx/Fz with load

F y = F y0    F z  (19)
+ C  arc tan  B   y – E   B   y – arc tan  B   y    
 y =  + S Hy  Cy + C  2  (21)
 y =    y (22)
with coefficients:
C y = p Cy1   Cy (23)
Dy = y  Fz  2 (24)
 y = p Dy1  exp  p Dy2 df z    1 – p Dy3  y2    y (25)

20 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
E y =  p Ey1 + p Ey2  y2 –  p Ey3 + p Ey4  y   sin   y     Ey with E y  1 (26)
 Fz 
K y = p Ky1 F zo sin p Ky2 arc tan  ---------------------------------------------------------
- (27)
  p Ky3 + p Ky4  y F zo  Fzo 
2
 1 – p Ky5  y2    Fzo   Ky
F yo
(K y = B y C y D y = at  y = 0 
 y
By = Ky   Cy Dy  (28)
S Hy = p Hy1   Hy (29)
C  = p Cy2   C (30)
and the explicit camber stiffness:
F yo
K  =  p Ky6 + p Ky7 df z   F z   K (=B  C  D  = at  y = 0 (31)

E  = p Ey5   E with E   1 (32)
B = K   C D  (33)
Name used in
pCy2 PCY2 Shape factor Cfc for camber forces
pDy2 PDY2 Exponent lateral friction Muy
pDy3 PDY3 Variation of friction Muy with squared camber
pEy2 PEY2 Variation of curvature Efy with camber squared
pEy3 PEY3 Asymmetric curvature Efy at Fznom
21
PAC MC
Name used in
pEy4 PEY4 Asymmetric curvature Efy with camber
pEy5 PEY5 Camber curvature Efc
pKy2 PKY2 Curvature of stiffness Kfy
pKy3 PKY3 Peak stiffness factor
pKy4 PKY4 Peak stiffness variation with camber squared
pKy5 PKY5 Lateral stiffness dependency with camber squared
pKy6 PKY6 Camber stiffness factor Kfc
pKy7 PKY7 Vertical load dependency of camber stiffness Kfc

M z' = M z0    F z 
M z0 = – t  F y0 + M zr (34)
 t =  + S Ht (36)
M zr   r  = D r cos  C r arc tan  B r  r    cos    (37)
 r =  + S Hr (38)
 z =    z (39)
with coefficients:
B t =  q Bx1 + q Bx2 df z + q Bx3 df z2    1 + q Bx4  z + q Bz5  z    Ky   y (40)
C t = q Cz1 (41)
D t = F z   q Dz1 + q Dz2 df z    1 + q Dz3  z + q Dz4  z2    R 0  F z0    t (42)

22 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
E t =  q Ex1 + q Ex2 df z + q Ex3 df z2  (43)
  2 
 1 +  q Ez4 + q Ez5  z    ---  arc tan  B t  C t   t   with E t  1 (44)
 
S Ht = 0 (45)
B r = q Bz9   Ky   y (46)
D r = F z   q Dz6 + q Dz7 df z  r +  q Dz8 + q Dz9 df z  z + (47)

 q Dz10 + q Dz11 df z    z   z  R 0  y
S Hr = q Hz1 + q Hz2 df z +  q Hz3 + q Hz4 df z  z (48)
Kz = –t  Ky   – dM z at  = 0  (49)
 d 
Name used in tire

qBz3 qBz3 Variation of slope Bpt with load squared
qBz4 QBZ4 Variation of slope Bpt with camber
qBz5 QBZ5 Variation of slope Bpt with absolute camber
qBz9 QBZ9 Slope factor Br of residual torque Mzr
qDz3 QDZ3 Variation of peak Dpt with camber
qDz4 QDZ4 Variation of peak Dpt with camber squared.
qDz8 QDZ8 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber
qDz9 QDZ9 Variation of Dmr with camber and load
23
PAC MC
Name used in tire

qDz10 QDZ10 Variation of peak factor Dmr with camber squared
qDz11 QDZ11 Variation of Dmr with camber squared and load
qEz3 QEZ3 Variation of curvature Ept with load squared
qEz5 QEZ5 Variation of Ept with camber and sign Alpha-t
qHz1 QHZ1 Trail horizontal shift Shr at Fznom
qHz2 QHZ2 Variation of shift Shr with load
qHz3 QHZ3 Variation of shift Shr with camber
qHz4 QHZ4 Variation of shift Sht with camber and load

PAC-TIME has two methods for calculating the combined slip forces and moments. If the user supplies
the coefficients for the combined slip cosine 'weighing' functions, the combined slip is calculated
according to Combined slip with cosine 'weighing' functions (standard method). If no coefficients are
supplied, the so-called friction ellipse is used to estimate the combined slip forces and moments, see
section Combined Slip with friction ellipse


F x = F x0  G x    F z  (50)
with G x the weighting function of the longitudinal force for pure slip.
We write:
 s =  + S Hx (52)
24 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
with coefficients:
B x =  r Bx1 + r Bx3  2  cos  arc tan  r Bx2      x (53)
C x = r Cx1 (54)
F xo
D x = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (55)
S Hx = r Hx1 (57)

G x = ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (58)
Name used in tire

rBx3 RBX3 Influence of camber on stiffness for Fx reduction

F y = F y0  G y     F z  + S Vy (59)
with Gyk the weighting function for the lateral force at pure slip and SVyk the ‘  -induced' side force;
F y = D y cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B y  s – arc tan  B y  s     + S Vy (60)
 s =  + S Hyk (61)

25
PAC MC
B y =  r By1 + r By4  2  cos  arc tan  r By2   – r By3      y (62)
C y = r Cy1 (63)
F yo
D y = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (64)
S Hy = r Hy1 + r Hy2 df z (66)
S Vyk = D Vy sin  r Vy5 arc tan  r vy6      Vy (67)
cos  C y arc tan  B y  s – E y  B y  s – arc tan  B y  s    

G y = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (69)
Name used in tire

rVy1 RVY1 Kappa-induced side force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
rVy2 RVY2 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with load
rVy3 RVY3 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with inclination
rVy4 RVY4 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
rVy5 RVY5 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with kappa
rVy6 RVY6 Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan (kappa)
26 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
M z' = – t  F y' + M zr + s  F x (70)
with:
t = t   t eq  (71)
F' y  = 0 = F y – S Vy (73)
s =  s sz1 + s sz2  F y  F z0  +  s sz3 + s sz4 df z    R 0   s (75)
with the arguments:
Kx 2
 t eq = arc tan tan t +  ------  2  sgn   t 
2
(76)
 K y
Kx 2
 r eq = arc tan tan r +  ------  2  sgn   r 
2
(77)
 K y
Name used in tire


 Fy 
M x = R 0  F z   q sx1  VMx – q sx2   + q sx3  --------  Mx (78)
 F z0 
27
PAC MC
Name used in tire

qsx1 QSX1 Lateral force-induced overturning couple
qsx2 QSX2 Inclination-induced overturning couple
qsx3 QSX3 Fy-induced overturning couple

M y = R 0  F z   q Sy1 + q Sy2 F x  F z0 + q Sy3 V x  V ref + q Sy4  V x  V ref  4  (79)
Name used in tire


S Vx
 c =  + S Hx + --------
Kx
S Vy
 c =  + S Hy + --------
Ky
 = sin   c 
28 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
 c 
 = acos  -------------------------
  2 +  2
c
F x 0 – S Vx F y 0 – S Vy
 x act = ------------------------  y act = ------------------------
Fz Fz
Dx Dy
 x max = ------  y max = ------
Fz Fz
1
 x = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  tan   2
 ------------- + ---------------
  x act   y max
tan 
 y = --------------------------------------------------------
1  2  -------------
 --------------- tan   2
  x max +   y act
x y
F x = ------------- F x 0 F y = ------------- F y 0
For aligning moment Mx, rolling resistance My and aligning moment Mz the formulae are used with
S Vy =0.
Transient Behavior in PAC MC

The previous Magic Formula examples are valid for steady-state tire behavior. When driving, however,
frequency behavior (up to 8 Hz) is called transient behavior.
29
PAC MC
For accurate transient tire behavior, you can use the "stretched string" tire model (see also reference [1]).
The tire belt is modeled as stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral (and longitudinal)
springs. The figure, Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior, shows a top-view of the string
model. When rolling, the first point having contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string arises that depends on the slip angle size and the history of the
lateral deflection of previous points having contact with the road.
1 dv 1 -----
v1
----- + - = tan    + a (80)
Vx d t 
10 m. This differential example cannot be used at zero speed, but when multiplying with Vx, the example
30 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
dv 1
 + V x v 1 =   V sy (81)
dt
du 1
 + V x u 1 = –   V sx (82)
dt
 Fz 
  = p Ty1 sin p Ty2 arc tan  -------------------------------------------------------
-   1 – p Ky5  2   R 0  F   (84)
  p Ty3 + p Ky4  F z0  Fz0 
2 z0
u1
' = -----  sin  V x  (85)
x
v1
' = atan  ------ (86)
  
Using these practical slip quantities, ' and ' , the Magic Formula examples can be used to calculate
the tire-road interaction forces and moments:
F x = F x  ' ' F z  (87)
F y = F y  ' '  F z  (88)
M z' = M z'  ' '  F z  (89)
Gyroscopic Couple in PAC MC

31
PAC MC
dv
M z gyr = c gyr m belt V r1 cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   (90)
dt
with the parameters (in addition to the basic tire parameter mbelt):
c gyr = q Tz1   gyr (91)
and:
cos  arc tan  B r  r eq   = 1 (92)
M z = M z' + M z gyr (93)
Name used in tire

pTx1 PTX1 Relaxation length sigKap0/Fz at Fznom
pTx2 PTX2 Variation of sigKap0/Fz with load
pTx3 PTX3 Variation of sigKap0/Fz with exponent of load
pTy1 PTY1 Peak value of relaxation length Sig_alpha
pTy3 PTY3 Load where lateral relaxation is at maximum
qTz1 QTZ1 Gyroscopic torque constant

wheel angle.
32 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
respect to slip angle zero.
In Adams/View this option can only be used when the tire is generated by the graphical user interface:
select Build -> Forces -> Special Force: Tire (see figure of dialog box below).
Next to the LEFT and RIGHT side option of TYRESIDE, you can also select SYMMETRIC: then the
tire characteristics are modified during initialization to show symmetric performance for left and right
side corners and zero conicity and plysteer (no offsets). Also, when you set the tire property file to
33
PAC MC
USE_MODES of PAC MC: from Simple to Complex

The parameter USE_MODE in the tire property file allows you to switch the output of the PAC MC tire
model from very simple (that is, steady-state cornering) to complex (transient combined cornering and
braking).
The options for USE_MODE and the output of the model are listed in the table below.
34 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
USE_MODE Values of PAC MC and Related Tire Model Output
PAC MC output
USE MODE: State: Slip conditions: (forces and moments)
0 Steady state Acts as a vertical spring and damper 0, 0, Fz, 0, 0, 0
3 Steady state Longitudinal and lateral (not combined) Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
13 Transient Longitudinal and lateral (not combined) Fx, Fy, Fz, Mx, My, Mz
Contact Methods
The PAC MC model supports the following roads:
By default the PAC-MC uses a one point of contact model similar to all the other Adams/Tire
Handling models. However the PAC-MC has an option to take the tire cross section shape into
account:
Tire Cross-Section Profile Contact Method

In combination with the 2D Road Model and the 3D Road Model, you can improve the tire-road contact
calculation method by providing the tire's cross-section profile, which has an important influence on the
wheel center height at large inclination angles with the road.
35
PAC MC
36 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
If the tire model reads a section called [SECTION_PROFILE_TABLE] in the tire property file, the cross
section profile will be taken into account for the vertical load calculation of the tire. The method assumes
that the tire deformation will not influence the position of the point with largest penetration (P), which is
valid for motor cycle tires.
The vertical tire load Fz is calculated using the penetration (effpen =  ) of the tire through the tangent
road plane in the point C, see Figure above, according to:
·
Fz = Cz  + Kz   (94)
Because in this method the tangent to the cross section profile determines the point P, a high accuracy of
the cross section profile is required. The section height y as function of the tire width x must be a
continous and monotone increasing function. To avoid singularities and instability, it is highly
recommended to fit measured cross section data with a polynom (for example y = a·x2 + b·x4 + c·x6 + ..)
and provide the y cross section height data (y) from the polynom in the tire property file up to the
maximum width of the tire. The profile is assumed to be symmetric with respect to the wheel plane.
Note that the PAC MC model has only one point of contact with the road; therefore, the wavelength of
road obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model. In addition, the contact
force computed by this tire model is normal to the road plane. Therefore, the contact point does not
generate a longitudinal force when rolling over a short obstacle, such as a cleat or pothole.
For ride and comfort analysis, we recommend more sophisticated tire models, such as Ftire.

Because PAC MC uses an empirical approach to describe tire - road interaction forces, incorrect

Camber stiffness has been explicitly defined in PAC MC (see equation (43). For realistic tire behavior,
the sign of the camber stiffness must be negative (TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system). If the sign is positive,
the coefficients may not be valid for the ISO but for the SAE coordinate system. Note that PAC MC only
uses coefficients for the TYDEX W-axis (ISO) system.
37
PAC MC
The table below lists further checks on the PAC MC parameters.

Checklist for PAC MC Parameters and Properties

LONGVL  1 m/s Reference velocity at which parameters are measured
VXLOW Approximately 1m/s Threshold for scaling down forces and moments
Dx  0 Peak friction (see equation (24))
pDx1/pDx2  0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Kx  0 Long slip stiffness (see equation (27))
Dy  0 Peak friction (see equation (36))
pDy1/pDy2  0 Peak friction Fx must decrease with increasing load
Ky  0 Cornering stiffness (see equation (39))
qsy1  0 Rolling resistance, should in range of 0.005 - 0.015
K  0 Camber stiffness (see equation (43))
38 Adams/Tire
PAC MC

$---------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
$--------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
$--------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
$----------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
FZMIN = 73.75 $Minimum allowed wheel load
FZMAX = 3319.5 $Maximum allowed wheel load
model will be performed with the minimum or maximum value of this range to avoid non-realistic tire
Standard Tire Interface (STI) for PAC MC

Adams/Solver, below is a brief background of the STI history (see reference [4]).
purposes. For most vehicle dynamics studies, people previously developed their own tire models.
Because all car manufacturers and their tire suppliers have the same goal (that is, development of tires to
improve dynamic safety of the vehicle), it aimed for standardization in tire behavior description.
39
PAC MC
Definitions
• General
• Tire Kinematics
• Slip Quantities
General
General Definitions
Term: Definition:
point C.
Contact point C Contact point between tire and road, defined as the intersection of the wheel plane
and the projection of the wheel axis onto the road plane.
orientation.
Tire Kinematics

d
 Dimensionless radial tire deflection [-]
 Fz0 Radial tire deflection at nominal load [m]
40 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
Slip Quantities

Forces and Moments


References
41
PAC MC
Example of PAC MC Tire Property File

[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE ='tir'
FILE_VERSION =3.0
! : TIRE_VERSION : PAC Motorcycle
! : COMMENT : Tire 180/55R17
! : COMMENT : Manufacturer
! : COMMENT : Road condition Dry
! : Copyright MSC.Software, Mon Oct 20 10:46:57 2003
!
! 1: Fx,My only
! 2: Fy,Mx,Mz only
!
!
$-------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH ='meter'
FORCE ='newton'
ANGLE ='radians'
MASS ='kg'
TIME ='second'
$-------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='PAC_MC'
VXLOW = 1
LONGVL = 16.7 $Longitudinal speed
during measurements
42 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
TYRESIDE = 'SYMMETRIC' $Mounted side of tyre

at vehicle/test bench
$---------------------------------------------------------dimensions
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 0.18 $Nominal section width
of the tyre
$----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 2e+005 $Tyre vertical
stiffness
BREFF = 8.4 $Low load stiffness
eff. rolling radius
DREFF = 0.27 $Peak value of eff.
rolling radius
FREFF = 0.07 $High load stiffness
eff. rolling radius
$----------------------------------------------------long_slip_range
[LONG_SLIP_RANGE]
$---------------------------------------------------slip_angle_range
[SLIP_ANGLE_RANGE]
ALPMIN = -1.5708 $Minimum valid slip
angle
ALPMAX = 1.5708 $Maximum valid slip
angle
$---------------------------------------------inclination_slip_range
CAMMIN = -1.0996 $Minimum valid camber
angle
CAMMAX = 1.0996 $Maximum valid camber
angle
$-----------------------------------------------vertical_force_range
FZMIN = 73.75 $Minimum allowed wheel
load
FZMAX = 3319.5 $Maximum allowed wheel
load
$------------------------------------------------------------scaling
LFZO = 1 $Scale factor of nominal
load
LCX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
shape factor
LMUX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
LEX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
curvature factor
43
PAC MC
LKX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx

slip stiffness
LVX = 1 $Scale factor of Fx
vertical shift
LGAX = 1 $Scale factor of camber
for Fx
LCY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
shape factor
LMUY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
LEY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
curvature factor
LKY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
cornering stiffness
LCC = 1 $Scale factor of camber
shape factor
LKC = 1 $Scale factor of camber
stiffness (K-factor)
LEC = 1 $Scale factor of camber
curvature factor
LHY = 1 $Scale factor of Fy
horizontal shift
LGAY = 1 $Scale factor of camber
force stiffness
LTR = 1 $Scale factor of Peak
of pneumatic trail
LRES = 1 $Scale factor of Peak
of residual torque
LGAZ = 1 $Scale factor of camber
torque stiffness
LXAL = 1 $Scale factor of alpha
influence on Fx
LYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa
influence on Fy
LVYKA = 1 $Scale factor of kappa
induced Fy
LS = 1 $Scale factor of Moment
arm of Fx
LSGKP = 1 $Scale factor of
Relaxation length of Fx
LSGAL = 1 $Scale factor of
Relaxation length of Fy
LGYR = 1 $Scale factor of
gyroscopic torque
LMX = 1 $Scale factor of
overturning couple
LVMX = 1 $Scale factor of Mx
vertical shift
LMY = 1 $Scale factor of rolling
resistance torque
$------------------------------------------------------longitudinal
PCX1 = 1.7655 $Shape factor Cfx for
longitudinal force
44 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
PDX1 = 1.2839 $Longitudinal friction

Mux at Fznom
PDX2 = -0.0078226 $Variation of friction
Mux with load
PDX3 = 0 $Variation of friction
Mux with camber
PEX1 = 0.4743 $Longitudinal curvature
Efx at Fznom
PEX2 = 9.3873e-005 $Variation of curvature
Efx with load
Efx with load squared
PEX4 = 0.00011999 $Factor in curvature
Efx while driving
PKX1 = 25.383 $Longitudinal slip
stiffness Kfx/Fz at Fznom
PKX2 = 1.0978 $Variation of slip
PKX3 = 0.19775 $Exponent in slip
PVX1 = 2.1675e-005 $Vertical shift Svx/Fz
at Fznom
PVX2 = 4.7461e-005 $Variation of shift
Svx/Fz with load
RBX1 = 12.084 $Slope factor for
RBX2 = -8.3959 $Variation of slope Fx
reduction with kappa
RBX3 = 2.1971e-009 $Influence of camber
on stiffness for Fx combined
RCX1 = 1.0648 $Shape factor for
REX1 = 0.0028793 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx
REX2 = -0.00037777 $Curvature factor of
combined Fx with load
RHX1 = 0 $Shift factor for
PTX1 = 0.83 $Relaxation length
SigKap0/Fz at Fznom
with load
with exponent of load
$--------------------------------------------------------overturning
QSX1 = 0 $Lateral force induced
overturning moment
QSX2 = 0.16056 $Camber induced
overturning moment
QSX3 = 0.095298 $Fy induced overturning
moment
$------------------------------------------------------------lateral
45
PAC MC
PCY1 = 1.1086 $Shape factor Cfy for

lateral forces
PCY2 = 0.66464 $Shape factor Cfc for
camber forces
PDY2 = -0.0044718 $Exponent lateral
friction Muy
PDY3 = 0.21428 $Variation of friction
Muy with squared camber
PEY1 = -0.80276 $Lateral curvature Efy
at Fznom
PEY2 = 0.89416 $Variation of curvature
Efy with camber squared
PEY3 = 0 $Asymmetric curvature
Efy at Fznom
PEY4 = 0 $Asymmetric curvature
Efy with camber
PEY5 = -2.8159 $Camber curvature Efc
PKY1 = -19.747 $Maximum value of
stiffness Kfy/Fznom
PKY2 = 1.3756 $Curvature of stiffness
Kfy
PKY3 = 1.3528 $Peak stiffness factor
PKY4 = -1.2481 $Peak stiffness
variation with camber squared
PKY5 = 0.3743 $Lateral stiffness
depedency with camber squared
PKY6 = -0.91343 $Camber stiffness factor
Kfc
PKY7 = 0.2907 $Vertical load
dependency of camber stiffn. Kfc
PHY1 = 0 $Horizontal shift Shy
at Fznom
RBY1 = 10.694 $Slope factor for
RBY2 = 8.9413 $Variation of slope Fy
reduction with alpha
RBY3 = 0 $Shift term for alpha
in slope Fy reduction
RBY4 = -1.8256e-010 $Influence of camber
on stiffness of Fy combined
RCY1 = 1.0521 $Shape factor for
REY1 = -0.0027402 $Curvature factor of
combined Fy
REY2 = -0.0094269 $Curvature factor of
combined Fy with load
RHY1 = -7.864e-005 $Shift factor for
RHY2 = -6.9003e-006 $Shift factor for
combined Fy reduction with load
RVY1 = 0 $Kappa induced side
force Svyk/Muy*Fz at Fznom
46 Adams/Tire
PAC MC

with load
RVY3 = -0.00033208 $Variation of
Svyk/Muy*Fz with camber
RVY4 = -4.7907e+015 $Variation of
Svyk/Muy*Fz with alpha
RVY5 = 1.9 $Variation of Svyk/Muy*Fz
with kappa
RVY6 = -30.082 $Variation of
Svyk/Muy*Fz with atan(kappa)
PTY1 = 0.75 $Peak value of relaxation
length Sig_alpha
PTY2 = 1 $Shape factor for
Sig_alpha
PTY3 = 0.6 $Value of Fz/Fznom where
Sig_alpha is maximum
$-------------------------------------------------rolling resistance
QSY1 = 0.01 $Rolling resistance
torque coefficient
torque depending on Fx
torque depending on speed
torque depending on speed^4
$-----------------------------------------------------------aligning
QBZ1 = 9.246 $Trail slope factor for
trail Bpt at Fznom
with load
with load squared
QBZ4 = 0 $Variation of slope Bpt
with camber
QBZ5 = 0.15703 $Variation of slope Bpt
with absolute camber
QBZ9 = 8.3146 $Slope factor Br of
residual torque Mzr
QCZ1 = 1.2813 $Shape factor Cpt for
pneumatic trail
QDZ1 = 0.063288 $Peak trail Dpt =
Dpt*(Fz/Fznom*R0)
with load
with camber
with camber squared
QDZ6 = 0 $Peak residual torque
Dmr = Dmr/(Fz*R0)
QDZ7 = 0 $Variation of peak
factor Dmr with load
47
PAC MC

factor Dmr with camber
factor Dmr with camber and load
QDZ10 = 0.030766 $Variation of peak
factor Dmr with camber squared
QDZ11 = 0.074309 $Variation of Dmr with
camber squared and load
QEZ1 = -3.261 $Trail curvature Ept
at Fznom
QEZ2 = 0.63036 $Variation of curvature
Ept with load
QEZ3 = 0 $Variation of curvature
Ept with load squared
QEZ4 = 0 $Variation of curvature
Ept with sign of Alpha-t
QEZ5 = 0 $Variation of Ept with
camber and sign Alpha-t
QHZ1 = 0 $Trail horizontal shift
Sht at Fznom
QHZ2 = 0 $Variation of shift Sht
with load
with camber
with camber and load
SSZ1 = 0 $Nominal value of s/R0:
effect of Fx on Mz
s/R0 with Fy/Fznom
s/R0 with camber
s/R0 with load and camber
QTZ1 = 0 $Gyroscopic torque
constant
MBELT = 0 $Belt mass of the wheel
-kg- $
48 Adams/Tire
PAC MC
521-Tire Model
About 521-Tire
The 521-Tire model is a simple model that requires a small set of parameters or experimental data to
simulate the behavior of tires. The 521-Tire is the first tire model incorporated in Adams. The name
“521” (actually “5.2.1”) refers to the version number of Adams/Tire when it was first released.
The slip forces and moments can be calculated in two ways:
• Using the Equation method
• Using the Interpolation method
Two dedicated contact methods exist for the 521-Tire:

• Point Follower, used for Handling analysis models
• Equivalent Plane Method, used for 3D Contact analysis models
Any combination of force and contact method is allowed.

The road data files used for the 521-Tire are unique and cannot be used in combination with any other
Handling tire model. The 521 road file format is described in Road Data File 521_pnt_follow.rdf.
Note that the capability and generality of the 521-Tire have been superseded by other, newer tire models,
described throughout this guide. We’ve retained the 521-Tire model primarily for backward
compatibility. We recommend that you use other tire models for new work.
2 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
Tire Slip Quantities and Transient Tire Behaviour

wheel rotational velocity   and the loaded rolling radius Rl:
V sx = V z – R 1
V sy = V y
The practical slip quantities  (longitudinal slip) and  (slip angle) are calculated with these slip
V sx V sy
 = – ------- and tan  = --------
Vx Vx
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 90 degrees and the longitudinal slip  in

system is used both for the longitudinal slip  as the side slip angle,  . Considering the tire belt as a
3
521-Tire Model
be estimated (see also reference [1]). The figure below shows a top-view of the string model.
1 dv v1
-------1- + ------
----- = tan    + a
V x dt  
with the relaxation length   in the lateral direction. The turnslip  can be neglected at radii larger than
dv 1
  -------- + V x v 1 = –   V sx
dt
4 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities,  and  are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
' = ------ sin  V x 

v1
' = atan  ------
  
These practical slip quantities  and  are used instead of the usual  and  definitions for steady-
The longitudinal and lateral relaxation length are read from the tire property file, see Tire Property File
521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir
Force Calculations
You can use the 521-Tire model for handling and durability analyses.
Directional Vectors for the Application of Tire Forces and Torques at the Center of the Tire-Road
Surface Contact Patch
5
521-Tire Model
The forces act along the directional vectors. From the tire spin vector and various information you supply
in the tire property and the road profile data files, Adams/Tire determines the positions and orientations
of the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directional vectors. Figure 3 shows these directional vectors.
The tire vertical force acts along the vertical directional vector, the tire aligning torque acts about the
same vector, the tire lateral force acts along the lateral directional vector, and the tire longitudinal force
acts along the longitudinal directional vector. At this point, Adams/Tire determines the force directions
as if it were going to apply the tire aligning torque and all of the tire forces at the center of the tire-road
surface contact patch.
The tire-road surface contact patch may deflect laterally. Adams/Tire calculates the lateral deflection in
the direction (and with the sign) of the lateral force. The magnitude of the deflection is equal to the lateral
force divided by the tire lateral stiffness you provide in the tire property data file.
The tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal forces are forces in the tire vertical, lateral, and longitudinal
directions (as determined at the tire-road surface contact patch). The tire aligning torque is a torque about
the tire vertical vector. The vehicle durability force has components in both the tire vertical and the tire
longitudinal directions.
Normal Force
The tire normal force Fz is calculated based on the tire deflection and radial velocity. A progressive spring
and linear damping constant are employed:
F z = F stiff – F damp
where Fstiff is tire stiffness force and Fdamp is tire damping force. The vertical stiffness force is calculated
from:

F stiff = K z 
where Kz is the tire vertical stiffness,  is tire deflection, and  is the stiffness exponent. The tire
damping force is calculated from:
F damp = C z  RadialVelocity
where Cz is the tire damping constant.
The damping constant is reduced for small tire deflections, which are below 5% of the unloaded tire
radius.
The tire vertical stiffness can also be described using a spline function (force versus deflection) in the
Adams dataset. The user array is used to switch between tire property file stiffness and spline stiffness.
If the first value in the user array is equal to '5215', the spline vertical stiffness is used. The second value
of the user array refers to the ID of the spline. The message, 'Using spline data for the vertical spring', is
shown in the message file. If the first value in the user array is not equal to '5215', the tire property file
stiffness is used.
6 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
The following is an example of using the spline vertical stiffness:
! adams_view_name='spline_vertical_stiffness'
SPLINE/10
, X = -1,0,10,30
, Y = 0,0,2000,6000
!
! adams_view_name='wheel_user_array'
ARRAY/102
, NUM=5215,10
Another option for having a non-linear tire stiffness is to introduce a deflection-load table in the tire
property file in a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE]. See 521-Tire Tire and Road Property
Files on page 20. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire.
Longitudinal Force
The tire longitudinal force Fx can have up to three contributions:
• Traction/braking force
• Rolling resistance force
• Durability force (in case of durability contact)
Traction/Braking Force
Traction force is developed if the vehicle is starting to move and a braking force if the vehicle is
beginning to stop. In either case, the absolute magnitude of the force is calculated from:
F x = F z
where the friction coefficient  is a function of the longitudinal slip velocity Vsx in the contact patch.
Note that this is somewhat unusual, since all the other Handling tire models in Adams/Tire assume that
the longitudinal force Fx is a function of the slip ratio.
7
521-Tire Model
Schematic of Friction Coefficient Versus Local Slip Velocity
The  curve as a function of longitudinal slip velocity is created using standard Adams STEP functions
(see body 4 on page 10). You have to specify two points on the curve to define this characteristic:
• The coordinates of the curve at static: (velocity static, static)
• The coordinates of the curve at dynamic: (velocity dynamic, dynamic)
The friction values may be available to you as function of slip ratio instead of slip velocity. Converting
Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data on page 16 explains how the slip ratios can be converted to slip
velocities.
Rolling Resistance Force

Rolling resistance Moment My is calculated from:
M y = coef rr  F z
where coefrr is the rolling resistance coefficient that should be supplied in the tire property data file.
Durability Force
Durability force, sometimes known as radial planar force, is a special kind of tire vertical force. It is the
durability force that resists the action of road bumps. This force acts along the instantaneous vertical
directional vector calculated by Adams/Tire. The Adams/Tire durability tire forces are limited to two-
dimensional forces that lie in the plane of the tire and are directed toward the wheel-center marker.
8 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
Adams/Tire superimposes these forces upon any traction or lateral forces developed in the tire-road
surface interaction.
You must select the Equivalent Plane Method for generating these durability forces.
Lateral Force and Aligning Torque

Two methods exist for calculating the lateral force Fy and self-aligning moment Mz:
• Interpolation Method
• Equation Method
Interpolation Method
The AKIMA spline is employed to calculate Fy and Mz as a function of the slip angle , camber angle ,
and vertical load Fz. You should provide the data in the SAE axis system.
Note that the slip angle  and vertical load Fz input for the force and moment calculation of Fx, Fy, Mx,
My, and Mz are limited to minimum and maximum values in the input to avoid unrealistic extrapolated
values.
Equation Method
The Equation Method uses the following equation to generate the lateral force Fy:
–K 
F y = –   stat F z   1 – e   sign    
where K denotes the tire cornering stiffness coefficient.
The aligning moment Mz is calculated using the pneumatic trail t according to:
Mz = –t  Fy
while the pneumatic trails are calculated with half the contact length a:
1 –K 
t = ---  a  e 
3
2 2
a = R0 – R1
with R0 and Rl are, respectively, the unloaded and loaded tire radius.
Overturning Moment
In both methods, the overturning moment Mx calculation is based on the lateral tire force Fy, the lateral
tire stiffness Ky, and the vertical load:
9
521-Tire Model
Fy
M x = ------ F z
Ky
Tire Lateral Force as a Function of Slip Angle
• The contribution of the camber  is disregarded in the Equation Method.

• The cornering stiffness equals –  stat F z K a .
Combined Slip of 5.2.1

The combined slip calculation of the 5.2.1. is using the friction ellipse and is similar to the combined slip
calculation of the Pacejka '89 and '94 tire models.
Inputs:
• Dimensionless longitudinal slip  (range -1 to 1) and side slip angle  in radians

• Longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy calculated using the equations of 521-Tire
• The vertical shift of Fy,a=0 is Fy calculated at zero slip angle
Output:
• Adjusted longitudinal force Fx and lateral force Fy incorporates the reduction due to combined
slip:
 k 
•  = acos  -----------------------------
 k 2 + sin  2
Friction coefficients:
10 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
Fx F y – F y  = 0
 x act = -----  y act = ------------------------------
Fz Fz
1 tan 
 x = ----------------------------------------------------  y = ---------------------------------------------------
1  2  -----------
 ------------- tan  2 1  2  -------------
 ---------- tan   2
+ +
  x act   stat    stat   y act
Forces corrected for combined slip conditions:
x y
F x comb = ------------- F x F y comb = -------------  F y + F y  = 0 
Due to the lateral deflection of the tire patch, the aligning moment under combined slip conditions
increases by the effect of the longitudinal force Fx and the lateral tire stiffness Ky:
F y comb
M z comb = M z pure + F x comb  ------------------
Ky
and the overturning moment uses the lateral force for combined slip:
F y comb
M x comb = ------------------ F z
Ky
Smoothing
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of USE_MODE in the tire property file, Adams/Tire
smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of the simulation. The longitudinal
force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function of time. (See STEP in the
Adams/Solver online help.)
• Longitudinal Force Fx = SFx.
• Lateral Force Fy = SFy
• Overturning moment torque Mx = SMz
• Aligning torque Mz = SMz
Changing the Operating Mode: USE_MODE

You can change the behavior of the tire model by changing the value of USE_MODE in the [MODEL]
section of the tire property file. If USE_MODE equals zero, or when it is absent, the smoothing time
equals 0.001 seconds and the
521-Tire model is compatible with the previous Adams/Solver implementation.
11
521-Tire Model
By selecting a value of USE_MODE between 1 and 4, smoothing and combined slip correction can be
switched on and off, as shown in Table 1. The smoothing time equals 0.1 seconds for these values of
USE-MODE.
USE_MODE: Smoothing: Combined slip correction:

1 off off
2 off on
3 on off
4 on on
Converting Slip Ratio Data to Velocity Data

Adams/Tire requires that you enter the velocities that correspond to static and dynamic. You will often
obtain this information as the coefficient of friction versus slip ratio. You can calculate the velocities
required by Adams/Tire from the coefficient of friction versus slip ratio curve in the following way:
a – f
 = ------------------
f
where:
•  = Slip ratio
•  f = Free rolling rotational velocity (no slip)
•  a = Actual rotational velocity
Kinematic relationships between translational and rotational velocities and the effective rolling radius
give:
V x – V sx
 a = -------------------
Re
Vx
 f = -----
Re
where:
• V sx = Contact patch velocity reletive to road surface

• V x = Actual longitudinal velocity
12 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
• R e = Effective rolling radius

Substituting these relationships into the original slip ratio equation with some cancelling of variables
gives:
V sx
 = – -------
Vx
Therefore:
V sx = – V x 
During testing for the coefficient of friction as a function of slip ratio, the longitudinal velocity Vx is held
constant. Therefore, you can obtain Vsx, the relative velocity of the contact patch with respect to the road
surface, from the test data curves for the static and dynamic values of friction.
Contact Methods
For handling analyses (which use a flat road surface profile), the 521-Tire model uses the point-follower
contact method. For durability analyses (which use uneven road surface profiles), the Equivalent Plane
Method yields the instantaneous tire radius directly, while finding the new road surface orientation
vector.
About the Point-Follower Method

The point-follower contact method assumes a single contact point between the tire and road. The contact
point is the point nearest to the wheel center that lies on the line formed by the intersection of the tire
(wheel) plane with the local road plane.
The contact force computed by the point-follower contact method is normal to the road plane. Therefore,
in a simulation of a tire hitting a pothole, the point-follower contact method does not generate the
expected longitudinal force.
About the Equivalent Plane Method

521-Tire uses the Equivalent Plane method to reorient the vertical road surface vector, which gives the
direction of the vertical force, and to calculate the new tire radius. To do this, a new smooth road surface
is generated at an angle calculated such that only the shape of the tire is different (see body 6 on page 18).
Equivalent Plane Method
13
521-Tire Model
Both the deflected tire area and its centroid remain unchanged. The vector between the deflected area
centroid and the wheel-center marker then determines the orientation of the. vertical vector perpendicular
to the road surface.
The Equivalent Plane method is best suited for relatively large obstacles because it assumes the tire
encompasses the obstacle uniformly. In reality, the pneumatics and the bending stiffness of the tire
carcass prevent this. The result is an uneven pressure distribution and possibly gaps between the tire and
the road. If the obstacle is larger than the tire contact patch (such as a pothole or curb), the uniform
assumption is good. If the obstacle is much smaller than the tire patch, however (such as a tar strip or
expansion joint), the assumption is poor, and the Equivalent Plane method may greatly underestimate the
durability force.
Definition of Equivalent Plane Parameters
14 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
When using the Equivalent Plane method the following parameters need to be specified in the tire
property file:
Equivalent_plane_angle
Specifies the subtended angle (in degrees) bisected by the z-axis of the wheel-center marker, as shown
in Figure 7. This angle determines the extent of the road the tire can envelop. The value of the
equivalent_plane_angle must be between 0 and 180 degrees.
Equivalent_plane_increments
Specifies the number of increments into which the shadow of the tire subtended section is divided, as
shown in Figure 7.
521-Tire Tire and Road Property Files

This section contains four example input data files. For reference, the files are called:
• 521_equation.tir
• 521_interpol.tir
• 521_pnt_follow.rdf
• 521_equiv_plane.rdf
The first two files are tire property files, and the last two are road files. The file 521_equation.tir
illustrates the required format and parameters when you use the Equation method. The file
521_interpol.tir illustrates the Interpolation method. The two *.rdf files show how road data files must
be specified when either of the contact methods is used.
Tire Property File 521_equation.tir and 521_interpol.tir

You can select the method for calculating the normal force by setting the
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD parameter to either POINT_FOLLOWER (for the Point Follower
method) or EQUIVALENT_PLANE (for the Equivalent Plane method). See Contact Methods on page
17 for details on these methods.
You can select the method for calculating the lateral force by setting the LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD
parameter to either INTERPOLATION or symbol. See Lateral Force and Aligning Torque on page 11 for
details on these calculation methods.
The following table specifies how some of the parameter names used in the tire property file correspond
to parameters introduced in the equations that were presented in the previous sections.
Parameter in file: Used in equation: As parameter:

vertical_stiffness [10] Kz
vertical_damping [11] Cz
lateral_stiffness [18] Ky
15
521-Tire Model
Parameter in file: Used in equation: As parameter:

cornering_stiffness_coefficient [6] K
Mu_Static Figure 4 static
Mu_Dynamic Figure 4 dynamic
Mu_Static_velocity Figure 4 velocity static
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity Figure 4 velocity dynamic
rolling_resistance_coefficient [13] coeffrr
vertical_stiffness_exponent [141] Note: If you do not specify
vertical_stiffness_
exponent in the tire
property file, 521-Tire
uses the default value of
1.1.
521-equation.tir
The 521-equation.tir example tire property file starts here.
$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'rad'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'second'
$-------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 123411121314
! -----------------------------------------------------------------
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = '5.2.1'
USE_MODE = 1
$----------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
16 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
WIDTH = 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.70
RIM_RADIUS = 195,0
RIM_WIDTH = 139.7
$---------------------------------------------------------parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUIVALENT_PLANE
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD = EQUATION
!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping = 2.06
!
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static = 0.95
Mu_Dynamic = 0.75
Mu_Static_Velocity = 3000
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity = 6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
521_interpol.tir
The 521-interpol.tir example tire property file starts here. In addition to the file for 521_equation.tir, it
contains data that is used for calculating the lateral force and aligning moment, instead of using formula
6 to 9. Note that the [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] can also be used in the tire property file for the
Equation method.
$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 3.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'rad'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'second'
$--------------------------------------------------------------model
17
521-Tire Model
[MODEL]
! use mode 123411121314
! ----------------------------------------------------------------
! smoothingXXXX
! combinedXXXX
! transient X X X X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = '5.2.1'
USE_MODE = 1
$----------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 195.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.70
RIM_RADIUS = 195,0
RIM_WIDTH = 139.7
$---------------------------------------------------------parameters
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_METHOD = POINT_FOLLOWER ! or EQUIVALENT_PLANE
LATERAL_FORCE_METHOD = INTERPOLATION ! or EQUATION
!
vertical_stiffness = 206.0
vertical_stiffness_exponent = 1.1
vertical_damping = 2.06
lateral_stiffness = 50
cornering_stiffness_coefficient = 50
!
Mu_Static = 0.95
Mu_Dynamic = 0.75
Mu_Static_Velocity = 3000
Mu_Dynamic_Velocity = 6000
!
rolling_resistance_coefficient = 0.01
!
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_ANGLE= 100
EQUIVALENT_PLANE_INCREMENTS= 50
!
!------------------CAMBER ANGLE VALUES-------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor(D to R) pnt1 pnt2 pnt3 pnt4 pnt5
!
CAMBER_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
5 0.017453292 -3.0 0.0 3.0 6.0 10.0
!
!------------------SLIP ANGLE VALUES---------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor(D to R) pnt1 ...... pnt9
!
SLIP_ANGLE_DATA_LIST
9 0.017453292 -15.0 -10.0 -5.0
-2.5 0.0 2.5
5.0 10.0 15.0
18 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
!
!-----------------VERTICAL FORCE VALUES------------------------------
-----------
! Conversion
! No. of pnts factor
! pnt1 pnt2 pnt3 pnt4 pnt5
!
VERTICAL_FORCE_DATA_LIST
5 4.448
200.0 600.0 1100.0 1500.0 1900.0
!
!-----------------ALLIGNING TORQUE VALUES----------------------------
-----------
! No. of pnts Conversion
! factor
!
! pnt1 .... pnt225
!
ALIGNING_TORQUE_DATA_LIST
225 -1355.7504
5.31 6.52 22.88 26.41 30.58

0.11 2.84 5.49 -3.92 -14.04
0.47 -12.44 -37.99 -67.22 -116.07
0.04 -21.38 -69.04 -111.44 -168.11
0.80 -3.70 -27.94 -44.25 -53.74
1.75 17.43 52.20 81.97 145.78
2.54 11.08 40.53 73.54 95.55
-1.28 0.02 14.82 2.93 10.35
1.59 -3.77 -17.17 6.60 -11.91
0.06 14.23 22.93 11.45 15.74

5.95 5.54 13.72 -1.65 -15.64
-1.29 -9.45 -26.98 -57.25 -107.71
-5.05 -17.73 -62.62 -109.03 -161.88
0.46 -2.48 -19.48 -33.54 -49.52
4.71 26.10 60.80 90.85 119.51
4.26 16.60 52.46 93.32 141.34
2.41 4.28 2.21 9.11 30.44
-0.92 0.22 12.61 2.51 -18.77
0.43 -4.62 15.36 7.16 11.70

6.70 15.92 0.14 -4.20 -11.81
-2.20 -5.53 -13.28 -47.48 -92.88
-1.39 -17.28 -52.17 -102.80 -161.71
2.87 -0.38 -14.27 -29.03 -42.42
6.99 24.54 66.06 93.27 126.38
7.10 18.78 58.20 104.51 156.39
1.63 2.91 8.33 20.32 42.09
-0.78 10.13 -9.94 -13.02 -11.95
5.62 4.36 23.16 38.03 8.73

2.31 6.41 14.10 6.03 -11.66
7.87 1.33 -16.31 -40.24 -82.58
19
521-Tire Model
1.40 -10.04 -50.94 -93.06 -157.50

2.10 0.56 -16.15 -27.15 -40.13
5.60 26.48 62.92 90.16 122.03
3.56 20.63 60.74 108.26 162.97
-0.08 1.81 14.39 34.98 59.72
1.38 -2.13 -2.42 -4.08 -2.72
3.69 1.71 29.06 10.05 11.38

3.09 7.15 -7.92 13.53 -5.78
6.08 0.38 -2.69 -32.10 -62.17
0.76 -7.65 -37.28 -89.05 -145.09
0.70 4.37 -7.59 -23.71 -28.49
5.92 34.39 72.55 92.88 129.34
4.36 29.81 76.70 118.91 180.59
-2.03 5.94 26.18 53.59 89.76
0.39 -5.52 -6.06 10.16 7.81
!-----------------LATERAL FORCE VALUES------------------------------
---------
! No. of pnt Conversion
! factor
! pnt1 .... pnt225
!
LATERAL_FORCE_DATA_LIST
225 4.448
234.08 585.56 1000.29 1307.77 1603.78

269.79 628.82 1040.78 1331.72 1624.83
213.70 565.29 974.49 1198.82 1387.74
150.79 452.18 752.21 885.23 960.13
11.52 50.58 199.87 199.50 208.75
-116.75 -367.42 -618.68 -683.16 -857.81
-224.15 -588.24 -1001.01 -1235.88 -1488.88
-242.08 -612.70 -1059.55 -1344.53 -1658.66
-213.99 -597.29 -988.14 -1343.86 -1689.35
234.40 572.75 981.30 1352.37 1698.90

239.27 647.77 1007.37 1357.22 1666.30
252.34 603.75 1033.50 1288.76 1483.64
167.55 481.45 826.41 962.64 1028.74
32.23 78.77 231.31 250.14 254.32
-122.59 -423.13 -552.58 -613.52 -607.61
-208.93 -576.28 -948.45 -1149.44 -1314.69
-261.05 -634.90 -1064.15 -1338.52 -1581.84
-241.50 -607.16 -1021.87 -1322.30 -1598.25
210.20 578.56 968.72 1344.05 1730.40

237.91 600.60 1025.67 1377.57 1733.03
226.60 629.48 1084.97 1354.12 1575.22
154.74 496.21 878.72 1028.03 1095.59
34.37 74.19 240.00 284.42 283.85
-130.29 -339.00 -509.04 -543.75 -555.05
-226.48 -557.52 -884.91 -1083.18 -1175.12
-270.70 -595.22 -1059.76 -1314.74 -1564.43
-254.64 -602.76 -1032.71 -1313.22 -1609.96
20 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
238.28 531.25 945.70 1305.28 1786.96

227.13 594.51 1038.87 1365.33 1733.29
221.76 633.49 1135.31 1375.28 1619.82
195.50 505.90 899.88 1059.92 1135.28
28.51 68.59 241.99 311.15 331.84
-145.10 -319.56 -464.11 -499.27 -500.83
-230.33 -548.99 -815.88 -991.78 -1108.36
-230.62 -597.10 -1009.76 -1261.43 -1504.09
-218.36 -570.13 -1049.72 -1344.94 -1589.60
228.49 564.69 954.06 1332.84 1687.50

221.19 595.52 1019.74 1378.35 1749.40
224.63 590.58 1108.01 1408.87 1707.09
178.96 474.70 918.87 1125.97 1242.75
42.58 65.26 230.69 306.58 428.45
-144.43 -290.91 -368.02 -398.98 -394.66
-224.99 -494.65 -761.78 -886.03 -941.20
-246.51 -563.13 -980.33 -1249.57 -1462.88
-239.34 -567.10 -1050.56 -1348.66 -1611.11
521-Tire Road Data Files

The road data files used with the 521-Tire are unique and cannot be used with any other tire model. The
data files are fully described by the following two examples.
Road Data File 521_pnt_follow.rdf

This example file shows that, if you use the Point Follower method and indicate it in the associated tire
property file, the road_profile_type parameter must be set to FLAT.
$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'rdf'
FILE_VERSION = 5.00
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'flat 2d contact road for testing purposes'
$-------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------MODEL
[MODEL]
METHOD = '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'ARC913'
$--------------------------------------------------------PARAMETERS
ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = FLAT
INITIAL_HEIGHT = 0.000
21
521-Tire Model
Road Data File 521_equiv_plane.rdf

The following example shows which data the road data file must contain if the Equivalent Plane method
is used and specified in the associated tire property file. The main difference with the road data file used
in association with the Point Follower method is that here the ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE parameter is set
to INPUT and a ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST is specified.
$---------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'rdf'
FILE_VERSION = 5.00
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'5.2.1 input road for testing purposes'
$--------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$--------------------------------------------------------------MODEL
[MODEL]
METHOD = '5.2.1'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'ARC913'
$---------------------------------------------------------PARAMETERS
ROAD_PROFILE_TYPE = INPUT
INITIAL_HEIGHT = 0.000
ROAD_INPUT_DATA_LIST
23, 1
-10000.00, 00.00
1740.00, 00.00
1740.94, 1.92
1743.73, 3.55
1748.31, 4.59
1754.55, 4.79
1762.32, 3.88
1771.41, 1.65
1781.61, 7.89
1792.65, 2.47
1804.28, 5.26
1816.20, 6.20
1828.12, 5.26
1839.75, 2.47
1850.79, 7.89
1860.99, 1.65
1870.08, 3.88
1877.85, 4.79
1884.09, 4.59
1888.67, 3.55
1891.46, 1.92
1892.40, 00.00
40000.00, 00.00
22 Adams/Tire
521-Tire Model
Using the UA-Tire Model
Learn about using the University of Arizona (UA) tire model:
• Background Information
• Tire Model Parameters
• Force Evaluation
• Operating Mode: USE_MODE
• Property File Format Example
• Contact Methods
Background Information for UA-Tire

The University of Arizona tire model was originally developed by Drs. P.E. Nikravesh and G. Gim.
Reference documentation: G. Gim, Vehicle Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for
Pneumatic Tires, PhD Thesis, University of Arizona, 1988. The UA-Tire model also includes relaxation
effects, both in the longitudinal and lateral direction.
The UA-Tire model calculates the forces at the ground contact point as a function of the tire kinematic
states, see Inputs and Output of the UA-Tire Model. A description of the inputs longitudinal slip , side
slip  and camber angle  can be found in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The tire
·
deflection  and deflection velocity  are determined using either a point follower or durability contact
model. For more information, see Road Models in Adams/Tire. A description of outputs, longitudinal
force Fx, lateral force Fy, normal force Fz, rolling resistance moment My and self aligning moment Mz is
given in About Tire Kinematic and Force Outputs. The required tire model parameters are described in
Tire Model Parameters.
2 Adams/Tire
Inputs and Output of the UA-Tire Model

3
wheel rotational velocity  , and the effective rolling radius Re:
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
 = – ------- and tan  = --------
Vx Vx
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculation the slip quantities during positive Vsx (driving) are
defined as:
V sx V sy
 = – ------- and tan  = --------
Vr Vr
Vr = Re 
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 45 degrees and the longitudinal slip Ss
(=  ) in between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.

stretched string, which is supported to the rim with lateral spring, the lateral deflection of the belt can be
estimated (see H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506
5141 5). The figure below shows a top-view of the string model.
4 Adams/Tire
1 dv 1 -----
v1
----- + - = tan    + a
Vx d t 
dv 1
 + V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculations, at positive Vsx (traction) the Vx should be replaced
by Vr in these differential equations.
5
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities,  ’ and  ’, are defined based on the tire deformation:
u1
' =  ------ – k Vlow x V sx sin  V x 
  
v1
' = atan  ------ – k Vlow y V sy
  
state tire behavior. kVlow_x and kVlow_y are the damping rates at low speed applied below the
LOW_SPEED_THRESHOLD speed. For the LOW_SPEED_DAMPING parameter in the tire property
file yields:
kVlow_x= 100 · kVlow_y= LOW_SPEED_DAMPING
Note: If the tire property file's REL_LEN_LON or REL_LEN_LAT = 0, then steady-state tire
behavior is calculated as tire response on change of the slip  and  .

Definition of Tire Parameters
Symbol: Name in tire property file: Units*: Description:

r1 UNLOADED_RADIUS L Tire unloaded radius
kz VERTICAL_STIFFNESS F/L Vertical stiffness
cz VERTICAL_DAMPING FT/L Vertical damping
Cr ROLLING_RESISTANCE L Rolling resistance parameter
Cs CSLIP F Longitudinal slip stiffness,
F x
 =0
C CALPHA F/A Cornering stiffness,
F y
 =0
6 Adams/Tire
Symbol: Name in tire property file: Units*: Description:

C CGAMMA F/A Camber stiffness,
F y
 =0
UMIN UMIN - Minimum friction coefficient (S=1)
UMAX UMAX - Maximum friction coefficient (Ss=0)
x REL_LEN_LON L Relaxation length in longitudinal direction
y REL_LEN_LAT L Relaxation length in lateral direction
* L=length, F=force, A=angle, T=time
Force Evaluation in UA-Tire

• Normal Force
• Slip Ratios
• Friction Coefficient
Normal Force
The normal force Fz is calculated assuming a linear spring (stiffness: kz ) and damper (damping constant
cz ), so the next equation holds:
·
Fz = kz  + cz 
·
If the tire loses contact with the road, the tire deflection  and deflection velocity  become zero so the
resulting normal force Fz will also be zero. For very small positive tire deflections the value of the
damping constant is reduced and care is taken to ensure that the normal force Fz will not become
negative.
In stead of the linear vertical tire stiffness cz , also an arbitrary tire deflection - load curve can be defined
in the tire property file in the section [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE], see also the Property File
Format Example. If a section called [DEFLECTION_LOAD_CURVE] exists, the load deflection
datapoints with a cubic spline for inter- and extrapolation are used for the calculation of the vertical force
of the tire. Note that you must specify VERTICAL_STIFFNESS in the tire property file but it does not
play any role.
Slip Ratios
For the calculation of the slip forces and moments a number of slip ratios will be introduced:
7
Longitudinal Slip Ratio: Ss

The absolute value of longitudinal slip ratio, Ss, is defined as:
Ss = 
Where  is limited to be within the range -1 to 1.
Lateral Slip Ratios: S , S , S
The lateral slip ratio due to slip angle, S  , is defined as:
 
 tan  during braking 
S * =  
  1 – S  tan  
 s during traction 
S  = min  1.0 S * 
The lateral slip ratio due to inclination angle, S, is defined as:
S  = sin 
A combined lateral slip ratio due to slip and inclination angles, S, is defined as:
 sin - 
 tan  – l----------- during braking 
*
 2r l
S  =  
sin -
  1 – S  tan  l----------- 
 s 2r l during traction 
 
where l = 8r 1  is the length of the contact patch.
S  = min  1.0 S 
* 
Comprehensive Slip Ratio: Ss

A comprehensive slip ratio due to longitudinal slip, slip angle, and inclination angle may be defined as:
8 Adams/Tire
*
S s = S s2 + S 
2
S s = min  1.0 S s

* 
Friction Coefficient
The resultant friction coefficient between the tire tread base and the terrain surface is determined as a
function of the resultant slip ratio (Ss) and friction parameters (Umax and Umin ). The friction
parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property between the surfaces of
tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between Ss and  , the corresponding road-tire friction coefficient, is assumed.
The figure below depicts this relationship.
Linear Tire-Terrain Friction Model
This can be analytically described as:

 = Umax - (Umax - Umin) * Ss
The friction circle concept allows for different values of longitudinal and lateral friction coefficients (  x
and  y ) but limits the maximum value for both coefficients to  . See the figure below.
9
Friction Circle Concept
The relationship that defines the friction circle follows:
  2
2
-----x +  -----y = 1
   
or  x =  cos  and  y =  sin 

where:
Ss S 
cos  = ---------
*
- and sin  = ---------
*
-
S s S s
10 Adams/Tire
Slip Forces and Moments

To compute longitudinal force, lateral force, and self-aligning torque in the SAE coordinate system, you
must perform a test to determine the precise operating conditions. The conditions of interest are:
• Case 1:   0
• Case 2:    0 and C  S   C  S 
• Case 3:    0 and C  S   C  S 
• Forces and moments at the contact point
The lateral force F can be decomposed into two components: F and F. The two components are in
the same direction if  *  < 0 and in opposite direction if  *  > 0.
Case 1.  < 0
Before computing the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, some slip
parameters and a modified lateral friction coefficient should be determined. If a slip ratio due to the
critical inclination angle is denoted by S c , then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S c =  ------
C
If Ssc represents a slip ratio due to the critical (longitudinal) slip ratio, then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S sc = 3 -----
Cs
If a slip ratio due to the critical slip angle is denoted by S c , then it can be determined as:
Cs S
2 – S 2 – 3C ------
S c = ------- S sc -
C s  C
when S s  S sc .
The term critical stands for the maximum value which allows an elastic deformation of a tire during pure
slip due to pure slip ratio, slip angle, or inclination angle. Whenever any slip ratio becomes greater than
its corresponding critical value, an elastic deformation no longer exists, but instead complete sliding state
represents the contact condition between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
A nondimensional slip ratio Sn is determined as:
11
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -----------------------------------------
B1
where:
B 1 =  3F z  2 –  3C  S   2
B 2 = 2C  S  C  S 
B3 = –  Cs Ss  2 +  C S  2 
A nondimensional contact patch length is determined as:
ln = 1 – Sn
A modified lateral friction coefficient ym  is evaluated as:
C S
ym  =  y –  -----------
 Fz 
where  y =  sin  is the available friction as determined by the friction circle.

To determine the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, consider two subcases
separately. The first case is for the elastic deformation state, while the other is for the complete sliding
state without any elastic deformation of a tire. These two subcases are distinguished by slip ratios caused
by the critical values of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the inclination angle. Specifically, if all of slip
ratios are smaller than those of their corresponding critical values, then there exists an elastic deformation
state, otherwise there exists only complete sliding state between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S   S c S s  S sc , and S   S c
In the elastic deformation state, the longitudinal force F , the lateral force F , and three components
of the self-aligning torque are written as functions of the elastic stiffness and the slip ratio as well as the
normal force and the friction coefficients, such as:
12 Adams/Tire
F  = C s S s l n2 +  x F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 
F  = C  S s l n2 + ym  F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3  + C  S 
1 2 3
M z = C  S   – --- + --- l n + --- ym  F z S n2 ll n2
2 3 2
2--- 3 x  y F z2
M zs = C s S s S  l n + ---------------------  1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 
3
3 5C 
M zs =  F 
where:
•  = S  r l2 – l' 2  4 is the offset between the wheel plane center and the tire tread base.
• r l2 – l 2  4 is set to zero if it is negative.
• l = 8r l  the length of the contact patch.
M z is the portion of the self-aligning torque generated by the slip angle  . M zs and M zs are other
components of the self-aligning torque produced by the longitudinal force, which has an offset between
 and the inclination angle  ,
the wheel center plane and the tire tread base, due to the slip angle
respectively. The self-aligning torque Mz is determined as combinations of M z , M zs and M zs .
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S   S c S s  S sc , and S   S c

In the complete sliding state, the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and three components of the self-
aligning torque are determined as functions of the normal force and the friction coefficients without any
elastic stiffness and slip ratio as:
13
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
M z = 0
3 x  y F z2 l
M zs = -----------------------
5C 
M zs =  F 
Case 2:   0 and C  S   C  S 
As in Case 1, a slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip ratio can be obtained as:
Fz
S sc = 3 -----
Cs
A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle can be found as:
Cs S
2 – S 2 + 3C ------
S c = ------- S sc
C s C -

when S s  S sc .
The nondimensional slip ratio Sn, is determined as:
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -----------------------------------------
B1
where:
14 Adams/Tire
B 1 =  3F z  2 –  3C  S   2
B2 = –3 C S C S
B3 = –  Cs Ss  2 +  C S  2 
The nondimensional contact patch length ln is found from the equation ln = 1 - Sn, and the modified
lateral friction coefficient ym  is expressed as:
C S
ym  =  y +  -----------
 Fz 
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force and the self-aligning torque two subcases should also be
considered separately. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the inclination angle is not needed here since
the required condition for Case 2, C  S   C  S  , replaces the critical condition of the inclination angle.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S s  S sc and S   S ac

In the elastic deformation state:
F  = C s S s l n2 +  x F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 
F  = C  S s l n2 + ym  F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3  + C  S 
1 2 3
M z = C  S   – --- + --- l n + --- ym  F z S n2 ll n2
 2 3  2
2 3 x  y F z2
M zs = --- C s S s S  l n3 + ---------------------  1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 
3 5C 
M zs =  F 
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S s  S sc and S   S ac

15
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
M z = 0
3 x  y F z2 l
M zs = -----------------------
5C 
M zs =  F 
Case 3:   0 and C  S   C  S 
Similar to Cases 1 and 2, slip ratios due to the critical values of the inclination angle and the slip ratio are
obtained as:
3F z + C  S 
S c = --------------------------------
3C 
1 2
S sc = -----  3F z  2 –  C  S  – 3C  S  
Cs
The nondimensional slip ratio Sn, is expressed as:
B 2 + B 22 – B 1 B 3
S n = -----------------------------------------
B1
where:
B 1 =  3F z  2 –  3C  S   2
B2 = –3 C S C S
B3 = –  Cs Ss  2 +  C S  2 
16 Adams/Tire
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque, two subcases should also be
considered similar to Cases 1 and 2. A slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip angle is not needed
here since the required condition for Case 3, C  S   C  S  , replaces the critical condition of the slip
angle.
(i) Elastic Deformation State: S   S c and S s  S sc
In the elastic deformation state, F  and M z can be written:
F  = C s S s l n2 +  x F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 
F  = C  S   3l n2 + 2l n3  – C  S  l n2 +  y F z  1 – 3l n2 + 2l n3 
l
C S  n
M z = -------------------
6
2 3 x  y F z2
M zs = --- C s S s S  l n3 + ---------------------  1 – 10l n3 + 15l n4 – 6l n5 
3 5C 
M zs =  F 
(ii) Complete Sliding State: S   S c and S s  S sc
In the complete sliding state, F  , F  , M z , M zs , and M zs can be determined by using:
17
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
M z = 0
3 x  y F z2 l
M zs = -----------------------
5C 
M zs =  F 
respectively. The longitudinal force F  , the lateral force F  , and three components of the self-aligning
torques, M z , M zs , and M zs , always have positive values, but they can be transformed to have
positive or negative values depending on the slip ratio s, the slip angle  , and the inclination angle  in
the SAE coordinate system.
Tire Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System

For the general formulations of the longitudinal force Fx, lateral force Fy, and self-aligning torque Mz, in
the SAE coordinate system, the three possible combinations of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the
inclination angle are also considered.
Longitudinal Force:
F x = sign   F , for all cases

Lateral Force:
F y = sign   F , for cases 1 and 2

F y = sign   F , for case 3
Self-aligning Torque:
M z = sign   M z – sign     – sign    M Zs + sign   M Zs

Rolling Resistance Moment:
My = -Cr Fz, for a forward rolling tire.
18 Adams/Tire
My = Cr Fz, for a backward rolling tire.
Operating Mode: USE_MODE

You can change the behavior of the tire model through the switch USE_MODE in the [MODEL] section
of the tire property file.
• USE_MODE = 0: Steady-state forces and moments
The tire forces and moments react instantaneously to changes in the tire kinematic states.
• USE_MODE = 1: Transient tire behavior
The tire will have a lagged response because of the so-called relaxation length in both
longitudinal and lateral direction. See Lagged Longitudinal and Lateral Slip Quantities (transient
tire behavior).
The effect of the relaxation lengths will be most pronounced at low forward velocity and/or high
excitation frequencies.
• USE_MODE = 2: Smoothing of forces and moments on startup of the simulation
When you indicate smoothing by setting the value of use mode in the tire property file,
Adams/Tire smooths initial transients in the tire force over the first 0.1 seconds of simulation.
The longitudinal force, lateral force, and aligning torque are multiplied by a cubic step function
of time. (See STEP in the Adams/Solver online help.)
Longitudinal Force FLon = S*FLon
Lateral Force FLat = S*FLat
Aligning Torque Mz = S*Mz
Tire Carcass Shape

You can optionally supply a tire carcass cross-sectional shape in the tire property file in the [SHAPE]
block. The 3D-durability, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when calculating the tire-
to-road volume of interference. If you omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass
cross-section defaults to the rectangle that the tire radius and width define.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the side wall.
For example, suppose your tire has a radius of 300 mm and a width of 185 mm and that the tread is joined
to the side wall with a fillet of 12.5 mm radius. The tread then begins to curve to meet the side wall at
>+/- 80 mm from the wheel center plane. If you define the shape table using six points with four points
19
along the fillet, the resulting table might look like the shape block that is at the end of the property format
example (see SHAPE).
Property File Format Example

$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir' FILE_VERSION = 2.0
(COMMENTS) {comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'TestDate - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$-------------------------------------------------------------units
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'meter'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'rad'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$-------------------------------------------------------------model
[MODEL]
! use mode 1 2 3
! ------------------------------------------
! relaxation lengths X
! smoothing X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'UATIRE'
USE_MODE = 2
$-------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 0.195
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.55
$---------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 190000
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 50
CSLIP = 80000
CALPHA = 60000
CGAMMA = 3000
UMIN = 0.8
UMAX = 1.1
REL_LEN_LON = 0.6
REL_LEN_LAT = 0.5
$-------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
20 Adams/Tire
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.8
0.9 1.0
$---------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness (optional)
{pen fz}
0.000 0.0
0.001 212.0
0.002 428.0
0.003 648.0
0.005 1100.0
0.010 2300.0
0.020 5000.0
0.030 8100.0
Contact Methods
The UA-Tire Model supports the following roads
• 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
• 3D Splie roads, see Adams/3D Spline Road Model
The UA-Tire Model uses a one point of contact method; therefore, the wavelength of road
obstacles must be longer than the tire radius for realistic output of the model.
• 3D Shell roads, see Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model
Using the Soft-Soil tire model
The Adams/Tire Soft Soil tire model offers a basic model to describe the tire-soil interaction forces for
any tire on elastic/plastic grounds, such as sand, clay, loam and snow.
The model requires a tire property file with keyword SOFT-SOIL and a road data file (one of the existing
formats) with additional soil properties. Two tire-soil contact models are offered:
• Elastic-plastic soil deformation model, USE_MODE = 1
• Visco-elastic soil deformation model, USE_MODE = 2
Figure 1 Definition of the slip velocities in the tire-road contact point
wheel rotational velocity   and the the effective rolling radius Re:
V sx = V z – R e (1)
V sy = V y (2)
The slip quantities  (longitudinal slip) and  (slip angle) are calculated with these slip velocities in the
contact point, for negative Vsx they are defined as:
V sx V sy
 = – ------- and tan  = -------- (3)
Vx Vx
2 Adams/Tire
and for positive Vsx (driving) as:
V sx V sy
 = – ------- and tan  = -------- (4)
Vr Vr
Vr is the rolling speed Vr is determined using the effective rolling radius Re: Vr  Re  (5)
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to  90 degrees and the longitudinal slip 
to 1.

The loaded rolling tire radius Rl is defined as the unloaded tire radius R0 minus the tire deflection f0 due
to the vertical load:
Rl  R0  f 0
(6)
Vx
Re 
 (7)
Using the Soft-Soil tire model 3
decrease with increasing vertical load due to the tire tread thickness, see the Figure 2.
Figure 2 Effective and loaded tire radius as a function of the vertical load
4 Adams/Tire
Figure 3 Side view of a rolling tire
To represent the effective rolling radius Re, a PAC2002 compatible equation is used:
Re  R0  f 0 ,Fz 0 ( Deff atan( Beff f 0d )  Feff f 0d )

(8)
in which f 0 ,Fz 0 is the nominal tire deflection at the nominal tire load Fz0:
Fz 0
f 0 ,Fz 0 
Cz
(9)
and f 0d is called the dimensionless radial tire deflection, defined by:

Elastic-plastic tire-soil contact
f0
f 0d 
f 0 ,Fz 0
(10)

The interaction forces for a rigid wheel
The static sinkage of a rigid object into a soft soil depends on the load on that object: Bekker [1]
formulated the sinkage h of a flat plate with width b as follows:
p( h )  ( kc / b  k )h n
(11)
in which kc and k are the cohesive and frictional moduli respectively, n the sinkage exponent. The
static stress p is in equilibrium with the vertical force Fz.
Figure 4 Pressure distribution under a flat plate

6 Adams/Tire
When applying this approach to a non-rolling wheel the static stress distribution can be estimated as
shown in the Figure 5
Figure 5 Static stress distribution under a non-rolling rigid wheel
For the dynamic sinkage the wheel rotational speed  must be taken into account.
Figure 6 Wheel entry and exit angle when rolling on soil
Assume a wheel  soil contact with entry angle  f and exit angle  r , see also [2], then these angles
can be written as a function of the total sinkage h and the exit penetration he as follows:
 f  acos( 1  h / R )
r  acos( 1  he / R )
(12)
The exit penetration he depends on the elastic stiffness Cs of the soil.
8 Adams/Tire
Based on the terramechanical approach as described in [2] the normal and shear stresses can be modeled
as shown in the Figure 7.
Figure 7 Normal and shear stress modelling of a rotating wheel
The wheel normal stress distribution  can be defined as function of the wheel angle  [2,3]:
for m     f :
k 

(  )  R0n  c  k  cos(  )  cos(  f ) n 
b  (13)
for r    m :
n
k     r  
(  )  R0n  c k  cos  f  (  f  m )   cos(  f ) 
b   m  r  
with b the wheel width and R0 the wheel radius.
The angle m is the angle at which the maximum normal stress  occurs [4]:
 m  ( a0  a1 ) f
(14)
The shear stress [5,6] in longitudinal direction is:
 x (  )  ( c  (  ) tan(  ))( 1  e  jx (  ) / k x )
(15)
and in lateral direction yields:
 jy (  ) / k y
 y (  )  ( c  (  ) tan(  ))( 1  e )
(16)
In equations 15 and 16 c represents the cohesion stress of the soil,  the friction angle of the soil and kx
and ky the shear deformation moduli. Assuming that the wheel has a longitudinal slip  , the longitudinal
shear displacement along the contact area jx in equation 16 can be estimated [5,6] by using the
longitudinal slip  and wheel radius R0:
j x (  )  R0 [  f    ( 1   )(sin(  f )  sin(  ))]

(17)
Similar the lateral shear displacement jy will depend on the slip angle  and the wheel radius R0:
j y (  )  R0 ( 1   )(  f   ) tan(  )
(18)
10 Adams/Tire
Figure 8 illustrates the shear stress as a function of soil deformation.
Figure 8 Measured shear stress compared to fitted stress (equation 15)
The longitudinal shear deformation modulus kx is defined as:
k x  k x 0  k x1
(19)
and the lateral shear deformation modulus ky:
k y  k y 0  k y1
Having the normal and shear stress for the rotating wheel, the tire-soil interaction contact forces and
moments can be calculated:
• Longitudinal force:
f
Fx  bR  {  x (  ) cos(  )  (  ) sin(  )}d
r (20)
• Lateral force:
f
Fy  bR   y (  )d
r (21)
• Vertical load:
f
Fz  bR  {  x (  ) sin(  )  (  ) sin(  )}d
r (22)
• Overturning moment:
Mx  0 (23)
• Rolling resistance moment:
f
  0 (  ) sin(  )d

2
M y  bR  crol Fz
r (24)
with crol the tire (internal) rolling resistance coefficient.

• Aligning moment:
f
  y (  ) sin(  )d
2
M z  bR
r (25)
Tire deformation
In order to take the tire deflection into account the substitution circle approach is taken as was suggested
by Bekker [7]:
12 Adams/Tire
Figure 9 Substitution circle to account for tire deflection
At a certain penetration of the tire into the soil the tire deflection and sinkage can be determined by an
iteration process based on the fact that the vertical tire force and the force due to the sinkage must be
equal.
The tire force can be calculated with the tire stiffness Cz and tire deflection f0 by:
Fz ,tire  C z f 0 (26)
while the tire sinkage force is defined by equation (22), however, replacing the unloaded tire radius R0
by the radius of the substitution circle R*.
Bekker [7] derived following relation in between the tire deflection f0 and tire sinkage h:
R* f f0
 1 0 
R0 h h (27)
Elastic and Plastic deformation

Depending on the soil properties one part of the deformation is elastic and the remaining part is non-
irreversible (plastic deformation). The elastic deformation is calculated with by the soil stiffness Cs at the
maximum normal stress  max :
( m )
he 
Cs (28)
Multi-pass effect
When a tire has passed a certain spot of soil, a second tire will experience different soil properties when
rolling over that spot due to the plastic deformation of the soil by the first tire.
Therefore this Soft Soil tire model stores the elastic and plastic deformation of each tire as a function of
the contact point x,y coordinates. When a tire passes a point with plastic deformation caused by a
previous tire, the normal pressure calculation will account for the plastic deformation history.
Figure 10 explains the mechanism applied in this tire model [8]:
Assume two tires rolling after each other over the same spot of soil. The first tire will have a total
deformation h1 existing of a plastic part hp1 and an elastic part he1. When a second tire passes the same
spot, the soil will first have an elastic deformation from A to B (= he1) and then continue to follow the
normal pressure characteristic to point C. The plastic deformation of the second tire hp2 will be equal to
the total deformation h2 subtracted with the elastic deformation he2.
14 Adams/Tire
Figure 10 Normal pressure characteristic for multi-pass approach
Note: The tire model stores the x, y coordinates, the elastic and plastic deformation and tire width
of each tire. Because of the one-point of contact approach used in this Soft-Soil tire model,
the total stored plastic deformation will be applied for a next tire when its contact point
comes into the rut of a previous tire.
Visco-elastic tire-soil contact

Next to elastic-plastic deformation models for soft soil, also visco-elastic modeling approaches exist.
Wanjii e.o. [9] derived a visco-elastic model for the normal stress along the contact line in between the
tire and the soil. A three element Maxwell approach is used for a rigid wheel, see Figure 11.
Visco-elastic tire-soil contact
Figure 11 Three element Maxwell model for a rigid wheel on visco-elastic soil
For this model the normal stress in the contact in between tire and ground is:
  x x 
 A 
G GVT   VxTr  
( x )  1 ( x 2A  x 2 )  2 x r  ( x A  VxTr )1  e   xA  x 
2 R0 R0    
    (29)
With
xa  R0 sin(  f )
x  R0 sin(  )
Tr   / G2
In which
Tr is the relaxation time
 is the viscosity of the soil

16 Adams/Tire
Vx is the forward velocity of the tire
G1 is the first elastic modulus
G2 is the second elastic modulus
The longitudinal and lateral shear stresses are calculated using the equations 15 until and including 19 as
used for the elastic-plastic tire-soil model. Similar for the tire-ground interaction forces equation (20 -
24) are used.
For the multi-pass effect, the road deformation at the exit of the tire-soil contact (point B) and the time
of deformation occurrence is stored. When a second tire passes the same spot, the road deformation
corrected with the relaxation effect is taken to correct the road height input.
References:
1. Bekker, M.G., Off-the-road-locomotion, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan Press, 1960.
2. G. Ishigami, A. Miwa, K. Nagatani, K. Yoshida, Terramechanics - Based Model for Steering
Maneuver of Planetary Exploration Rovers on Loose Soil, Journal of Field robotics 24(3), 233-
250 (2007), Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
3. Yoshida, K., Watanabe, T., Mizuna, N., Ishigami, G., Terramechanics - based analysis and
traction control of a lunar/planetary rover. In Proceedings of the Int. Conf. Of Field and Service
Robotics (FSR '03), Yamanashi, Japan.
4. Wong, J.Y., Reece, A., Prediction of rigid wheel performance based on the analysis of soil-wheel
stresses part I, performance driving rigid wheels, Journal of Terramechanics, 4, 81-98.
5. Janosi, Z. Hanamoto, B., The analytical determination of drawbar pull as a function of slip for
tracked vehicle in deformable soils, In proceedings of the 1st Int. conf. on Terrain-Vehicle
systems, Torino, Italy.
6. Wong, J.Y., Theory of Ground Vehicles, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., second edition, 1993.
7. Bekker, M.G., Introduction to terrain-vehicle systems, Ann Arbor, The University of Michigan
Press, 1969.
8. AS2TM User's Guide, version 1.12, AESCO GbR, Hamburg.
9. S. Wanjii, T. Hiroma, Y. Ota, T. Kataoka, Predicition of Wheel Performance by Analysis of
Normal and Tangential Stress Distributions under the Wheel-Soil Interface, Journal of
Terramechanics, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 165-186, 1997.
10. Schmid, I.C., Interaction of Vehicle and Terrain Results from 10 Years Research at IKK, Journal
of Terramechanics, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 3-26, 1995.
11. Schmid, I.C., Aubel, Th., Der elastische Reifen auf nachgiebiger Fahrbahn - Rechenmodell im
Hinblick auf Reifendruckregelung, VDI Berichte nr. 916, 1991.
12. Faßbender, F., Simulation der Vertikaldynamik von Fahrzeugen auf Geländeböden mit STINA -
SOIL TIRE INTERFACE TO ADAMS einem Zusatzmodul für das Mehrkörperprogramm
ADAMS. Number 521 in Fortschritt-Berichte VDI Reihe 12. VDI Verlag, Düsseldorf, 2002.
Dissertation Universität der Bundeswehr Hamburg.
Feature and property overview of the Adams/Tire Soft Soil Tire model
Feature and property overview of the Adams/Tire Soft Soil Tire

model
• Two tire-road contact models:
• Elastic-plastic contact model
elastic tire: tire deflection is taken into account
multi-pass effect: road plastic deformation history is stored and taken into account when
another tire passes the same spot
• Visco-elastic contact model
rigid tire: no tire deflection
multi-pass effect: road viscous deformation is stored. The stored deformation reduced by the
relaxation effect is taken into account when another tire passes the same spot
• Tire effective rolling radius is defined similar to pac2002 tire model
• Tire properties are very basic (tire vertical stiffness and damping, unloaded radius, width and
effective rolling radius parameters)
• The existing Adams/Tire roads can be used, just an additional section with the soil properties is
required. These soil properties are valid for the whole road.
• Linearization of  - Fx characteristic during q-statics to ensure robust q-statics
• Linear vertical tire stiffness can be replaced by a (non-linear) deflection-load curve
• Scaling factors of road friction, tire cornering and longitudinal stiffness' are supported
• SMP (multi-thread, C++ solver) is supported
• Tire-road contact is a one-point contact
• Camber effects are not taken into account
• Overturning moment is not calculated
• No bulldozing effects
Example of the tire property file for the Soft-Soil Tire model:
$----------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 2.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire - XXXXXX'
'Pressure - XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
$---------------------------------------------------------------units
18 Adams/Tire
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'mm'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'degree'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$---------------------------------------------------------------model
! use mode 1 2
! --------------------------------------------------------------
! flexible wheel/tire with elastic-plastic road X
! rigid wheel/tire with visco-elastic road X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'SOFT-SOIL'
USE_MODE = 1.0
$-----------------------------------------------------------dimension
[DIMENSION]
WIDTH = 235.0
ASPECT_RATIO = 0.45
$-----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
NOMINAL_TIRE_LOAD = 4000
BREFF = 8.4
DREFF = 0.27
FREFF = 0.07
$---------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.2
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.5
1.0 0.6
1.0 0.7
1.0 0.8
1.0 0.85
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
$----------------------------------------------------------load_curve
$ For a non-linear tire vertical stiffness
{pen fz}
0 0.0
1.0 212.0
2.0 428.0
3.0 648.0
5.0 1100.0
10.0 2300.0
20.0 5000.0
30.0 8100.0
Example of the required Soil properties in the Road Data File:
Example of the required Soil properties in the Road Data File:

Existing road data files can be used, but a 'SOIL_PROPERTIES' section has to be added:
$-----------------------------------------------------SOIL_PROPERTIES
[SOIL_PROPERTIES]
FRICTION_ANGLE = 37.2 $units: degree
COHESION_STRESS = 8.0E-4 $units: N/mm**2
SOIL_DEFORM_MOD_KX0 = 43.0 $units: mm
SOIL_DEFORM_MOD_KX1 = 0.6283 $units: mm/deg
SOIL_DEFORM_MOD_KY0 = 20.0 $units: mm
SOIL_DEFORM_MOD_KY1 = 0.2269 $units: mm/deg
!visco-elastic tire:
ELASTIC_MODULUS_G1 = 0.071E-3 $units: N/mm**3
ELASTIC_MODULUS_G2 = 1.072E-3 $units: N/mm**3
SOIL_VISCOSITY = 7.14E-3 $units: Ns/mm**3
!plastic-elastic tire:
PRESSURE_SINKAGE_KC = 1.37E-3 $units: N/mm**(n+1)
PRESSURE_SINKAGE_KFI = 8.14E-4 $units: N/mm**(n+2)
SINKAGE_EXPONENT = 1 $units: = n
SOIL_INTERACTION_A0 = 0.4 $units: -
SOIL_INTERACTION_A1 = 0.15 $units: -
SOIL_STIFFNESS = 8.14E-3 $units: N/mm**3
Symbols
Beff effective rolling radius factor

b tire/wheel width
c cohesion
crol tire rolling resistance coefficient
Deff effective rolling radius factor
Cz tire vertical stiffness
Cs soil stiffness
f0 tire deflection
dimensionless tire deflection

f 0d
nominal tire deflection
f 0 ,Fz 0
G1 elastic modulus
G2 elastic modulus
Feff effective rolling radius factor
Fx longitudinal force
20 Adams/Tire
Fy lateral force
Fz vertical load
Fz0 nominal tire load
h sinkage
he elastic deformation
hp plastic deformation
kc cohesive modulus
frictional modulus
k
kx soil deformation modulus
ky soil deformation modulus
Mx overturning moment
My rolling resistance moment
Mz aligning moment
n sinkage component
p static stress
Re effective rolling radius
R0 unloaded (free) tire/wheel radius
Rl tire loaded radius
R* radius of substitution circle
Tr relaxation time
V total tire/wheel speed
Vr tire rolling velocity
Vx tire/wheel forward speed (parallel to wheel plane)
Vsx longitudinal slip speed
Vsy lateral slip speed
 slip angle
 longitudinal slip
 friction angle
 normal stress
 tire/wheel rotational speed

Symbols
longitudinal shear stress

x
lateral shear stress
y
wheel angle

wheel soil entry angle
f
wheel soil entry angle

r
 viscosity of the soil

22 Adams/Tire
Using FTire Tire Model
Learn about:
• About FTire
• Modeling Approach
• Using FTire with Road Models
• Using FTire with Adams
• Parameters
• About FTire Parameters
• Procedure for Parameterizing FTire
• List of FTire Parameters
• About the Tire Data File
• Choosing Operating Conditions
This help describes the Flexible Ring Tire Model (FTire)™, as it is invoked from Adams.
© Michael Gipser, Cosin Consulting
About FTire
The tire model, FTire (Flexible ring tire model), is a sophisticated tire force element. You can use it in
MBS-models for vehicle-ride comfort investigations and other vehicle dynamics simulations on even or
uneven roadways.
2 Adams/Tire
The main benefits of FTire are:

• Fully nonlinear.
• Valid in frequency domain up to 120 Hz, and beyond.
• Valid for obstacle wave lengths up to half the length of the contact patch, and less.
• Parameters, among others, are the natural frequencies and damping factors of the linearized
model, and easy-to-obtain global static properties.
• Models both the in-plane and out-of-plane forces and moments.
• Computational effort no more than 5 to 20 times real time, depending on platform and model
level.
• High accuracy when passing single obstacles, such as cleats and potholes.
• Applicable in extreme situations like many kinds of tire misuse and sudden pressure loss.
• Sufficiently accurate in predicting steady-state tire characteristics.
In contrast to other tire models, FTire does not need any complicated road data preprocessing. Rather, it
takes and resolves road irregularities, and even extremely high and sharp-edged obstacles, just as they
are defined.
We recommend that you visit www.ftire.com, to learn more about FTire theory, validation, data supply,
and application. Also, at the FTire Web site, you will be kept informed about the latest FTire
improvements, and how to receive them. In the download section, you will find a set of auxiliary
programs, called FTire/tools for Windows™. These tools help to analyze and parameterize an FTire
3
Model. FTire/tools is free for FTire licensees. It comprises static, steady-date, and modal analysis,
linearization, data estimation, identification and validation tools, road data visualization, and more. In the
site's documentation section, you will find a more detailed and permanently updated FTire
documentation, together with as some additional literature.
Modeling Approach
FTire uses the following modeling approach:
• The tire belt is described as an extensible and flexible ring carrying bending stiffnesses,
elastically founded on the rim by distributed, partially dynamic stiffnesses in radial, tangential,
and lateral directions. The degrees of freedom of the ring are such that rim in-plane as well as
out-of-plane movements are possible. The ring is numerically approximated by a finite number
of discrete masses, the belt elements. These belt elements are coupled with their direct neighbors
by stiff springs and by bending stiffnesses both in-plane and out-of-plane.
Belt In-Plane and Out-Of-Plane Bending Stiffness outlines in-plane and out-of-plane bending
stiffness placing. In-plane bending stiffness is realized by means of torsional springs about the
lateral axis. The torsional deflection of these springs is determined by the angle between three
consecutive belt elements, projected onto the rim mid-plane. Similarly, the out-of-plane bending
stiffness is described by means of torsional springs about the radial axis. Here, the torsional
deflection is determined by the angle between three consecutive belt elements, projected onto the
belt tangential plane. Note that in the figure, the yellow plates do not represent the belt elements
themselves, but rather the connecting lines between the elements.
Belt In-Plane (left) and Out-Of-Plane (right) Bending Stiffness
• FTire calculates all stiffnesses, bending stiffnesses, and damping factors during preprocessing,
fitting the prescribed modal properties (see list of data below).
4 Adams/Tire
• A number of massless tread blocks (5 to 50, for example) are associated with every belt element.
These blocks carry nonlinear stiffness and damping properties in the radial, tangential, and
lateral direction. The radial deflections of the blocks depend on the road profile, focus, and
orientation of the associated belt elements. FTire determines tangential and lateral deflections
using the sliding velocity on the ground and the local values of the sliding coefficient. The latter
depends on ground pressure and sliding velocity.
Note: Radial, tangential, and lateral are relative to the orientation of the belt element,
whereas sliding velocity is the block end-point velocity projected onto the road
profile tangent plane. By polynomial interpolation, certain precautions have been
taken not to let the ground pressure distribution mirror the polygonal shape of the
belt chain.
• FTire calculates all six components of tire forces and moments acting on the rim by integrating
the forces in the elastic foundation of the belt.
Because of this modeling approach, the resulting overall tire model is accurate up to relatively high
frequencies both in longitudinal and in lateral directions. There are few restrictions in its applicability
with respect to longitudinal, lateral, and vertical vehicle dynamics situations. FTire deals with large-
and/or short-wave-length obstacles. It works out of, and up to, a complete standstill, with no additional
computing effort nor any model switching. Finally, it is applicable with high accuracy in such delicate
simulations as ABS braking on extremely uneven roadways, and so on.
In a full 3D variant, FTire additionally takes into account belt element rotation and bending about the
circumferential axis. These new degrees of freedom enable FTire to use contact elements that are
distributed not only along a single line, but over the whole contact patch. You can choose the arrangement
of the contact elements to be either randomly distributed, or distributed along several parallel lines.
In the full 3D variant, belt torsion about the circumferential axis is described by:
• Torsional stiffnesses between belt elements and rim, about circumferential axis (represented by
red torsion springs in the left side of the figure, Belt).
• Torsional stiffnesses between adjacent belt elements, about circumferential axis (represented by
blue torsion springs in the left side of figure, Belt).
The right side of the figure, Belt outlines the belt bending stiffness about the circumferential axis. This
is done in a somewhat simplified manner. Actually, lateral belt bending is taken into account by
introducing a parabolic shape function for each belt element. The curvature of this shape function is
treated as a belt elements’ additional degree of freedom.
5
Belt Torsional and Twisting Stiffness, and Belt Lateral Bending Stiffness
You should chose the full 3D variant, which takes about 30% more computing time, in situations where
a considerable excitation of tire vibrations in lateral direction is expected. This, for example, will happen
when the tire runs over cleats that are placed in an oblique direction relative to the tire rolling direction.
Similarly, such an excitation will happen when the tire is running over obstacles with large camber angle.
Optionally, FTire can take into account tire non-uniformity, that is, a harmonic variation of vertical or
longitudinal stiffness, as well as static and dynamic imbalance, conicity, ply-steer, and geometrical run-
out.
All stiffness values may depend on the actual inflation pressure. To take full advantage of that option, it
is necessary to provide basic FTire input data, such as radial stiffness data and natural frequencies at two
different pressure values. Actual inflation pressure is one of the ‘operating conditions variables,’ which
can be made time-dependent, and therefore, can be changed even during a simulation.
There are two more operating conditions: tread depth and model level. The latter signal allows you to
switch between the reduced variant of FTire (all contact elements are arranged in one single line near the
rim mid-plane), and the full 3D variant (contact elements cover the whole contact patch).
The kernel of the FTire implementation is an implicit integration algorithm (BDF) that calculates the belt
shape. The integrator runs parallel but synchronized with the Adams main integrator. By using this
specialized implicit BDF integrator, you can choose the belt extensibility so it is extremely small. This
also allows the simulation of an inextensible belt without any numerical drawbacks.
Using FTire with Road Models

FTire supports all MSC road definitions, including Motorsports and all 3D roads. It also supports several
customer-specific and third-party roads. For more information about available road descriptions, please
contact info@ftire.com.
6 Adams/Tire
Using FTire with Adams

FTire is a high-resolution tire model, with respect to road irregularities and tire vibration modes. To take
full advantage of that precision, we recommend that you choose a small step size for the Adams
integrator. There should be a minimum of 1,000 steps per one second simulation time (that is, an output
time step of 1 ms or less).
Controlling integrator step size in:
• Adams/Car
• Adams/Chassis
• Adams/View
• Adams/Solver
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Car

In Adams/Car, you can control the integrator step size by selecting:
Settings  Solver  Dynamics
and entering 1ms in the Hmax text box.
Alternatively, you can edit the driver control file (.dcf) that Adams/Car automatically generates when
performing a new dynamic maneuver. In that file, override the integrator step size, which is defined in
[EXPERIMENT] block, by entering the value 0.001 or less. After editing the file, you can launch
subsequent simulation experiments with the same driver's control (and, of course, the new integrator step
size) by selecting the following from Adams/Car:
Simulate  Full-Vehicle Analysis  DCF Driven  Driver Control Files  Browse
and selecting the .dcf you just edited.
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Chassis

In Adams/Chassis, you can control the integrator step size by setting the HMAX value to 0.001 or less.
HMAX is defined by selecting the following from Adams/Chassis:
System file Properties system_parameters solver  hmax
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/View

In Adams/View, you can control the integrator step size by checking:
Settings  Solver  Dynamics  Customized Settings
size, Min Step Size, and Max Step Size.
Controlling Integrator Step Size in Adams/Solver

In Adams/Solver, you can control the integrator step size by setting INTEGRATOR/HMAX to the
desired value in the Adams dataset (adm).
7
FTire Parameters
• About FTire Parameters
• Procedure for Parameterizing FTire
• Listing of FTire Parameters
About FTire Parameters

FTire parameters can be divided into several groups. There are parameters that define:
• Tire size and geometry
• Stiffness, damping, and mass distribution of the belt/sidewall structure
• Tire imperfections (non-uniformity, imbalance, conicity, and so on)
• Stiffness and damping properties of the tread rubber
• Friction characteristics of the tread rubber
• Numerical properties of the model
For convenience, FTire tries to use data that can be measured as easy as possible. As a consequence, the
number of basic data might be larger than the number of internal parameters defined by these basic
parameters.
For example, the following four parameters together, after preprocessing, actually result in only two
values used in FTire: compression and shear stiffness of the idealized blocks that represent tread rubber:
• tread_depth
• tread_base_height
• stiffness_tread_rubber
• tread_positive
Also, sometimes different combinations of parameters are possible. This is true especially for data of the
second group, which determine the structural stiffness and damping properties of FTire. Your choice of
which combination of parameters to supply depends on the types of measurements that are available and
their accuracy.
Moreover, it is possible to prescribe over-determined subsets of parameters. For example, you may define
the belt in-plane bending stiffness by prescribing the frequency of the first bending mode, and at the same
time the radial stiffness on a transversal cleat. Both parameters are strongly influenced by the bending
stiffness, but might contradict each other.
In such a case, FTire automatically recognizes that the system of equations to be solved is over-
determined, and applies an appropriate solver (Householder QR factorization) to determine the solution
in the sense of least squares fit. That means, FTire is looking for a compromise to meet both conditions
as much as possible. Users can control the compromise by optionally defining weights for the
contradicting conditions.
8 Adams/Tire
Note that, among others, FTire uses modal data to calculate internal structural stiffness and damping
coefficients. They are processed in such a way that the mathematical model, for small excitations, shows
exactly the measured behavior in the frequency domain. FTire is not a modal model, nor is it linear.
First Six Vibration Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim
When parametrizing FTire, the bending mode frequencies rather sensitively influence the respective
bending stiffness. As an alternative, determining the radial stiffness both on a flat surface and on a short
obstacle (cleat) is an inexpensive and very accurate way to get both the vertical stiffness between belt
nodes and rim and the in-plane bending stiffness.
Other ways to determine the bending stiffness (and other data, as well) are to use the software tools
FTire/fit (time- and frequency-domain parameter identification) and FTire/estim (qualified parameter
estimation by comparison with a reference tire). For more information, see www.ftire.com.
Unfortunately, there is no direct analogy of the ‘radial stiffness on cleat’ measuring procedure to get the
out-of-plane bending stiffness. But this parameter does not seem to be as relevant as the in-plane bending
stiffness for ride comfort and durability. An indirect, but also very accurate, way to validate the out-of-
plane bending stiffness is to check resulting side-force and self-aligning characteristic. The cornering
stiffness, the pneumatic trail, as well as the difference between maximum side force and side force for
very large side-slip angles, are very sensitively determined both by the tread rubber friction characteristic
and by the out-of-plane bending stiffness. Similarly, the fourth mode (see figure, First Six Vibration
Modes Of An Unloaded Tire With Fixed Rim), being itself determined by the stiffness between belt nodes
and rim in lateral direction, very strongly influences the side-slip angle where maximum side force
occurs.
Procedure for Parameterizing FTire

A typical procedure to parametrize FTire might be:
1. Either from tire data sheets, by some simple and inexpensive measurements, or directly from the
tire supplier, obtain:
• Tire size, load index, and speed symbol
• Rolling circumference
• Rim diameter
• Tread width
• Tire mass
9
• Tread depth
• Rubber height over steel belt
• Shore-A stiffness or Young's modulus of tread rubber
• Tread pattern positive
2. Determine the natural frequencies and damping moduli of the first six modes, for an unloaded,
inflated tire, where the rim is fixed. Normally, you do this by exciting the tire structure with an
impulse hammer, measuring the time histories of at least four acceleration sensors in all three
directions, distributed along the tire circumference, and processing these using an FFT signal
analyzer. Optionally, repeat this step for a second inflation pressure value.
3. Determine the tire radial stiffness on a flat surface and on a short obstacle, for one or two inflation
pressure value(s).
4. Determine (or estimate) the lateral belt curvature radius from the unloaded tire's cross-section.
Determine the belt lateral bending stiffness to get a reasonable pressure distribution in the lateral
direction.
5. Determine (or estimate) tread rubber adhesion and sliding friction coefficients for ground
pressure values 0.5 bar, 2 bar, and 10 bar.
6. Take natural frequencies and damping moduli of modes 1, 2, and 4, together with the radial
stiffness on flat surface and on a cleat, for one or two inflation pressure value(s), as well as the
remaining basic data. These values result in a first, complete FTire input file for the basic variant
(belt circumferential rotation, twisting, and bending not taken in to account; all contact elements
are arranged in one line).
7. Let FTire preprocess these data. Compare the resulting additional modal properties of the model
with the modal data that are not used so far (modes 3, 5, and 6). If necessary, adjust the
preprocessed data to find a compromise with respect to accuracy.
8. If respective measurements are available, validate the data determined so far by means of side
force and aligning torque characteristics, and by measurements of vertical and longitudinal
force variations induced during rolling over cleats both with low and high speed. The validation
can be extended to a full parameter fitting procedure by using TIRE/fit, as mentioned earlier.
9. Estimate the following additional data that are only relevant for 'out-of-plane' excitation:
• Belt element torsional stiffness relative to rim (represented by red torsion springs between
yellow belt elements and gray rim in the figure, Belt)
• Belt twisting stiffness (represented by blue torsion springs between adjacent yellow belt
elements in the figure, Belt)
• Belt bending stiffness/damping about circumferential direction
• Belt lateral curvature radius
• Coupling coefficient between belt lateral displacement and belt rotation.
Start with the respective values of the sample data file. Then, adjust the values by fitting the model's
response to obliquely oriented cleats and handling characteristics for large camber angles at the same
time. This identification procedure can be made easier by using the the additional tool FTire/fit.
10 Adams/Tire
Clearly, the performance of this procedure is not very easy in practice. On the other hand, every tire
model that is accurate enough for ride comfort and durability calculations will need as much or even more
data.
List of FTire Parameters

The following is a comprehensive list of all mandatory and optional FTire parameters. However, many
items are explained in greater detail in the extended documentation to be downloaded from the restricted
area in www.ftire.com. You will receive your pass-code from info@ftire.com.
FTIRE_DATA Section Parameters
The parameter: Means:

tire_section_width Tire section width as specified in the tire size designation (using
length unit as specified in the [UNITS] section).
tire_aspect_ratio Tire aspect ratio as specified in the tire size designation. Unit is %.
rim_diameter Rim diameter as specified in the tire size designation (using length
unit as specified in the [UNITS] section).
rim_width Inner distance between the two rim flanges.
load_index Load index of tire, as displayed in tire service description.
tread_width Width of tread that comes into contact with the road under normal
running conditions at LI load, without camber angle.
rolling_circumference Rolling circumference of tire under the following running
conditions:
• Free rolling at v = 60 km/h and zero camber angle

• Vertically loaded by half of the maximum load
The circumference is the distance traveled with one complete
wheel revolution.
tire_mass Overall tire mass.
inflation_pressure Inflation pressure, at which tire data measurements have been
taken.
inflation_pressure_2 Second inflation pressure, at which tire data measurements have
been taken (optional).
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when it is deflected by 10
mm, with zero camber angle, on a flat surface, during stand-still,
at very low friction value.
11

stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when it is deflected by 20
mm, with zero camber angle, on a flat surface, during stand-still,
at very low friction value.
Note: Instead of using:
stat_wheel_load_at_10mm_defl and
stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl
Note: You can equally define:
stat_wheel_load_at_20mm_defl and
stat_wheel_load_at_40mm_defl.
Note: This will better fit typical operating conditions of truck
tires. For extremely heavy vehicles, there are even more
pairs of deflection values predefined. These can be
found at the extended documentation at www.ftire.com.
dynamical_stiffening Increase of the overall radial stiffness at high speed as compared
to radial stiffness during standstill. Unit is %.
speed_at_half_dyn_stiffening Running speed at which dynamic stiffening reaches half of the
final value.
belt_extension_at_200_kmh Percentage of rolling circumference growth at a running speed of
200 km/h = 55.55 m/s = 124.3 mph, compared to low speed.
interior_volume Interior tire volume when the tire is mounted on the rim and
inflated with inflation_pressure.
Note: This parameter is only needed if you specify the next
parameter (volume_gradient) and it is nonzero.
volume_gradient Relative decrease in volume, of a small tire segment, when that
segment is deflected vertically.
Note: This parameter is optional and only marginally affects
the model’s behavior.
rel_long_belt_memb_tension The percentage by which inflation pressure forces in the belt
region are compensated with membrane tension in longitudinal
direction, as compared to the total compensation in lateral and
longitudinal direction.
Note: This parameter is optional, and can only be calculated
using a finite-element (FE) model, or estimated by
parameter identification. A value of 70 to 80% seems to
be appropriate for many tires. The value will increase
with increasing belt lateral curvature radius.
12 Adams/Tire

f1 First natural frequency: in-plane, rigid-body rotation around
wheel spin axis. Rim is fixed. See the figure, First Six Vibration
Modes.
f2 Second natural frequency: rigid-body movement in fore-aft
direction. Rim is fixed. See the figure, First Six Vibration Modes.
f4 Fourth natural frequency: out-of-plane, rigid-body rotation
around road normal axis. Rim is fixed. See the figure, First Six
Vibration Modes.
Note: f3 (out-of-plane, rigid-body movement) is not needed

because it is closely related to f4.
At least one of:
f5 Fifth natural frequency: first in-plane bending mode
(quadrilateral-shaped). Rim is fixed.
belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn In-plane bending stiffness of the belt ring of deflated and
unloaded tire.
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_clea Static wheel load of the inflated tire, when it is deflected by 10
t mm, with zero camber angle, on a cleat as specified below, during
stand-still. Cleat must be high enough that the tire does not touch
the ground apart from the cleat. The cleat is oriented in the lateral
direction, perpendicular to the tire’s rolling direction.
Note: For truck tires, you can specify
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_ cleat, as well.
weight_f5 If you provide at least two of the data on the previous page to
weight_in_plane_bend_stiffn define the in-plane bending stiffness, they constitute an over-
weight_wheel_load_cleat determined system of equations for the respective FTire's internal
stiffness values. FTire will try to find a compromise. You can
control this compromise by setting these weight values. Their
relative size controls, in a least-squares approach, the contribution
of the respective parameter. If a weight is set to zero, the related
parameter is completely ignored.
Note: The weights are optional. Default value is 1.
cleat_width Width of cleat that was used to determine all parameters that
require a cleat:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cleat
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cl_lo
and so on.
Note: Parameter is optional. Default value is 20 mm.
13

cleat_bevel_edge_width Bevel edge width (measured after projection to x-y-plane) of cleat
that was used to determine all parameters that require a cleat:
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cleat
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_ cl_lo
and so on.
Note: Parameter is optional. Default value is 0 mm.
At least one of:
f6 Sixth natural frequency: first out-of-plane bending mode (banana-
shaped).
belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn Out-of-plane bending stiffness of the belt ring of inflated but
unloaded tire.
weight_f6 If you provide both data above (f6 and
weight_out_of_plane_bend_st belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiff) to define the out-of-plane bending
stiffness, they constitute an over-determined system of equations
for the respective FTire's internal stiffness values. FTire will try to
find a compromise. You can control the compromise by setting
these weight values. Their relative size controls, in a least-squares
approach, the contribution of the respective parameter. If a weight
is set to zero, the related parameter is completely ignored.
D1 Damping of f1, between 0 and 1:
0 = undamped, ..., 1 = aperiodic limit case

D2 Damping of f2.
D4 Damping of f4.
Note: D5 and D6 cannot be prescribed, but result from D1,
D2, and D4.
belt_twist_stiffn Belt-twisting stiffness: if the mean torsion angle relative to the rim
is 0, the value is the moment in longitudinal direction per 1 degree
twist angle for a unit length belt segment. This value is
independent on the number of belt segments.
Note: Only needed for full 3D variant. Unit is
force*length2/angle.
14 Adams/Tire

belt_torsion_stiffn Belt-torsional stiffness: if twist angle is 0, the value is the moment
in longitudinal direction per 1 degree torsion angle relative to rim,
for a unit-length belt segment. This value is independent on the
number of belt segments.
Note: Only needed for full 3D variant.Unit is force/angle.
belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl If belt twist angle is 0, value is the kinematic belt torsion angle at
1 mm lateral belt displacement.
Note: Optional, and only needed for full 3D variant. Unit is
angle/length. Default value is 0.
belt_lat_curvature_radius Curvature radius of belt cross section perpendicular to mid-plane.
Note: Optional, and only needed for full 3D variant. Default
value is (nearly) infinity.
belt_lat_bend_stiffn Bending stiffness of belt elements about circumferential direction.
force*length2. Default value is (nearly) infinity.
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_lo_c Wheel load at 10 mm deflection on longitudinal cleat. Static
l wheel load of the inflated tire, when it is deflected by 10 mm, with
zero camber angle, on a cleat as specified above, during stand-
still. Cleat must be high enough that the tire does not touch the
ground apart from the cleat. The cleat is oriented in longitudinal
direction, along foot-print centerline.
Note: This parameter is optional and you can specify it instead
of, or in addition to, belt_lat_bend_stiffn. For truck
tires, if you specify wheel_load_at_40_mm, FTire looks
for wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_ lo_cl instead.
weight_lat_bend_st If you provide both data on the previous page
weight_wheel_load_lo_cl (belt_lat_bend_stiffn and wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_lo_cl) to
define the lateral belt bending stiffness, they constitute an over-
determined system of equations for the respective FTire's internal
stiffness values. FTire will try to find a compromise. You can
control the compromise by setting these weight values. Their
relative size controls, in a least-squares approach, the contribution
of the related parameter. If a weight is set to zero, the respective
parameter is completely ignored.
belt_lat_bend_damp Quotient of bending damping and bending stiffness of belt
elements about circumferential direction.
time. Default value is 1 ms.
15

f1_p2 If measurements for a second inflation pressure
f2_p2 (inflation_pressure_2) are available, these are the respective
f4_p2 values of the following taken at that pressure:
f5_p2
• f1
f6_p2
D1_p2 • f2
D2_p2 • f4
D4_p2
• f5
belt_in_plane_bend_st_p2
wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cl_p • f6
2 • D1
wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cl_p
• D2
2
belt_out_of_plane_bend_st_p2 • D4
belt_lat_bend_stiffn_p2 • belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn
belt_twist_st_p2
• wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl_cleat
belt_torsion_st_p2
• wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl_cleat
• belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn
• belt_lat_bend_stiffn
• belt_twist_stiffn
• belt_torsion_stiffn
Note: These data are optional.
tread_depth Mean groove depth in tread.
tread_base_height Rubber height over steel belt for zero tread depth, which is the
distance between steel belt and grooves.
stiffness_tread_rubber Stiffness of tread rubber in Shore-A units.
tread_positive Percentage of gross tread contact area with respect to overall
footprint area (tread pattern positive).
damping_tread_rubber Quotient of tread rubber damping modulus and tread rubber
elasticity modulus.
Note: Deflection/force phase-lag of elastomers is often
assumed to be independent of excitation frequency. This
behavior is not yet implemented in FTire; instead,
viscous damping is used. The parameter
damping_tread_rubber is nothing but the quotient of
damper coefficient and spring stiffness of the coupling
of blocks and belt. For that reason, the parameter carries
the unit time.
sliding_velocity The sliding velocity of a tread rubber block, when its friction
coefficient reaches the my_sliding values.
16 Adams/Tire

blocking_velocity The sliding velocity of a tread rubber block, when its friction
coefficient reaches the my_blocking values.
low_ground_pressure The first of three ground-pressure values that defines the pressure
dependency of the friction coefficient. Default value is 0.1 bar.
med_ground_pressure The second of three ground-pressure values that defines the
pressure dependency of the friction coefficient. Default value is 2
bar.
high_ground_pressure The third of three ground-pressure values that defines the pressure
dependency of the friction coefficient. Default value is 10 bar.
my_adhesion_at_low_p Coefficient of adhesion friction (which is equal to static friction)
between tread rubber and road, at first ground pressure value.
Note: For this parameter and the parameters in the following
eight rows, you can still use the parameter names
my_..._at_..._bar, used in the previous FTire version. To
avoid confusion with the actual ground pressure values,
however, we recommend you use the more general
names.
my_sliding_at_low_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding velocity defined by
parameter sliding_velocity, between tread rubber and road, at first
ground pressure value.
my_blocking_at_low_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding velocity defined by
parameter blocking_velocity, between tread rubber and road, at
first ground pressure value.
my_adhesion_at_med_p Coefficient of adhesion friction (which is equal to static friction)
between tread rubber and road, at second ground pressure value.
my_sliding_at_med_p Coefficient of sliding friction, at a sliding velocity defined by
parameter sliding_velocity, between tread rubber and road, at
second ground pressure value.
static_balance_weight Weight that would have put up on the rim horn for static
balancing.
Note: Parameter is optional.
static_balance_ang_position The angular position at the rim where the static balance weight
would have been placed.
dynamic_balance_weight One of the two equal weights that would have been placed on the
rim outer and inner horns for dynamic balancing.
17

dynamic_balance_ang_position The angular position at the rim where the left dynamic balance
weight would have been placed.
Note: This parameter is optional.
radial_non_uniformity Amplitude of the harmonic radial stiffness variation as percentage
of the mean radial stiffness.
radial_non_unif_ang_position Angular position where radial stiffness reaches its maximum.
Note: This parameter is optional.
tang_non_uniformity Amplitude of the harmonic tangential stiffness variation as
percentage of the mean tangential stiffness.
tang_non_unif_ang_position Angular position where tangential stiffness reaches its maximum.
conicity Small rotation angle of belt elements at zero moment, about
circumferential axis, resulting in a conical shape of the unloaded
belt.
Note: Parameter is optional and can only be used with the full
3D variant. Nonzero conicity will cause a small side-
force without side-slip angle. The sign of that force is
independent of the tire’s rolling direction.
ply_steer_percentage Percentage of lateral belt displacement relative to radial belt
displacement, when a radial force is applied.
Note: Ply-steer, besides conicity, is one of the reasons for
nonzero side forces at zero side-slip angle. In contrast to
the conicity side-force, this residual side force changes
sign when the tire rolling direction is reversed.
run_out The maximum deviation of the local tire radius from the mean tire
radius. Run-out is assumed to be a harmonic function of the
angular position.
run_out_ang_position The angular belt element position relative to the rim, where
maximum run-out occurs.
number_belt_segments Number of numerical belt segments. Maximum value is 200, but
can be changed upon request.
number_blocks_per_belt_segm Number of numerical blocks (= contact elements) per belt
segment. Maximum value is 50, but can be changed upon request.
18 Adams/Tire

number_tread_strips Number of strips, into which the contact points are arranged in the
full 3D variant, using an equal spacing.
Note: If value is greater than or equal to 1000, the contact
points are scattered randomly over the tread.
Alternatively, it is possible to place tread elements
according to the actual tread pattern of the tire. This is
done by specifying a bitmap file of the footprint. For
more information, see the extended documentation at
www.ftire.com.
If you specify neither number_tread_strips nor the

bitmap file, FTire uses the basic FTire variant instead of
the full 3D variant, regardless of the model-level
specification in the operating_conditions section.
maximum_time_step Maximum integration time step allowed.
Note: You can call FTire with very large time steps (if this
makes sense for your model). Internally, FTire uses
multi-step integration with an internal time step that is
chosen on basis of maximum_time_step. This internal
time step is kept constant if the external time step does
not change.
Changing the external time step can result in

considerable longer computation time, because certain
time-consuming preprocessing calculations have to be
repeated. For that reason, you should avoid changing
the external time step whenever possible.
BDF_parameter Numerical parameter to control the internal FTire implicit (BDF)
integration scheme, which is independent of the Adams
integrator.
• 0 = Euler explicit
• 0.5 = Trapezoidal rule
• 1 = Euler implicit
Theoretically, every value between 0 and 1 are allowed. 0.505 or
greater is recommended.
About the FTire Tire Data File

As with all TeimOrbit files, entries in the [UNITS] block define the physical units of all parameters.
The basic parameters are preprocessed during initialization, resulting in the preprocessed parameters.
These parameters are saved in a separate TeimOrbit-style file, which can be used in further simulations
instead of the basic data file. By this, you can omit the preprocessing calculation phase, which may result
in a considerable saving of time.
19
This preprocessed data file is a copy of the original one; the preprocessed data are appended after the
bottom line, using a hexadecimal, space-saving coding. In contrast to earlier versions of FTire, it is
possible to use this file for parameter changes instead of the original one.
You should, of course, not change the hexadecimal data but only the readable part of the file. The
hexadecimal section does not only contain the preprocessed data, but a copy of the original one, as well.
Moreover, it carries coded information about the FTire version that was used for creation.
This information helps to automatically determine whether or not an update of the preprocessed data is
required. This means that whenever you change some basic data or you download a new FTire version,
preprocessing will be repeated automatically, and the preprocessed data file saved in your current
working directory. You can (and should) replace the FTire data file in your database with this one, without
any loss of information.
From www.ftire.com, you can download a tool (being a member of FTire/tools) to carry out preprocessing
outside of Adams.
The FTire interface routine automatically recognizes whether several wheels of the car share the same
basic data file. In that case, preprocessing is done only once for all these files. Also, FTire automatically
recognizes whether the data file contains basic parameters or pre-processed ones.
FTire does not use the data in the section [VERTICAL]. It is only included for compatibility with other
tire models. It is recommended that you set Vertical_Stiffness to the value of
stat_wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl, after dividing by 10 mm. For Vertical_Damping, choose 0 (or a small
nonzero value). The actual vertical damping of FTire is not just one single value, but will depend on
rolling speed, inflation pressure, load, camber, and so on.
The following is an examples of a basic FTire data file. Note that by far not all possible data are defined.
For examples, only data for one inflation pressure are provided.
$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'tir'
FILE_VERSION = 4.0
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire Manufacturer - unknown'
'Tire Type - unknown'
'Tire Dimension - 195/65 R 15'
'Pressure - 2.0 bar'
'File Generation Date - 03/03/11 10:32'
$-------------------------------------------------------------SHAPE
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0 0.0
1.0 0.4
1.0 0.9
0.9 1.0
$-------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
FORCE = 'NEWTON'
20 Adams/Tire
MASS = 'GRAM'
LENGTH = 'MM'
TIME = 'MILLISECOND'
ANGLE = 'DEGREE'
$---------------------------------------------------------DIMENSION
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = 326.0 $ [mm]
$----------------------------------------------------------VERTICAL
[VERTICAL]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = 170.0 $ [N/mm]
VERTICAL_DAMPING = 0.0 $ [Nms/mm]
$-------------------------------------------------------------MODEL
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'FTIRE' $
separate_animation = 0 $ [0/1]
additional_output_file = 0 $ [0/1]
verbose = 0 $ [0/1]
$----------------------------------------------OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
inflation_pressure = 2.0 $ [bar]
tread_depth = 8.0 $ [m]
model_level = 7 $ [-]
$---------------------------------------------------------PARAMETER
[FTIRE_DATA]
$basic data and geometry *******************************************
tire_section_width = 195 $ [mm]
tire_aspect_ratio = 65 $ [%]
rim_diameter = 381 $ [mm]
rim_width = 152.4 $ [mm]
load_index = 91 $ [-]
rolling_circumference = 1975 $ [mm]
tread_lat_curvature_radius = 800 $ [mm]
tread_width = 160 $ [mm]
tire_mass = 9000 $ [g]
interior_volume = 0.03e9 $ [mm^3]
volume_gradient = 1.0 $ [%/mm]
belt_torsion_lat_displ_coupl = 0.0 $ [deg/mm]
$
$static and modal data for 1st infl. pressure ***********************
stat_wheel_load_at_10_mm_defl = 1690 $ [N]
stat_wheel_load_at_20_mm_defl = 3600 $ [N]
dynamic_stiffening = 20 $ [%]
speed_at_half_dyn_stiffening = 5.55 $ [mm/ms]=[m/s]
radial_hysteretic_stiffening = 0 $ [%]
radial_hysteresis_force = 0 $ [N]
tang_hysteretic_stiffening = 0 $ [%]
tang_hysteresis_force = 0 $ [N]
belt_extension_at_200_kmh = 1.0 $ [%]
rel_long_belt_memb_tension = 82.0 $ [%]
$
f1 = 62.1 $ in-plane rotat. [Hz]
f2 = 81.4 $ in-plane transl. [Hz]
f4 = 80.0 $ out-of-plane rotat. [Hz]
$
21
D1 = 0.05 $ in-plane rotat. [-]

D2 = 0.08 $ in-plane transl. [-]
D4 = 0.05 $ out-of-plane rotat. [-]
$
belt_in_plane_bend_stiffn = 2.0e6 $ [Nmm^2]
belt_out_of_plane_bend_stiffn = 200.0e6 $ [Nmm^2]
belt_lat_bend_stiffn = 20.0e6 $ [Nmm^2]
belt_twist_stiffn = 1.0e6 $ [Nmm^2/deg]
belt_torsion_stiffn = 100.0 $ [N/deg]
$
rim_flange_contact_stiffness = 3000.0 $ [N/mm]
rim_to_flat_tire_distance = 30.0 $ [mm]
$
$tread properties **************************************************
tread_depth = 8.0 $ [mm]
tread_base_height = 3.0 $ [mm]
stiffness_tread_rubber = 64 $ [Shore A]
tread_positive = 65 $ [%]
damping_tread_rubber = 0.025 $
[ms]
$
sliding_velocity = 0.1 $ [mm/ms]
blocking_velocity = 50.0 $ [mm/ms]
low_ground_pressure = 0.01 $ [bar]
med_ground_pressure = 2.0 $ [bar]
high_ground_pressure = 10.0 $ [bar]
mu_adhesion_at_low_p = 1.3 $ [-]
mu_sliding_at_low_p = 1.1 $ [-]
mu_blocking_at_low_p = 0.8 $ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_med_p = 1.3 $ [-]
mu_sliding_at_med_p = 1.0 $ [-]
mu_blocking_at_med_p = 0.8 $ [-]
mu_adhesion_at_high_p = 1.3 $ [-]
mu_sliding_at_high_p = 1.0 $ [-]
mu_blocking_at_high_p = 0.8 $ [-]
$
$tire imperfections ************************************************
static_balance_weight = 0.0 $ [g]
static_balance_ang_position = 0.0 $ [deg]
dynamic_balance_weight = 0.0 $ [g]
dynamic_balance_ang_position = 0.0 $ [deg]
radial_non_uniformity = 0.0 $ [%]
radial_non_unif_ang_position = 0.0 $ [deg]
tang_non_uniformity = 0.0 $ [%]
tang_non_unif_ang_position = 0.0 $ [deg]
ply_steer_percentage = 0.0 $ [%]
conicity = 0.0 $ [deg]
run_out = 0.0 $ [mm]
run_out_angular_position = 0.0 $ [deg]
$
$measuring conditions **********************************************
inflation_pressure = 2.0 $ [bar]
rim_inertia = 0.25e9 $ [g*mm^2]
$
22 Adams/Tire
$numerical data ****************************************************

number_belt_segments = 80 $
number_blocks_per_belt_segm = 32 $
number_tread_strips = 8 $
maximum_time_step = 0.2 $ [ms]
BDF_parameter = 0.505 $ 0.5 .. 1.0 [-]
Choosing FTire Operating Conditions

You can control certain tire data during a simulation, without rerunning preprocessing. These parameters,
listed below, are called operating condition parameters:
• Inflation pressure - The operating condition value of inflation_pressure defines the actual,
possibly time-dependent inflation pressure, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the
inflation pressure at which the remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
• Tread depth -The operating condition value of tread_depth defines the actual, possibly time-
dependent tread depth, whereas the [FTIRE_DATA] value describes the tread depth at which the
remainder of the data measurements had been taken.
• Model level - The operating condition value of model_level defines what variant of FTire is to
be used: the basic version (=6) or the full 3D version (=7). The list of possible variants will be
extended in the next release.
Also in the next FTire release, ambient temperature, will be added to the list of operating conditions.
To determine the actual operating conditions, FTire looks for the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
in the basic or preprocessed tire data file. If it does not find this section, or it does not contain the
respective definitions, FTire uses the data in the sections [FTIRE_DATA] or
[FTIRE_PREPROCESSED_DATA] as the measurement conditions.
In case the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS] is defined, FTire first tries to read a constant value
for each operating condition. This value may either be the same for all tires using the data file, or it can
have individual values for each such tire instance.
You can enter constant operating conditions as shown the table below.
OPERATING_CONDITIONS Section Parameters

inflation_pressure Actual inflation pressure, used for all FTire instances that are
parameterized by this data file.
inflation_pressure_wheel_i Actual inflation pressure, used only for FTire instance with GFORCE
ID i. This value overrides the inflation_pressure value (i is to be
replaced by a numerical GFORCE ID value of the tire instance).
tread_depth Actual tread depth, used for all FTire instances that are parameterized
by this data file.
23

tread_depth_wheel_i Actual tread depth, used only for FTire instance with GFORCE ID i.
This value overrides the tread_depth value (i is to be replaced by the
numerical GFORCE ID value of the tire instance).
model_level Actual model level, used for all FTire instances that are parameterized
by this data file. In the current release, the following model levels are
implemented:
• 6: FTire basic version (three degrees of freedom for each belt
element, one line of contact elements.
• 7: FTire full 3D version (five generalized degrees of freedom
for each belt element, several lines of, or irregularly scattered,
contact elements).
model_level_wheel_i Actual model level, used for FTire instance with GFORCE ID i. This
value will override the model_level value (’i’ is to be replaced by the
numerical GFORCE ID value of the tire instance).
If no constant value is found, FTire looks for a table that is defining data points for operating condition
versus time. These data points then will be piecewise linearly interpolated with respect to simulation
time.
You enter such look-up tables as subsections of the section [OPERATING_CONDITIONS]. These
subsections can each contain up to 200 data pairs, one pair per line. Every data pair consists of a value
for time and a corresponding value for the operating condition. Units are the same as for constant values.
Similarly as for constant values, tables which are valid for all tires, or individual tables for each instance
are allowed.
The names of these table subsections, with obvious meanings, are:
• (TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE)
• (TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_ i)
• (TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
• (TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH_WHEEL_ i)
• (TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL)
• (TIME_TABLE_MODEL_LEVEL_WHEEL_ i)
The following examples defines a sudden pressure loss (between 5 and 5.2 s of simulation time) in tire
with GFORCE ID 2. In addition, it specifies constant inflation pressure (2.2 bar) for the other tires, and
a certain, equal and constant extreme tread wear (0.1 mm every100 s) for all tires. Model level is chosen
to be the full 3D variant for all tires at any time:
$-----------------------------------------------OPERATING_CONDITIONS
[OPERATING_CONDITIONS]
24 Adams/Tire
MODEL_LEVEL = 7
INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_1 = 2.2
(TIME_TABLE_TREAD_DEPTH)
0 8.0
100 7.9
(TIME_TABLE_INFLATION_PRESSURE_WHEEL_2)
0 2.2
5 2.2
5.2 1.2
Note: If you use the preprocessed data file in subsequent simulations, don't forget to copy the
[operating_conditions] section from the basic data file manually into the preprocessed data
file. This is not done automatically, because tire operating conditions are not considered to
be part of the tire data.
Using Aircraft Tire Models
Tire Input and Output

For tire input and output data, the tire axis systems and sign conventions are identical to those described
in About Axis Systems and Sign Conventions, in Learning Adams/Tire. Tire output descriptions are also
included.
Internal Force Computations and Equation Descriptions

However, all "internal" force computations (and documentation descriptions of the force computations)
are based upon a coordinate system that is identical to that defined by the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE).
From the tire spin axis vector, the tire geometric center location and velocity, and the knowledge of the
local road element location and orientation, the SAE tire coordinate system may be defined. This is a
right-handed orthogonal triad with the origin located at the center of the tire/road contact patch. For a
graphical representation of this coordinate system, see the Figure 1. Note that this coordinate system is
determined jointly by the wheel orientation and the road. A wheel, by itself, does not contain enough
information to define this coordinate system.
The definitions that follow the Figure 1, SAE Tire Coordinate System are based on the SAE document
"Vehicle Dynamics Terminology" (Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc., "Vehicle Dynamics
Terminology SAE J670e," [1978]).
2 Adams/Tire
Figure 1 SAE Tire Coordinate System

About Axis Systems and Sign Conventions 3
Symbol Description
 Slip Angle. The angle formed between the direction of travel of the tire contact patch
center and the x'-axis.  is positive if the wheel travel direction has a component in
the +y'-direction. This produces a negative Lateral force (Fy). Note that the steer
angle, or the vehicle attitude angle, plays no part in defining the slip angle.
 Inclination Angle. The angle formed between the x'-z' plane and the wheel plane.
Inclination angle is positive if the wheel plane has a component lying in the +y'-
direction.
Fx Longitudinal Force. The x'-component of the resultant force acting on the tire by the
road.
Fy Lateral Force. The y'-component of the resultant force acting on the tire by the road.
Lateral Force may be produced by slip angle, inclination angle, conicity, plysteer, or
any combination of the above.
Fz Normal Force. The z'-component of the resultant force acting on the tire by the road.
The direction of this force is up, but this nomenclature requires that Fz be negative
whenever the tire is in contact with the road, as the positive z'-axis is directed
downward.
Mx Overturning Moment. The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting on the
tire by the road with respect to the x'-axis.
My Rolling Resistance Moment. The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting
on the tire by the road with respect to the y'-axis.
Mz Aligning Torque. The moment of the forces at the contact patch acting on the tire by
the road with respect to the z'-axis.
Spin Axis The axis about which the wheel rotates. Perpendicular to the Wheel Plane, not
necessarily about the y'-axis (only if inclination angle is zero).
Spin Velocity The angular velocity of the wheel on which the tire is mounted, about its spin axis.
( )
T Wheel Torque. The external torque applied from the vehicle about the spin axis of
the wheel.
Vertical Load The normal reaction of the tire on the road which is equal to the negative of Normal
Force. This is always a positive quantity when the tire is in contact with the road,
otherwise it is zero.
Wheel Plane The central plane of the tire and wheel, normal to the wheel spin axis.
+x' Direction of wheel heading along ground. The intersection of the wheel plane and
the road plane in the neighborhood of the Tire Axis System origin. This is not the
same as the direction in which the wheel is traveling. If the tire reverses its direction,
the axis system flips 180 degrees about the z'-axis.
4 Adams/Tire
Symbol Description
+y' To the right along the ground, as viewed from behind a forward rolling tire. Chosen
to be Right-Hand Orthogonal to the definitions of x' and z'.
+z' Perpendicular to the road in the neighborhood of the Tire Axis System origin with
positive direction down. (If the road is flat and in the x-y plane, this is negative
Global Z.)
Tire Packages
The following table summarizes the capabilities associated with the Adams tire packages:
Table 1 Adams Tire Packages
Tire Available Road Available Road Available Tire

Package: Types: Contact Models: Force Models: Comments:
Aircraft Basic Adams/Tire 2-D 2-D Point-Follower • Fiala • Aircraft-specific adjustments to
Tire • Interface for user- force models
written models • Basic slip lag
• Valid for road obstacle
wavelengths > tire circumference
and frequencies < 8 Hz
• Wheel bottoming
Aircraft • Adams/Tire 2-D • 2-D Point- • Fiala & UATire • Aircraft-specific adjustments to
Handling Tire • Adams/Tire 3-D Follower • NASA TR-R-64 force models
• 3-D Equivalent- • Interface for user- • Tire Moment adjustments due to
Volume written models theoretical contact patch
• 3-D Road (Smooth movement
Road) • Smiley N=1 slip lag
• Valid for road obstacle
wavelengths > tire circumference
and frequencies < 8 Hz
• Wheel bottoming
Tire Packages 5
Tire Available Road Available Road Available Tire

Package: Types: Contact Models: Force Models: Comments:
Adams/Tire • Adams/Tire 2-D • 2-D Point- • Fiala & UATire • Valid for road obstacle
Handling • Adams/Tire 3-D Follower • Pacejka* '89 wavelengths > tire circumference
• 3-D Road Contact and frequencies < 8 Hz.
• Pacejka* '94
(Equivalent - • PAC2002 offers advanced tire
Volume)(except • Pacejka* 2002 spin-up modeling and is more
5.1.2) • Pacejka TIME suitable for shimmy analysis then
• 3-D Road (Smooth • Interface for user- the other Adams/(Aircraft)Tire
Road) written models Handling. In addition, it enhances
tire parking and scrubbing effects.
FTire • Adams/Tire 2-D • 2-D Point- Flexible ring with Valid for road obstacle wavelengths
• Adams/Tire 3-D Follower physical friction < tire circumference and frequencies
• 3-D Road Contact modeling up to 120 Hz and beyond.
(Equivalent -
FTire enhances modeling of short
Volume)
wavelength road obstacles, inflation
• 3-D Road (Smooth pressure changes, parking and
Road) scrubbing effects, handling, and so
on.
*The formulas used in the Pacejka’89, ’94 and 2002 tire models are derived from publications by Dr.
H.B. Pacejka, and are commonly referred to as the Pacejka method in the automotive industry. Dr.
Pacejka himself is not personally associated with the development of these tire models, nor does he
endorse them in any way.
To perform most aircraft simulations in Adams, the Aircraft Basic Tire package is required, at a
minimum, and is already included with Adams/Tire. The PAC2002 model can be of interest for more
accurate parking and scrubbing effects at low speeds and short turning radii, while its more accurate
dynamic tire modeling offers better tire response for spinning-up and shimmy analyses. FTire can handle
all high-frequency tire response and driving over short wavelength obstacles (shorter then the tire
circumference). It can deal with inflation pressure changes and requires a more physical parameter input.
6 Adams/Tire
Which Tire Model Should You Use?

Each tire model is valid in a specific area. Using a tire model outside this area can result in non-realistic
analysis results. The figure below shows the best tire model(s) to use for a number of applications.
Using the Aircraft Basic Tire Model 7
In general, the Aircraft Tire models are valid on rather smooth roads only: the wavelength of road
obstacles should not be smaller than the tire circumference. If the wavelengths are shorter, you should
use the FTire model to cope with the non-linear tire enveloping effects.
The Aircraft Tire models can describe the first-order response of a tire, but do not take the
eigenfrequencies of the tire itself into account. Therefore, these tire models are valid up to approximately
8 Hz. PAC2002 is valid up to approximately 15Hz. Beyond that, a tire model should be used, including
modeling the tire belt, as FTire does.
Using the Aircraft Basic Tire Model

The Aircraft Basic Tire Model is comprised of the Adams/Tire Fiala tire model, with modifications that
are necessary for aircraft landing gear analysis.
This section contains information for using the Aircraft Basic Tire Model:
• Overview
• Road Models and Road Contact Methods
• Wheel Bottoming
• Handling Forces of Road on Tire
Overview
Assumptions
• Single contact point with the road profile.
• Disk representation of wheel and tire.
• No lateral, longitudinal, and twist deformation effects on tire center moments.
• First-order lag on longitudinal and lateral slip.
Inputs
The inputs to the Aircraft Basic Tire Model come from two sources:
references.
• Tire states, given through the tire interface with the solver, such as slip angle (  ).
The following table summarizes the input data from the tire property file (.tir) that the Aircraft Basic Tire
Model requires.
8 Adams/Tire
Table 2 Aircraft Basic Tire Model Input Data
[UNITS] block: LENGTH Units of length for all tire property file values that involve
length units.
Valid entries: 'inch', 'cm', 'centimeter', 'foot', 'ft', 'kilometer',

'km', 'm', 'meter', 'mile', 'millimeter', 'mm'.
[UNITS] block: FORCE Units of force for all tire property file values that involve force
units.
Valid entries: 'dyne', 'kg_force', 'kilogram_force', 'knewton',

'kpound_force', 'lbf', 'millinewton', 'newton', 'ounce_force',
'pound_force'.
[UNITS] block: MASS Units of mass for all tire property file values that involve mass
units.
Valid entries: 'gram', 'kg', 'kilogram', 'kpound_mass', 'lbm',

'megagram', 'ounce_mass', 'pound_mass', 'slug'.
[UNITS] block: ANGLE Units of angle for all tire property file values that involve
angle units.
Valid entries: 'am', 'angular_minutes', 'angular_seconds', 'as',

'degree', 'degrees', 'deg', 'radian', 'radians', 'rad'.
[UNITS] block: TIME Units of time for all tire property file values that involve time
units.
Valid entries: 'hour', 'millisecond', 'ms', 'minute', 'second', 'sec'.

PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT Must be 'AIR_BASIC'.
FUNCTION_NAME Must be 'TYR1500'.
HANDLING_MODE 1 = don't compute handling forces (zero)
2 = Fiala-based handling force computations
See Handling Forces of Road on Tire.

FRICTION_MODE 1 = slip ratio-based friction coeff. model
2 = slip velocity-based friction coeff model A
3 = slip velocity-based friction coeff model B
4 = user-input custom Mu versus slip ratio
See Friction Models.

UNLOADED RADIUS Tire's outer radius under zero loading. (Units: length.)
Overview 9
WIDTH Tire's maximum undeflected (or unloaded) width. In simple
geometry graphics, WIDTH represents the tread width, for
visualization purposes only. In computations, however,
WIDTH represents the tire's maximum undeflected width.
(Units: length.)
ASPECT_RATIO Ratio of "rim-to-tread distance" to WIDTH. Used only for tire
geometry graphics. (Units: none.)
BOTTOMING_RADIUS Wheel bottoming radius. (Units: length.)
(optional)
See Wheel Bottoming.
VERTICAL_DAMPING Vertical tire damping force coefficient. (Units:
force/(length/time).)
See Normal Force of Road on Tire.

RELAXATION_LENGTH Relaxation length. (Units: length.)
See Lagged Longitudinal and Lateral Slip Quantities (transient

tire behaviour).
LOW_SPEED_DAMPING The low speed damping rate when transient tire modelling is
(optional) used (relaxation length not equal to zero). (Units: none.)

tire behaviour).
LOW_SPEED_THRESHOLD The speed below which the low speed damping will be
(optional) applied. (Units: length/time.) If not specified in the tire
property file the value for this parameter is 4 m/s.

tire behaviour).
ROLLING_RESISTANCE Rolling resistance moment coefficient, which represents the
longitudinal shift in the vertical center of pressure, during pure
rolling. (Units: length.)
See Rolling Resistance Moment.

CSLIP Tire’s longitudinal stiffness, partial derivative of longitudinal
force (Fx) with respect to longitudinal slip ratio (S) at zero
longitudinal slip. (Units: force/(non-dimensional slip ratio).)
CALPHA Tire's cornering stiffness. Partial derivative of lateral force
(Fy) with respect to slip angle (  ) at zero slip angle. (Units:
force/angle.)
10 Adams/Tire
UMAX Coefficient of friction at zero slip. (Units: none.)

UMIN Coefficient of friction when tire is sliding. Not used if
FRICTION_MODE = 2. (Units: none.)

V_UREF Reference velocity for friction coefficient determination. Used
only if FRICTION_MODE = 2 or 3. (Units: length/time.)

RR_DEFL_FACTOR Factor used in the calculation of unbraked, unyawed tire
rolling radius. (Units: none.)
See Effective Unbraked Rolling Radius.

[AIR_CURVE] block: pen Column of tire/road penetration (deflection) values,
corresponding to the adjacent tire radial force value. (Units:
length.)
[AIR_CURVE] block: fz Column of tire radial force values, corresponding to the
adjacent tire/road penetration (deflection) value. (Units:
force.)
[SHAPE] block: radial Column of tire radial scale values, corresponding to the
(optional) adjacent tire width station value. This value is multiplied with
UNLOADED RADIUS. (Units: none.)
See Tire Carcass Shape.

[SHAPE] block: width Column of tire width station values, corresponding to the
(optional) adjacent radial scale value. 0.0 represents the tire centerline
tread station and 1.0 represents the outermost tire tread station.
Symmetry about the tire centerline is assumed. (Units: none.)

[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block: pen Column of rim/road penetration (deflection) values,
(optional) corresponding to the adjacent rim radial force value. (Units:
length.)

[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block: fz Column of rim radial force values, corresponding to the
(optional) adjacent rim/road penetration (deflection) value. (Units:
force.)

Road Models and Road Contact Methods 11
Tire Property File Format Example

The following file, located in the shared database, is an example of the Aircraft Basic Tire Model tire
property file:
install_dir/aircraft/shared_aircraft_database.cdb/tires.tbl/AA_l
arge_basic.tir
where install_dir represents the location of the Adams installation directory.
Road Models and Road Contact Methods

The Aircraft tire model uses the following contact methods depending on the road model chosen:
Table 3 Contact Methods Uses
The road model: Uses the contact method:

2D Point-follower
3D Equivalent-volume

expected longitudinal force. In general, the point-follower method is valid for rather smooth roads (road
obstacle wavelengths > tire circumference) only.
For more information about 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
About the Equivalent-Volume Method

The equivalent-volume method determines an equivalent contact point and vertical deflection from the
volume of intersection of the tire carcass with the road. The equivalent-volume method assumes the tire
carcass is a cylinder, unless you input the tire carcass cross section in the [SHAPE] table of the tire
property file. Triangular facets describe the road surface.
For more information about 3D roads, see Adams/3D Spline Road Model.
Tire Carcass Shape

block. The 3D-contact, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when calculating the tire-to-
road volume of interference. To learn more about this topic, see Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model. If you
12 Adams/Tire
omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass cross-section defaults to the rectangle
that the tire radius and width define.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the sidewall.
Wheel Bottoming
You can optionally supply a wheel bottoming deflection - load curve in the tire property file in the
[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block. If the deflection of the wheel is so large that the rim will be hit (defined
by the BOTTOMING_RADIUS parameter in the [DIMENSION] section of the tire property file), the
tire vertical load will be increased according to the load curve defined in this section.
Note: The rim-to-road contact algorithm is a simple penetration method (such as the 2D contact)
based upon the tire-to-road contact calculation, which is strictly valid only for rather
smooth road surfaces (the length of obstacles should have a wavelength longer than the tire
circumference). The rim-to-road contact algorithm is not based on the 3D volume
penetration method, but can be used in combination with the 3D Contact (that takes into
account the volume penetration of the tire itself). If you omit the [BOTTOMING_CURVE]
block from a tire property file, no force due to rim road contact will be added to the tire
vertical force.
Wheel Bottoming 13
The BOTTOMING_RADIUS may be chosen larger than the rim radius to account for the tire's material
left in between the rim and the road, while the bottoming load-deflection curve may be adjusted for the
change in stiffness.
If (Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom) - ½ width · | tan(  ) |) < 0 the left or right side of the rim has contact with the
road. Then the rim deflection Penrim can be calculated with:
•  = max(0 , ½width · | tan(  ) | ) + Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom) )

2
• Penrim=  /(2 · width · | tan(  ) |)
• Srim= ½width - max(width ,  | tan(  ) |)/3
with Srim the lateral offset of the force with respect to the wheel plane.
If the full rim has contact with the road, the rim deflection is
14 Adams/Tire
• Penrim = Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottum)
• Srim= width2 · | tan(  ) | · /(12· Penrim)
in the calculation for Fx, Fy, My and Mz. The Fzrim will only contribute to the overtuning moment Mx
using the Fzrim· Srim.
Note: Rtire is equal to the unloaded tire radius, Pentire is similar to effpen.

Fz = min (0.0, {Fzk + Fzc}) + min (0.0, Fzrim)
where:
• Fzk is the normal force due to the tire radial load-deflection curve
• Fzk = - f (effpen, tire load-deflection spline)
• Fzc = - VERTICAL_DAMPING x Vpen
• Fzrim is the normal force due to bottoming of the wheel
The normal penetration (effpen, or ) and penetration velocity (Vpen) are obtained from the appropriate
road contact model.
Handling Forces of Road on Tire

The following topics are included:
• Basic Tire Kinematics
• Zero Handling Force Model
• Fiala Handling Force Model — Basic Tire
• Force Reducer
Handling Forces of Road on Tire 15
Basic Tire Kinematics

All tire kinematic values are in the tire contact patch (SAE) reference system.
Figure 2 Unbraked, Unyawed, Effective Rolling Radius
Unloaded (and Ungrown) Radius

Ro = UNLOADED_RADIUS
Geometric Deflected Radius

R = UNLOADED_RADIUS - (effpen)
Effective Unbraked Rolling Radius

Re,o = UNLOADED_RADIUS - (effpen x RR_DEFL_FACTOR)
And RR_DEFL_FACTOR is usually set to 1/3.
Wheel Carrier Translational Velocity

Vx, Vy, Vz
Total Rotational Velocity of Spinning Tire and Rotating Wheel Carrier


16 Adams/Tire
Contact Patch Rubber Velocity

Vxc = X-component of    R e o 
where R e o is the vertical radius vector of the scalar Re,o.
Vyc = Y-component of   R
where R is the vertical radius vector of the scalar R.
Contact Patch Rubber Slip (or Scrub) Velocity

Vsx = Vx + Vxc
Vsy = Vy + Vyc
Figure 3 Slip Quantities at Combined Cornering and Braking/Traction
V sx = V x –  R e
V sy = V y
V sx
 = --------
Vx
V sy
tan  = --------
Vr
Vr = Re 
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 45 deg and the longitudinal slip S s  =  
in between -1 (locked wheel) and 1.
Lagged Longitudinal and Lateral Slip Quantities (transient tire behaviour)

In general, the tire rotational speed and lateral slip will change continuously due to the changing
interaction forces between the tire and the road. Often, the tire dynamic response will have an important
role on the overall vehicle response. For modeling the transient tire behavior, a first-order system is used
both for the longitudinal slip  as the side slip angle,  . Considering the tire belt as a stretched string,
which is supported to the rim with lateral spring, the lateral deflection of the belt can be estimated (see
H.B. Pacejka, Tyre and Vehicle Dynamics, 2002, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0 7506 5141 5). The
following figure shows a top-view of the string model.
Figure 4 Stretched String Model for Transient Tire Behavior
When rolling, the first point that has contact with the road adheres to the road (no sliding assumed).
Therefore, a lateral deflection of the string forms that depends on the slip angle size and the history of
the lateral deflection of previous points that had contact with the road.
1 dv v1
-------1- + ------
----- = tan    + a 
V x dt  
18 Adams/Tire
dv 1
  -------- + V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
A similar approach yields the following for the deflection of the string in the longitudinal direction:
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, ' , and ' , are defined based on the tire deformation:
U1
' =  ------ – k Vlow x V sx sign  V x 
  
V1
' = atan  ------ – k Vlow y V sy
  
These practical slip quantities, ' , and ' , are used instead of the usual  and  definitions for steady
LOW_SPEED_THRESHOLD speed. The LOW_SPEED_DAMPING parameter in the tire property file
yields:
kVlow_x = 100 · kVlow_y = LOW_SPEED_DAMPING
  and   are the relaxation lengths for the lateral and longitudinal direction, respectively, in the
Aircraft tire models   =   = RLEN = RELAXATION_LENGTH.
The above stretched string model approach results in a tire behavior that can be compared to a spring (the
force response depends on deflection) at zero speed, while during rolling the tire will act like a damper
(the force response depends on slip speeds). When the wheel starts rolling (spinning up), low damped
wheel rotation oscillations may occur which may be not realistic. The LOW_SPEED_DAMPING
parameter can be used to increase the damping in such cases.
Note: If the tire property file's RELAXATION_LENGTH = 0, then steady state tire behavior will
be calculated is instantaneous response on change of slip  and  .
Zero Handling Force Model

If this option is selected in the tire property file, friction and slip parameters are not used, and all handling
forces will be zero:
Longitudinal Force
Fx = 0
Lateral Force
Fy = 0
Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

Ty = 0
Aligning Moment
Tz = 0
Fiala Handling Force Model — Basic Tire

The Aircraft Basic Tire Model's Fiala Handling Force model is an extended Fiala model (Fiala, E.,
"Seitenkrafte am rollenden Luftreifen," VDI-Zeitschrift 96, 973 (1964)). This model provides reasonable
results for simple maneuvers where inclination angle is not a major factor and where longitudinal and
lateral slip effects may be considered unrelated.
Modifications are included to make the Fiala model more general and more appropriate for use in Adams.
• Additional Parameters
• Friction Models
• Handling Force Evaluation
Additional Parameters
Before calculating the current maximum available friction coefficient, the Fiala tire model requires the
evaluation of some additional variables. First is the comprehensive slip S*s  :
S*s  = (S2s + tan2(  ))1/2
The truncated comprehensive slip (Ss  ):
S*s  = min(1, S*s  )
Friction Models
You can choose from four friction models. The friction mode parameter within the tire property file is
used to select the friction model. The friction model ultimately computes the maximum available
comprehensive friction coefficient.
• Slip Ratio-based Friction Model A (Linear U-Slip)
• Slip (or Scrub) Velocity-based Friction Decay Model A
• Slip (or Scrub) Velocity-based Friction Decay Model B
• Slip Ratio based Model B (User-Defined Mu-Slip)
20 Adams/Tire
Slip Ratio-based Friction Model A (Linear U-Slip)

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio (Ss  ) and friction parameters (Umax and
Umin). The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property
between the surfaces of tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between Ss  and U(  ), the corresponding maximum available road-tire friction
coefficient, is assumed. The following figure shows this relationship.
Figure 5 Linear Tire-Terrain Friction Model
Therefore, the current value coefficient of friction (U):

U = Umax + (Umin-Umax) x Ss 
Note: The figure illustrates that the available friction coefficient, U, varies linearly with slip ratio,
but the actual curve of Fx/Fz is not linear, as described in Longitudinal Force.
Slip (or Scrub) Velocity-based Friction Decay Model A

function of the total planar slip (or scrubbing) velocity Vsxy, maximum friction parameter (Umax), and
the friction coefficient reference velocity parameter V_UREF from the tire property file. The friction
A decay relationship between Vsxy and U (  ), the corresponding maximum available road-tire friction
Figure 6 Friction Decay Model A

–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = U max  e
Notice that Umin is not used in this friction model. Also, notice the effect of V_UREF upon the decay of
the available friction coefficient with total slip (or scrub) velocity Vsxy:
• If Vsxy = 0, then U = Umax

• If Vsxy = V_UREF/2, then U = 60.7% of Umax
• If Vsxy = V_UREF, then U = 36.78% of Umax
Note: The figure illustrates the available friction coefficient, U, as it varies with slip ratio. The
actual curve of Fx/Fz deviates from this curve, as described in Longitudinal Force.
Slip (or Scrub) Velocity-based Friction Decay Model B

function of the total planar slip (or scrubbing) velocity Vsxy, friction parameters (Umax and Umin), and
22 Adams/Tire
coefficient, is assumed (AGARD-R-800 "The Design, Qualification and Maintenance of Vibration-Free
Landing Gear": Denti, E., Fanteria D., "Analysis and Control of the Flexible Dynamics of Landing Gear
in the Presence of Antiskid Control Systems" (1996)). The following figure shows this relationship.
Figure 7 Friction Decay Model B
Umax – Umin
U = Umin +  Umax – Umin   Umin + -------------------------------------------
V sxy 
 1 + --------------------------- -
  V UREF 
Notice the effect of V_UREF on the decay of the available friction coefficient with total slip (or scrub)
velocity Vsxy:

• If Vsxy = V_UREF, then U = Average of Umax and Umin
• If Vsxy =  , then U = Umin
Slip Ratio based Model B (User-Defined Mu-Slip)

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio (Ss  ) and a user-defined table of U (  ). The
tabular data are experimentally obtained and represent the kinematic property between the surfaces of
The following figure shows the relationship between Ss  and U (  ), the corresponding maximum
available road-tire friction coefficient.
Figure 8 User-Defined Fiala Tire-Terrain Friction Model

U = a cubic spline interpolation of U versus Ss  curve
Handling Force Evaluation

Now that the current maximum available total friction coefficient U is known, the Fiala handling forces
can be calculated.
Longitudinal Force
The longitudinal force depends on the vertical force (Fz), the current maximum available total coefficient
of friction (U), and the longitudinal slip ratio (Ss).
24 Adams/Tire
UF Z
S_critical = ------------------------------
-
 2  CSLIP 
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State:|Ss| < S_critical
Fx = -CSLIP x Ss
Fx = -sign(Ss)(Fx1-Fx2)
where:
• Fx1 = U x Fz
2
 U  FZ 
• F X 2 = ---------------------------------------------
-
 4  S S   CSLIP
The calculations of Fx can be used to calculate Fx/Fz, which can be contrasted to the available total
coefficient of friction (U) curves shown above. All of the above figures are plots of U, but they are not
the plots of Fx/Fz. The U curves show the maximum possible friction coefficient, but the actual
longitudinal force, while based on U, is modified by the rolling characteristics of the tire.
For example, consider the plot of Linear Tire-Terrain Friction Model. The coefficient of friction is a
straight line. Consider next the following figure based on the equations for Fx shown in Case 1 and Case
2 above. The following figure, created using arbitrarily chosen parameters, illustrates that Fx/Fz is less
than the value of U at every value of slip, Ss  . The actual Fx/Fz curve is a function of the U curve, CSLIP,
and tire vertical force, Fz.
This type of difference between the chosen U curve and Fx/Fz affects all four friction models. You should
keep this in mind when creating your tire property file. Also, after you run a simulation, such as a braking
or wheel test simulation, you can plot Fx/Fz to determine whether the friction values are what you require.
Lateral Force
(Alpha_critical):
3  U  FZ 
Alpha_critical = arctan  ----------------------------
-
CALPHA 
The lateral force peaks at a value equal to U x |Fz| when the slip angle (Alpha) equals the critical slip
angle (Alpha_critical).
Case 1. Elastic Deformation State: Alpha  Alpha critical
Fy = - U x |Fz| x (1-H3) x sign(Alpha)
CALPHA  tan  Alpha 

where: H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ
Case 2. Sliding State: |Alpha| > Alpha_critical

Fy = -U|Fz|sign(Alpha)
Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

26 Adams/Tire
When the tire is rolling forward: Ty = -ROLLING_RESISTANCE * Fz
When the tire is rolling backward: Ty = ROLLING_RESISTANCE * Fz
Aligning Moment

H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ
3
T Z =  2 U F Z WIDTH   1 – H H sign  Alpha 
Case 2. Complete Sliding State: |Alpha| > Alpha_critical

Tz= 0.0
Force Reducer
In a balancing simulation, you can switch on the force reducer by using the tire user array. If the first
element reads the value 1500 and the second 1, the force reducer is switched on. Except for the vertical
load Fz, all tire forces and moments are reduced drastically to reach airplane equilibrium in a more
efficient way.
Fx = Fx * FORCE_REDUCER_X
Fy = Fy * FORCE_REDUCER_Y
Mx = Mx * FORCE_REDUCER_Y
My = My * FORCE_REDUCER_X
Mx = Mz* FORCE_REDUCER_Y
FORCE_REDUCER_X = 0.01
FORCE_REDUCER_Y = 0.0
Using the Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model

The Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model is comprised of the Adams/Tire Fiala and UA (University of Arizona)
tire models, with modifications that are necessary for aircraft landing gear analysis in Adams
This section contains information for using the Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model:
• Overview
Overview 27
• Wheel Bottoming
Overview
Assumptions
• User-controlled lateral and longitudinal deformation (vertical center of pressure shift) effects on
tire center moments.
Inputs
The inputs to the Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model come from two sources:
references.
• Tire states, given through the tire interface with the solver, such as slip angle (  ).
The following table summarizes the input data from the tire property file (.tir) that theAircraft Enhanced
Tire Model requires.
Table 1 Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model Input Data
length units.

units.

'pound_force'.
28 Adams/Tire
units.

angle units.

units.

PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT Must be 'AIR_ENHANCED'.
3 = UATire-based handling force computations

See Friction Models (Fiala Handling Force Model) and Friction

Models (University of Arizona (UA) Tire Handling Force
Model).
LAT_SLIP_MODE 0 = lateral slip calculation without vertical tire speed effect
(default)
not 0 = lateral slip calculation with vertical tire speed effect
(Units: length.)
Overview 29
BOTTOMING_RADIUS Wheel bottoming radius. (Units: length.)
(optional)

RELAXATION_LENGTH Relaxation length. (Units: length.)

tire behaviour).

tire behaviour).
property file the value for this parameter is 4 m/s.

tire behaviour).
See Rolling Resistance Moment (Zero Handling Force Model)

and Rolling Resistance Moment (University of Arizona ((UA)
Tire Handling Force Model).
CGAMMA Tire's camber stiffness. Partial derivative of lateral force (Fy)
with respect to inclination (camber) angle(  ) at zero camber
angle. Used only if HANDLING_MODE = 3. (Units:
force/force/angle.)
Note: If CGAMMA is less than or equal to 0, a value for

CGAMMA is estimated. See Tire Operating
Conditions.
UMAX Coefficient of friction at zero slip. (Units: none.)

Model).
30 Adams/Tire

Model).

Model).
SLIP_STIFFNESS_FACTOR Factor used in the calculation of slip stiffness, CSLIP,from
longitudinal tire stiffness. (Units: none.)
See Current Longitudinal Slip Stiffness.

LON_DEFL_FACTOR Reduction factor used in the calculation of longitudinal shift in
the tire vertical center of pressure in the presence of a
longitudinal force. (Units: none.)
See Longitudinal Center of Pressure Shift.

LAT_DEFL_FACTOR Reduction factor used in the calculation of lateral shift in the
tire vertical center of pressure in the presence of a lateral force.
(Units: none.)
See Lateral Center of Pressure Shift.

[AIR_CURVE] block: pen Column of tire/road penetration (deflection) values,
corresponding to the adjacent tire radial force value. (Units:
length.)
[AIR_CURVE] block: fz Column of tire radial force values, corresponding to the
adjacent tire/road penetration (deflection) value. (Units:
force.)
[CORN_STIFFNESS] block: fz Column of tire vertical load values, corresponding to the
adjacent cornering stiffness value. (Units: force.)
[CORN_STIFFNESS] block: c_alpha Column of tire cornering stiffness values, corresponding to the
adjacent tire vertical load value. (Units: force/angle.)
[LON_STIFFNESS] block: fz Column of tire vertical load values, corresponding to the
adjacent longitudinal stiffness value. (Units: force.)
Road Models and Road Contact Methods 31
[LON_STIFFNESS] block: lon_k Column of tire longitudinal stiffness values, corresponding to
the adjacent tire vertical load value. (Units: force/length.)
[LAT_STIFFNESS] block: fz Column of tire vertical load values, corresponding to the
adjacent lateral stiffness value. (Units: force.)
[LAT_STIFFNESS] block: lat_k Column of tire lateral stiffness values, corresponding to the
adjacent tire vertical load value. (Units: force/length.)


length.)

force.)

The following file, located in the shared database, is an example of the Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model tire
property file:
install_dir/aircraft/shared_aircraft_database.cdb/tires.tbl/AA_l
arge_enha.tir
Road Models and Road Contact Methods

The Aircraft tire model uses the following contact methods depending on the road model chosen:
32 Adams/Tire
Table 2 Contact Methods Uses
The road model: Uses the contact method:

2D Point-follower
3D Equivalent-volume

expected longitudinal force. In general, the point-follower method is valid for rather smooth roads (road
obstacle wavelengths > tire circumference) only.
For more information about 2D roads, see Using the 2D Road Model.
About the Equivalent-Volume Method

The equivalent-volume method determines an equivalent contact point and vertical deflection from the
volume of intersection of the tire carcass with the road. The equivalent-volume method assumes the tire
carcass is a cylinder, unless you input the tire carcass cross section in the [SHAPE] table of the tire
property file. Triangular facets describe the road surface.
For more information about 3D roads, see Adams/3D Spline Road Model.
Tire Carcass Shape

block. The 3D-contact, tire-to-road contact algorithm uses this information when calculating the tire-to-
road volume of interference. To learn more about this topic, see Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model. If you
omit the [SHAPE] block from a tire property file, the tire carcass cross-section defaults to the rectangle
that the tire radius and width define.
• For width, a value of one (1) lies in the plane of the sidewall.
Wheel Bottoming 33
Wheel Bottoming
You can optionally supply a wheel bottoming deflection - load curve in the tire property file in the
[BOTTOMING_CURVE] block. If the deflection of the wheel is so large that the rim will be hit (defined
by the BOTTOMING_RADIUS parameter in the [DIMENSION] section of the tire property file), the
tire vertical load will be increased according to the load curve defined in this section.
Note: The rim-to-road contact algorithm is a simple penetration method (such as the 2D contact)
based upon the tire-to-road contact calculation, which is strictly valid only for rather
smooth road surfaces (the length of obstacles should have a wavelength longer than the tire
circumference). The rim-to-road contact algorithm is not based on the 3D volume
penetration method, but can be used in combination with the 3D Contact (that takes into
account the volume penetration of the tire itself). If you omit the [BOTTOMING_CURVE]
block from a tire property file, no force due to rim road contact will be added to the tire
vertical force.
34 Adams/Tire
The BOTTOMING_RADIUS may be chosen larger than the rim radius to account for the tire's material
left in between the rim and the road, while the bottoming load-deflection curve may be adjusted for the
change in stiffness.
If (Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom) - ½ width · | tan(  ) |) < 0 the left or right side of the rim has contact with the
road. Then the rim deflection Penrim can be calculated with:
•  = max(0 , ½width · | tan(  ) | ) + Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottom) )

2
• Penrim=  /(2 · width · | tan(  ) |)
• Srim= ½width - max(width ,  | tan(  ) |)/3
with Srim the lateral offset of the force with respect to the wheel plane.
If the full rim has contact with the road, the rim deflection is
Normal Force of Road on Tire 35
• Penrim = Pentire- (Rtire - Rbottum)
• Srim= width2 · | tan(  ) | · /(12· Penrim)
in the calculation for Fx, Fy, My and Mz. The Fzrim will only contribute to the overtuning moment Mx
using the Fzrim· Srim.
Note: Rtire is equal to the unloaded tire radius, Pentire is similar to effpen.

where:
road contact model.

• Basic Tire Kinematics
• Fiala Handling Force Model — Enhanced Tire
• University of Arizona (UA) Tire Handling Force Model - Enhanced Tire
• Moment Adjustments
• Force Reducer
36 Adams/Tire
Basic Tire Kinematics

All tire kinematic values are in the tire contact patch (SAE) reference system.
Figure 9 Unbraked, Unyawed, Effective Rolling Radius
Current Cornering Stiffness

The current cornering stiffness is a function of the current vertical load:
C  = f(abs(Fz)), tire cornering stiffness versus vertical load spline
Current Longitudinal Stiffness

The current longitudinal stiffness is a function of the current vertical:
Klon = f(abs(Fz)), tire longitudinal stiffness versus vertical load spline
Current Lateral Stiffness

The current lateral stiffness is a function of the current vertical:
Klat = f(abs(Fz)), tire lateral stiffness versus vertical load spline
Current Longitudinal Slip Stiffness

CSLIP = Klon * UNLOADED_RADIUS * SLIP_STIFFNESS_FACTOR

Unloaded (and Ungrown) Diameter

Do = 2 * UNLOADED_RADIUS



Vx, Vy, Vz



Vxc = X-component of (  x R e,o)
where R e,o is the vertical radius vector of the scalar Re,o.
Vyc = Y-component of (  x R )
Vzc = Z-component of (  x R )

Vsx = Vx + Vxc
Vsy = Vy + Vyc if LAT_SLIP_MODE = 0
Vsy = Vy + Vyc + Vzc*tan(  ) if LAT_SLIP_MODE = 1

38 Adams/Tire
The component Vzc* tan(  ) takes into account the lateral slip due to a vertical movement of the tire if
the roll inclination with the road is not zero. The default for LAT_SLIP_MODE is zero.
V sx = V x –  R e
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
 = -------- and tan  = --------
Vx Vx
defined as:
V sx V sy
 = -------- and tan  = --------
Vr Vr
Vr = Re 
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 45 deg and the longitudinal slip Ss  =  

1 dv v1
-------1- + ------
----- = tan    + a 
V x dt  
dv 1
  -------- + V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculations, positive Vsx (traction) the Vx should be replaced by
Vr in these differential equations.
40 Adams/Tire
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, ' , and ' , are defined based on the tire deformation:
U1
' =  ------ – k Vlow x V sx sign  V x 

V1
' = atan  ------ – k Vlow y V sy

These practical slip quantities, ' , and ' , are used instead of the usual  and  definitions for steady
yields:
  and   are the relaxation lengths for the lateral and longitudinal direction, respectively, in the
Aircraft tire models   =   .
  =   .= RLEN + FLEN/2.
RLEN = RELAXATION_LENGTH, FLEN is the tire footprint length calculated with:
  2
flen = 2 D o  ------ +  ------  FOOTPRINT LENGTH FACTOR
Do Do
Note: If the tire property file's RELAXATION_LENGTH = 0, then steady state tire behavior will
be calculated is instantaneous response on change of slip  and  .

Longitudinal Force
Fx = 0
Lateral Force
Fy = 0
Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

Ty = 0
Aligning Moment
Tz = 0
Fiala Handling Force Model — Enhanced Tire

• Friction Models
S*s  = (S2s + tan2(  ))1/2
S*s  = min(1, S*s  )
Friction Models
42 Adams/Tire


function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio (Ss  ) and friction parameters (Umax and
Umin). The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property



–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = U max  e


44 Adams/Tire
Umax – Umin
V sxy 
 1 + --------------------------- -
  V UREF 
velocity Vsxy:




can be calculated.
Longitudinal Force
46 Adams/Tire
UF Z
S_critical = ------------------------------
-
 2  CSLIP 
Fx = -CSLIP x Ss
where:
• Fx1 = U x Fz
2
 U  FZ 
• F X 2 = ---------------------------------------------
-
 4  S S   CSLIP
For example, consider the plot of Linear Fiala Tire-Terrain Friction Model. The coefficient of friction is a
than the value of U at every value of slip, Ss  , The actual Fx/Fz curve is a function of the U curve, CSLIP,
Lateral Force
(Alpha_critical):
3  U  FZ 
-
CALPHA 

where: H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ

Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

Aligning Moment

H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ
3

Tz= 0.0
48 Adams/Tire
University of Arizona (UA) Tire Handling Force Model - Enhanced Tire

The Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model's UA Tire Handling Force model is an extension of the University of
Arizona tire model, recently developed by Drs. P.E. Nikravesh and G. Gim (Gim, Gwanghun, "Vehicle
Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for Pneumatic Tires," Ph.D. Thesis, The University
of Arizona (1988)). This analytical model has been extensively tested and verified against experimental
data and other analytical models. Please note that the current implementation of the University of Arizona
tire model uses a friction circle rather than the original friction ellipse. The ellipse caused undesirable
results under some circumstances due to its dependence on the integration time step.
Modifications are included to make the UA Tire model more general and more appropriate for use in
Adams.
• Friction Models
• Friction Circle Concept
• Tire Operating Conditions
• Tire Handling Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System
The UATire tire model requires the evaluation of some additional variables:
• Lateral Slip Ratios
• Comprehensive Slip Ratio
Lateral Slip Ratios
The lateral slip ratio due to slip angle, S , may then be defined as:

S =  tan   whether traction or braking

S = min  1.0 S 
The lateral slip ratio due to inclination angle, S , is defined as:

S = sin 
A combined lateral slip ratio due to slip and inclination angles, S  , is defined as:
   sin - 
S =  tan  – -------------- whether traction or braking
 2 r 1 
where   8 Ro  pen  is the length of the contact patch.


S  = min  1.0 S  
Comprehensive Slip Ratio

A comprehensive slip ratio due to slip ratio, slip angle, and inclination angle may be defined as:
 2 2
S s  = S s + S 
Note that:
S s  = S s for  =  = 0
S s  = S  for s =  = 0
S s  = S  for s =  = 0
S s  = S  for s = 0
Now a slip velocity directional angle  may be defined as:

 = tan–1 S ag S s 
Slip properties and slip ratio relationships are shown in the following figure (a), (b), and (c):
a. Slip Properties Between Tire and Terrain During Braking
b. Slip Properties Between Tire and Terrain During Traction
c. Resultant Slip Ratio Relationships
50 Adams/Tire
Friction Models
You can choose from three friction models. The friction mode parameter within the tire property file is
comprehensive friction coefficient
• Slip Ratio-based Friction Model
Slip Ratio-based Friction Model

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio ( S s  ) and friction parameters (U0 and U1).
The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property between
the surfaces of tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between Ss  and  , the corresponding maximum available road-tire friction
Figure 16 Linear UATire Tire-Terrain Friction Model
Therefore, the current value coefficient of friction (U) is:
U = Umax - (Umax-Umin) x S s 

function of the total planar slip (or scrubbing) velocity Vsxy , maximum friction parameter (Umax), and
A decay relationship between Vsxy and  , the corresponding maximum available road-tire friction

–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = Umax  e
• If Vsxy = 0 , then U = Umax

• If Vsxy = V_UREF/2 , then U = 60.7% of Umax

coefficient, is assume, from (Denti, E., Fanteria D., "Analysis and Control of the Flexible Dynamics of
52 Adams/Tire
Landing Gear in the Presence of Antiskid Control Systems" AGARD-R-800 "The Design, Qualification
and Maintenance of Vibration-Free Landing Gear" (1996)). The following figure shows this relationship.
U max – U min
U = U min +  U max – U min   U min + --------------------------------------
V sxy 
 1 + -----------------------
 V UREF
Notice the effect of V_UREF upon the decay of the available friction coefficient with total slip (or scrub)
velocity Vsxy:

• If Vsxy = V_UREF , then U = Average of Umax and Umin

In the UATire model, the friction circle concept allows for different values of longitudinal and lateral
friction coefficients (  x and  y ) but limits the maximum value for both coefficients to  . The
relationship that defines the friction circle follows:
 
2 2
----x- ----y-
  +   = 1
or  x =  cos 
and  y =  sin 
s S
where cos  = ------------
-

Ss 
Note that  x and  y in the following figure depend on the untruncated value Ss .
Figure 19 Friction Circle Concept
Tire Operating Conditions

• Case 1:   0
• Case 2:   0 and C  S   C  S 
• Case 3:   0 and C  S   C  S 
Note: Cs = CSLIP , C  = CALPHA and C  = CGAMMA
If C s  0 then a camber stiffness is estimated using:
C   C len
C  = ----------------------
6 R0
with Clen the contact length is estimated by:

54 Adams/Tire
C len = 8 R 0  effpen
The lateral force Fh can be decomposed into two components: Fha and Fhg. The two components are in
the same direction if   0 and in opposite direction if   0 .
Case 1.   0
critical inclination angle is denoted by S  c , then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S  c =  ------
C
Fz
S sc = 3  ------
Cs
If a slip ratio due to the critical slip angle is denoted by S  c , then it can be determined as
Cs 2 2 S
S  c = ------- S sc – S s – 3 C  -------
C C
when Ss < Ssc.
The term "critical" stands for the maximum value which allows an elastic deformation of a tire during
pure slip due to pure slip ratio, slip angle, or inclination angle. Whenever any slip ratio becomes greater
than its corresponding critical value, an elastic deformation no longer exists, but instead complete sliding
state represents the contact condition between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]

ln = 1 - Sn
m
A modified lateral friction coefficient m y is evaluated as:
C S
=  y –  -----------
m
y
 Fz 
1. Elastic Deformation State: S   S  c , S s  Ssc and S   S  c
In the elastic deformation state, the longitudinal force F  , the lateral force Fh, and three
components of the self-aligning torque are written as functions of the elastic stiffness and the slip
ratio as well as the normal force and the friction coefficients, such as:
2 2 3
F  = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
2 m 2 3
F = C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln  + C S
1 2 3 m
M z  = C  S   – --- + --- l n + ---  y F z S n  l n
2 2
 2 3  2
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
M zs  = --- C s S s S   l n + ---------------------------  l – 10 l n + 15 l n – 6 l n 
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
where:
2 2
•  = S  r l –   4 is the offset between the wheel plane center and the tire tread base.
2 2
• r l –   4 is set to zero if it is negative.
• M z  is the portion of the self-aligning torque generated by the slip angle a.
• M zs  and M zs  are other components of the self-aligning torque produced by the longitudinal
force, which has an offset between the wheel center plane and the tire tread base, due to the
slip angle a and the inclination angle g, respectively. The self-aligning torque Mz is
determined as combinations of Mz  , M zs  and Mzsg .
2. Complete Sliding State: Sg > Sgc, Ss > Ssc or Sa > Sac
In the complete sliding state, the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and three components of the
self-aligning torque are determined as functions of the normal force and the friction coefficients
without any elastic stiffness and slip ratio as:
F  = x Fz
56 Adams/Tire
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M z  s = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
Case 2:   0 and C  S   C  S
Same as in Case 1, a slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip ratio can be obtained as:
Fz
S sc = 3  ------
Cs
Cs 2 2 S
S  c = ------- S sc – S s + 3 C  -------
C C
when Ss < Ssc.
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]
The nondimensional contact patch length ln is found from the equation ln = 1 - Sn, and the modified lateral
m
friction coefficient  y is expressed as:
m C S
y =  y + -----------
Fz
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque two subcases should also be
the required condition for Case 2, CaSa > CgSg, replaces the critical condition of the inclination angle.
1. Elastic Deformation State: Ss < Ssc and Sa < Sac

2 m 2 3
F = C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln  – C S
2 2 3
F = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
1 2 3 m
M z  = C  S   – --- + --- l n + ---  y F z S n  l n
2 2
2 3 2
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
M zs  = --- C s S s S   l n + ---------------------------  1 – 10 l n + 15 l n – 6 l n 
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
2. Complete sliding state: Ss > Ssc or Sa > Sac
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M z  s = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
Case 3:   0 and C S   C S 
Similar to cases 1 and 2, slip ratios due to the critical values of the inclination angle and the slip ratio are
obtained as:
3  Fz + C S
S  c = --------------------------------
3 C
1 2 2
S sc = ------  3  F z  –  C  S  – 3 C  S  
Cs
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]
58 Adams/Tire
here since the required condition for Case 3, CaSa< CgSg, replaces the critical condition of the slip angle.
1. Elastic Deformation State: Sg < Sgc and Ss < Ssc

In the elastic deformation state, Fh and Mza may be written:
2 2 3
F = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
2 3 2 2 3
F = C S  3 ln + 2 ln  – C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
C S  ln
M z  = ---------------------
6
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
2. Complete Sliding State: Sg > Sgc or Ss > Ssc
In the complete sliding state, F  , Fh, Mza, Mzsa, and Mzsg can be determined by using:
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M zs  = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
respectively. The longitudinal force F  , the lateral force Fh, and three components of the self-
aligning torques Mza, Mzsa, and Mzsg always have positive values, but they can be transformed to
have positive or negative values depending on the slip ratio , the slip angle , and the inclination
angle  in the SAE coordinate system.
Tire Handling Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System

the SAE coordinate system (see the figure, SAE Tire Coordinate System), the three possible
combinations of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the inclination angle are also considered.
Longitudinal Force
Fx = -sign(s) Fx, for all cases
Lateral Force
Fy = -sign(a) Fh, for cases 1 and 2
Fy = sign(g) Fh, for case 3
Self-aligning Torque
Mz = sign(a) Mza + sign(s) [-sign(a) Mzsa + sign(g)Mzsg]

My = -Cr Fz, for a forward rolling tire
My = Cr Fz, for a backward rolling tire
Where Cr = ROLLING_RESISTANCE.
Moment Adjustments
An adjustment to the tire moments is conducted to capture the effects of the longitudinal and lateral
shifting of the approximate contact patch vertical center of pressure and center of longitudinal shear
pressure, in the presence of longitudinal and lateral tire forces.
Note: A separate moment adjustment has previously been calculated for the tire rolling resistance
effects.
Longitudinal Center of Pressure Shift

dlon = Fx / [max(1,abs(Klon)] * LON_DEFL_FACTOR
Lateral Center of Pressure Shift

dlat = Fy / [max(1,abs(Klat)] * LAT_DEFL_FACTOR
Moment Adjustments
Mx = Mx + [ Fz * dlat]
My = My - [ Fz * dlon]
Mz = Mz - [ Fx * dlat]
Force Reducer
efficient way.
60 Adams/Tire
Using the Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model

The Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model's Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force model is a basic version of the
NASA TR-R-64 tire model: (Smiley, Robert F. and Horne, Walter B., "Mechanical Properties of
Pneumatic Tires with Special Reference to Modern Aircraft Tires," Technical Report R-64, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (1960)). This analytical model has been widely used in the
aeronautics community. Please note that the current implementation of the NASA TR-R-64 tire model is
a simplified version of the original tire model. And further modifications are included in order to make
the model more appropriate for use in Adams.
The Aircraft NASA TRR64 Tire Model is comprised of a basic version of the NASA TR-R-64 tire model,
with options to use additional handling force computations, such as those similar to the Adams/Tire Fiala
and UA (University of Arizona) tire models.
This section contains information for using the Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model:
• TRR64 Tire Model Overview
• Wheel Bottoming
• Basic NASA TR-R-64 Parameters
TRR64 Tire Model Overview

Assumptions
• User-controlled lateral and longitudinal deformation (vertical center of pressure shift) effects on
tire center moments.
TRR64 Tire Model Overview 61
Inputs
The inputs to the Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model come from two sources:
references.
• Tire state, given through the tire interface with the solver, such as slip angle (  ).
The following table summarizes the input data from the tire property file (.tir) that the Aircraft TRR64
Tire Model requires.
Table 1 Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model Input Data
length units.

units.

'pound_force'.
units.

angle units.

units.

PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT Must be 'AIR_TRR64'.
62 Adams/Tire
3 = UATire-based handling force computations
4 = basic NASA TR-R-64 handling force computations


Model).
(Units: length.)
BOTTOMING_RADIUS Bottoming radius of the wheel. (Units: length.)
(optional)
RATED_PRESSURE Tire rated pressure. (Units: force/(length*length).)
INFLATION_PRESSURE Tire actual inflation pressure. (Units: force/(length*length).)


tire behaviour)
TRR64 Tire Model Overview 63
property file, the value for this parameter is 4 m/s.

tire behaviour)
See Rolling Resistance Moment and Rolling Resistance

Moment (Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model).
UMAX Coefficient of friction at zero slip. (Units: none.) See Friction
Models (Fiala Handling Force Model) and Friction Models
(Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model).

Models Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model).

Models Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model).
See Effective Unbraked Rolling Radius.

SLIP_STIFFNESS_FACTOR Factor used in the calculation of slip stiffness, CSLIP, from
longitudinal tire stiffness. (Units: none.)
See Current Longitudinal Slip Stiffness.

LON_DEFL_FACTOR Reduction factor used in the calculation of longitudinal shift in
tire vertical center of pressure in the presence of a longitudinal
force. (Units: none.)

64 Adams/Tire
LAT_DEFL_FACTOR Reduction factor used in the calculation of lateral shift in tire
vertical center of pressure in the presence of a lateral force.
(Units: none.)

FOOTPRINT_LENGTH_FACTOR Reduction factor used in the calculation of the tire footprint
length. (Units: none.)
See Lagged Slip Angle.

FOOTPRINT_AREA_RATIO Ratio of net tread footprint contact area (subtracting out tread
air gaps) to gross tread footprint contact area (assuming no
tread air gaps). (Units: none.)
See Footprint Areas and Ground Pressures.



length.)

force.)

The following file, located in the shared database, is an example of the Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model tire
property file:
install_dir/aircraft/shared_aircraft_database.cdb/tires.tbl/AA_large_trr64.tir
Basic NASA TR-R-64 Parameters 65
Basic NASA TR-R-64 Parameters

First, some basic parameters are calculated.
Figure 20 Tire Radii

Unloaded (and Ungrown) Diameter

Do = 2 * UNLOADED_RADIUS



66 Adams/Tire
Half-footprint Length
The tire half-footprint length is calculated as:
  2
h = D o  ------ +  ------  FOOTPRINT LENGTH FACTOR
 D o  D o
Footprint Width
The tire footprint width is calculated as:
4 6
b =  1.7  w  W 1  – 2.5  W 1  + 1.5  W 1  
where:
• w = WIDTH

• W1 = -----
W
Footprint Areas and Ground Pressures

The gross footprint area [not used yet] is:
A g = 2.38 W  D o
The net footprint area [not used yet] is:

An = FOOTPRINT_AREA_RATIO · Ag
The gross footprint ground pressure [not used yet] is:
 81   40 
 P 1  0.6 + -------------------   ----- for  -----  ------ C z 
 1600. C z  W  W 9 
pg =  
  -
–1
   40 
 P 1  1.05 + C z  ---- W  for  -----  ------ C z 
W 9
 

























where:
• P1 = INFLATION_PRESSURE + 0.08 (RATED_PRESSURE)

• Cz = 0.03
The net footprint ground pressure [not used yet] is:
pg
P n = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------
FOOTPRINT AREA RATIO
Basic NASA TR-R-64 Parameters 67
Tire Normal Force

The normal force, without damping, due to tire contact with the road, is:
 - 0.216 - 2  10 

 P 1  w w  D  0.96   ---- -------------  ---- for  -----  ------ C z 
 o  W + C z   W W 3 
F zk =  
   - – C   - 10 
 P 1  w w  D o  2.4   ----
W z for ----
 W 3 z 
 C
------
 






























Longitudinal Tire Stiffness
The tire lateral stiffness is:
K lon = 0.565  D o  P 5  3    D o 
where:
P5 = INFLATION_PRESSURE + 4 (RATED_PRESSURE).
Lateral Tire Stiffness

The tire lateral stiffness is:
Klat = tA · w · P0 · [1-0.7 (d/w)]
where:
• tA = 2.0
• P0 = INFLATION_PRESSURE + 0.24 (RATED_PRESSURE)
Torsional Tire Spring Constant

The tire torsional tire spring constant, or stiffness [not used yet], is:
  2  
 P 1  W 3  250  ------ for  ------  0.03 
  D o Do 
K tor =  
 3     – 0.015 
for  ------  0.03 

 P 1  W  15   ------
D o   D o
 























Tilt Tire Stiffness

The tilt tire stiffness is:
Kg = 0.57 · |Fzk|
68 Adams/Tire
Static Relaxation Length

The static relaxation length is:
Ls = P2 · w · [1-4.5(d/D0)]
where:
P2 = 2.8 - 0.8(INFLATION_PRESSURE / RATED_PRESSURE).
Yawed Rolling Relaxation Length

The static relaxation length is:
   
 P 2  W  11  ------ for  ------  0.06 
  D o  D o 
Ly =  
    
for  ------  0.06 
 P 2  W  0.9075 – 4  ------
D o Do
 























Note: This equation is from the NASA TR-R-64 report. However, in order to avoid integrator-
related complications associated with the differential equation for the lagged lateral and
longitudinal slip, the following simplified equation is used: Ly = P2 · w · 2.5
Tire Cornering Power

The tire cornering power is:
N = (Ly + h) · Klat per radian

where:
road contact model.

• Basic Tire Kinematics – TRR64 Tire
• Fiala Handling Force Model – TRR64 Tire
• University of Arizona (UA) Tire Handling Force Model – TRR64 Tire
• Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model
• Moment Adjustments
• Force Reducer
Basic Tire Kinematics – TRR64 Tire

All tire kinematic values are in tire contact patch (SAE) reference system.
Current Cornering Stiffness

The current cornering stiffness is equal to the cornering power:
CALPHA = N
Current Longitudinal Slip Stiffness

CSLIP = Klon * UNLOADED_RADIUS * SLIP_STIFFNESS_FACTOR
Current Tilt Stiffness

The current tilt stiffness is equal to the cornering power:
CGAMMA = Kg

Vx , V y , V z



Vxc = X-component of    R e o 
70 Adams/Tire
where R e o is the vertical radius vector of the scalar Re,o.
Vyc = Y-component of   R

Vsx = Vx + Vxc
Vsy = Vy + Vyc
V sx = V x –  R e
V sy = V y
V sx V sy
 = -------- and tan  = --------
Vx Vx
defined as:
V sx V sy
 = -------- and tan  = --------
Vr Vr
Vr = Re 
Note that for realistic tire forces the slip angle  is limited to 45 deg and the longitudinal slip S s  =  

1 dv v1
-------1- + ------
----- = tan    + a 
V x dt  
72 Adams/Tire
dv 1
  -------- + V x v 1 =   V sy
dt
When the UA Tire is used for the force calculations, positive Vsx (traction) the Vx should be replaced by
Vr in these differential equations.
du 1
  -------- + V x u 1 = –   V sx
dt
Now the practical slip quantities, ' ’ and ' ’, are defined based on the tire deformation:
U1
' =  ------ – k Vlow x V sx sign  V x 
  
V1
' = atan  ------ – k Vlow y V sy
  
These practical slip quantities, ' ’ and ' ’, are used instead of the usual  and  definitions for steady
yields:
sa and sk are the relaxation lengths for the lateral and longitudinal direction, respectively, in the Aircraft
tire models sa = sk.
For details about Ly and h, see Basic NASA TR-R-64 Parameters.

Note: Currently, the lagged slip cannot be forced to be equal to the instantaneous slip, thus the
NASA TR-R-64 tire model can only be used in transient mode.

Longitudinal Force
Fx = 0
Lateral Force
Fy = 0
Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

Ty = 0
Aligning Moment
Tz = 0
Fiala Handling Force Model – TRR64 Tire

• Friction Models
S*s  = (S2s + tan2(  ))1/2
S*s  = min(1, S*s  )

74 Adams/Tire
Friction Models

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio (Ss  ) and friction parameters (UMAX and
UMIN). The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property



–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = U max  e


76 Adams/Tire
Umax – Umin
V sxy 
 1 + --------------------------- -
  V UREF 
velocity Vsxy:



78 Adams/Tire

can be calculated.
Longitudinal Force
UF Z
S_critical = ------------------------------
-
 2  CSLIP 
Fx = -CSLIP x Ss
where:
• Fx1 = U x Fz
2
 U  FZ 
• F X 2 = ---------------------------------------------
-
 4  S S   CSLIP
For example, consider the plot of Linear Fiala Tire-Terrain Friction Model. The coefficient of friction is a
than the value of U at every value of slip, Ss  , The actual Fx/Fz curve is a function of the U curve, CSLIP,
Lateral Force
(Alpha_critical):
3  U  FZ 
-
CALPHA 

where: H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ

Oversteering Moment
80 Adams/Tire
Tx = 0

Aligning Moment

H = 1 – --------------------------------------------------------------
3  U  FZ
3

Tz= 0.0
University of Arizona (UA) Tire Handling Force Model – TRR64 Tire

The Aircraft Enhanced Tire Model's UA Tire Handling Force model is an extension of the University of
Arizona tire model, recently developed by Drs. P.E. Nikravesh and G. Gim (Gim, Gwanghun, "Vehicle
Dynamic Simulation with a Comprehensive Model for Pneumatic Tires," Ph.D. Thesis, The University
of Arizona (1988)). This analytical model has been extensively tested and verified against experimental
data and other analytical models. Please note that the current implementation of the University of Arizona
tire model uses a friction circle rather than the original friction ellipse. The ellipse caused undesirable
results under some circumstances due to its dependence on the integration time step.
Modifications are included to make the UA Tire model more general and more appropriate for use in
Adams.
• Friction Models
• Friction Circle Concept
• Tire Operating Conditions
• Tire Handling Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System
The UATire tire model requires the evaluation of some additional variables:
• Lateral Slip Ratios
• Comprehensive Slip Ratio
Lateral Slip Ratios

The lateral slip ratio due to slip angle, S  , may then be defined as:

S =  tan   whether traction or braking

S = min  1.0 S 
The lateral slip ratio due to inclination angle, S  , is defined as:

S = sin 
A combined lateral slip ratio due to slip and inclination angles, S  , is defined as:
   sin  
S =  tan  – --------------
- whether traction or braking
 2 r 1 
where   8 Ro  pen  is the length of the contact patch.

S  = min  1.0 S  
Comprehensive Slip Ratio

A comprehensive slip ratio due to slip ratio, slip angle, and inclination angle may be defined as:
 2 2
S s  = S s + S 
Note that:
S s  = S s for  =  = 0
S s  = S  for s =  = 0
S s  = S  for s =  = 0
S s  = S  for s = 0
Now a slip velocity directional angle  may be defined as:

 = tan–1 S ag S s 
Slip properties and slip ratio relationships are shown in the following figure (a), (b), and (c):
a. Slip Properties Between Tire and Terrain During Braking
b. Slip Properties Between Tire and Terrain During Traction
82 Adams/Tire
c. Resultant Slip Ratio Relationships
Friction Models
You can choose from three friction models. The friction mode parameter within the tire property file is
comprehensive friction coefficient
• Slip Ratio-based Friction Model
Slip Ratio-based Friction Model

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio ( S s  ) and friction parameters (U0 and U1).
The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property between
the surfaces of tire tread and the terrain.
A linear relationship between S s  and  , the corresponding maximum available road-tire friction
Figure 27 Linear UATire Tire-Terrain Friction Model
U = Umax - (Umax-Umin) x S s 

function of the total planar slip (or scrubbing) velocity Vsxy , maximum friction parameter (Umax), and
84 Adams/Tire

–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = Umax  e
• If Vsxy = 0 , then U = Umax

• If Vsxy = V_UREF/2 , then U = 60.7% of Umax

coefficient, is assume, from (Denti, E., Fanteria D., "Analysis and Control of the Flexible Dynamics of
Landing Gear in the Presence of Antiskid Control Systems" AGARD-R-800 "The Design, Qualification
and Maintenance of Vibration-Free Landing Gear" (1996)). The following figure shows this relationship.
U max – U min
U = U min +  U max – U min   U min + --------------------------------------
V sxy 
 1 + -----------------------
 V UREF
Notice the effect of V_UREF upon the decay of the available friction coefficient with total slip (or scrub)
velocity Vsxy:

• If Vsxy = V_UREF , then U = Average of Umax and Umin

In the UATire model, the friction circle concept allows for different values of longitudinal and lateral
friction coefficients (  x and  y ) but limits the maximum value for both coefficients to  . The
relationship that defines the friction circle follows:
 
2 2
----x- ----y-
  +   = 1
or  x =  cos 
86 Adams/Tire
and  y =  sin 
s S
where cos  = ------------
-

Ss 
Note that  x and  y in the following figure depend on the untruncated value Ss .
Figure 30 Friction Circle Concept
Tire Operating Conditions

• Case 1:   0
• Case 2:   0 and C  S   C  S 
• Case 3:   0 and C  S   C  S 
Note: Cs = CSLIP , C = CALPHA and C = CGAMMA
If Cs  0 then a camber stiffness is estimated using:
C   C len
C  = ----------------------
6 R0
with Clen the contact length is estimated by:

C len = 8 R 0  effpen
The lateral force Fh can be decomposed into two components: Fha and Fhg. The two components are in
the same direction if   0 and in opposite direction if   0 .
Case 1.   0
critical inclination angle is denoted by S  c , then it can be evaluated as:
Fz
S  c =  ------
C
Fz
S sc = 3  ------
Cs
If a slip ratio due to the critical slip angle is denoted by S c , then it can be determined as
Cs 2 2 S
S  c = ------- S sc – S s – 3 C  -------
C C
when Ss < Ssc.
The term "critical" stands for the maximum value which allows an elastic deformation of a tire during
pure slip due to pure slip ratio, slip angle, or inclination angle. Whenever any slip ratio becomes greater
than its corresponding critical value, an elastic deformation no longer exists, but instead complete sliding
state represents the contact condition between the tire tread base and the terrain surface.
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]

ln = 1 - Sn
88 Adams/Tire
m
A modified lateral friction coefficient m y is evaluated as:
C S
=  y –  -----------
m
y
 Fz 
1. Elastic Deformation State: S   S c , S s  S sc and S  S c
In the elastic deformation state, the longitudinal force F  , the lateral force Fh, and three
components of the self-aligning torque are written as functions of the elastic stiffness and the slip
ratio as well as the normal force and the friction coefficients, such as:
2 2 3
F  = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
2 m 2 3
F = C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln  + C S
1 2 3 m
M z  = C  S   – --- + --- l n + ---  y F z S n  l n
2 2
 2 3  2
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
where:
2 2
•  = S  r l –   4 is the offset between the wheel plane center and the tire tread base.
2 2
• r l –   4 is set to zero if it is negative.
• M z  is the portion of the self-aligning torque generated by the slip angle a.
• M zs  and M zs  are other components of the self-aligning torque produced by the longitudinal
force, which has an offset between the wheel center plane and the tire tread base, due to the
slip angle a and the inclination angle g, respectively. The self-aligning torque Mz is
determined as combinations of M z  , Mzs  and M zsg .
2. Complete Sliding State: Sg > Sgc, Ss > Ssc or Sa > Sac
In the complete sliding state, the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and three components of the
self-aligning torque are determined as functions of the normal force and the friction coefficients
without any elastic stiffness and slip ratio as:
F  = x Fz
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M z  s = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
Case 2:   0 and C S   C S 
Same as in Case 1, a slip ratio due to the critical value of the slip ratio can be obtained as:
Fz
S sc = 3  ------
Cs
Cs 2 2 S
S  c = ------- S sc – S s + 3 C  -------
C C
when Ss < Ssc.
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]
The nondimensional contact patch length ln is found from the equation ln = 1 - Sn, and the modified lateral
m
friction coefficient  y is expressed as:
m C S
y =  y + -----------
Fz
For the longitudinal force, the lateral force, and the self-aligning torque two subcases should also be
the required condition for Case 2, CaSa > CgSg, replaces the critical condition of the inclination angle.
1. Elastic Deformation State: Ss < Ssc and Sa < Sac

90 Adams/Tire
2 m 2 3
F = C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln  – C S
2 2 3
F = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
1 2 3 m
M z  = C  S   – --- + --- l n + ---  y F z S n  l n
2 2
2 3 2
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
M zs  = --- C s S s S   l n + ---------------------------  1 – 10 l n + 15 l n – 6 l n 
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
2. Complete sliding state: Ss > Ssc or Sa > Sac
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M z  s = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
Case 3:   0 and C  S   C  S
Similar to cases 1 and 2, slip ratios due to the critical values of the inclination angle and the slip ratio are
obtained as:
3  Fz + C S
S  c = --------------------------------
3 C
1 2 2
S sc = ------  3  F z  –  C  S  – 3 C  S  
Cs
2
B2 + B2 – B1 B3
S n = --------------------------------------------
B1
where:
• B1 = (3mFz)2 - (3CgSg)2
• B2 = -3CaSaCgSg
• B3 = -[(CsSs)2 + (CaSa)2]
here since the required condition for Case 3, CaSa< CgSg, replaces the critical condition of the slip angle.
1. Elastic Deformation State: Sg < Sgc and Ss < Ssc

In the elastic deformation state, Fh and Mza may be written:
2 2 3
F = Cs Ss ln + x Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
2 3 2 2 3
F = C S  3 ln + 2 ln  – C S ln + y Fz  1 – 3 ln + 2 ln 
C S  ln
M z  = ---------------------
6
2
2 3 3 x y Fz  3 4 5
3 5 C
M zs  =  F 
2. Complete Sliding State: Sg > Sgc or Ss > Ssc
In the complete sliding state, F  , Fh, Mza, Mzsa, and Mzsg can be determined by using:
F = x Fz
F = y Fz
Mz  = 0
2
3 x y Fz 
M zs  = ---------------------------
5 C
M zs  =  F 
respectively. The longitudinal force F  , the lateral force Fh, and three components of the self-
aligning torques Mza, Mzsa, and Mzsg always have positive values, but they can be transformed to
have positive or negative values depending on the slip ratio , the slip angle , and the inclination
angle  in the SAE coordinate system.
Tire Handling Forces and Moments in the SAE Coordinate System

the SAE coordinate system (see the figure, SAE Tire Coordinate System), the three possible combinations
of the slip ratio, the slip angle, and the inclination angle are also considered.
Longitudinal Force
Fx = -sign(s) Fx, for all cases
Lateral Force
Fy = -sign(a) Fh, for cases 1 and 2
92 Adams/Tire
Fy = sign(g) Fh, for case 3
Self-aligning Torque
Mz = sign(a) Mza + sign(s) [-sign(a) Mzsa + sign(g)Mzsg]

My = -Cr Fz, for a forward rolling tire
My = Cr Fz, for a backward rolling tire
Where Cr = ROLLING_RESISTANCE.
Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force Model

The Aircraft TRR64 Tire Model's Basic NASA TR-R-64 Handling Force model is a basic version of the
NASA TR-R-64 tire model: (Smiley, Robert F. and Horne, Walter B., "Mechanical Properties of
Pneumatic Tires with Special Reference to Modern Aircraft Tires," Technical Report R-64, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (1960)). This analytical model has been widely used in the
aeronautics community. Please note that the current implementation of the NASA TR-R-64 tire model is
a simplified version of the original tire model. Further modifications are included to make the model
more appropriate for use in Adams.
• Friction Models
Before calculating the current maximum available friction coefficient, the Basic NASA TR-R-64
Handling Force Model (for Aircraft simulations) requires the evaluation of some additional variables.
First is the comprehensive slip S*s  :
S*s  = (S2s + tan2(  ))1/2
S*s  = min(1, S*s  )
Friction Models

function of the resultant comprehensive, truncated slip ratio (Ss  ) and friction parameters (UMAX and
UMIN). The friction parameters are experimentally obtained data representing the kinematic property
Figure 31 Linear Fiala Tire-Terrain Friction Model


94 Adams/Tire

–  V sxy   V UREF  
U = U max  e


So, the current value coefficient of friction (U):
Umax – Umin
V sxy 
 1 + --------------------------- -
  V UREF 
velocity Vsxy:


Now that the current maximum available total friction coefficient U is known, the handling forces can be
calculated.
Longitudinal Force
96 Adams/Tire
The Aircraft implementation of the NASA TR-R-64 tire model is similar to the Fiala model. Fiala defines
a critical longitudinal slip (S_critical):
U  Fz
S critical = ------------------------------
-
 2  CSLIP 
Fx = -CSLIP x Ss
where:
• Fx1 = U x Fz
2
 U  FZ 
• F X 2 = ---------------------------------------------
-
 4  S S   CSLIP
Lateral Force
The NASA TR-R-64 computation for the tire lateral (termed "normal" in NASA TR-R-64) is used. Like
the longitudinal force, the lateral force depends on the vertical force (Fz) and the current coefficient of
friction (U).
 4 3 
 U  Fz    – ------   for   1.5 
Fy = – sign      27  
 
  U  Fz  for    1.5  


























where:
N
 =  --------------  
U  Fz
Oversteering Moment
Tx = 0

Aligning Moment
 U  F z   h   0.8   for    0.1 

2
T z = sign     U  F z   h    –  – 0.01  for 0.1    0.55
 U  F z   h   0.2925 – 0.1   for 0.1    2.925
0 for 0  2.925
Moment Adjustments
An adjustment to the tire moments is conducted to capture the effects of the longitudinal and lateral
shifting of the approximate contact patch vertical center of pressure and center of longitudinal shear
pressure, in the presence of longitudinal and lateral tire forces.
Note: A separate moment adjustment has previously been calculated for the tire rolling resistance
effects.
Longitudinal Center of Pressure Shift

dlon = Fx / [max(1,abs(Klon)] * LON_DEFL_FACTOR
Lateral Center of Pressure Shift

dlat = Fy / [max(1,abs(Klat)] * LAT_DEFL_FACTOR
Moment Adjustments
Mx = Mx + [ Fz * dlat]
My = My - [ Fz * dlon]
Mz = Mz - [ Fx * dlat]
Force Reducer
efficient way.
98 Adams/Tire
Road Models in Adams/Tire
2 Adams/Tire
Using the 2D Road Model

This section of the help provides detailed technical reference material for using Adams/Tire to define
roads along which to maneuver a vehicle. It assumes that you know how to run Adams/Car,
Adams/Solver, Adams/View, or Adams/Chassis. It also assumes that you have a moderate level of tire-
modeling proficiency.
The 2D Road model lets you model two-dimensional road excitations, including a flat road. Learn about:
• 2D Road Types
• Examples of 2D Roads
• 2D Road Model Parameters
2D Road Types
The available road types are:
• DRUM - Tire test drum (requires a zero-speed-capable tire model).
• FLAT - Flat road.
• PLANK - Single plank perpendicular, or in oblique direction relative to x-axis, with or without
bevel edges.
• POLY_LINE - Piece-wise linear description of the road profile. The profiles for the left and right
track are independent.
• POT_HOLE- Single pothole of rectangular shape.
• RAMP - Single ramp, either rising or falling.
• ROOF - Single roof-shaped, triangular obstacle.
• SINE - Sine waves with constant wave length.
• SINE_SWEEP - Sine waves with decreasing wave lengths.
• STOCHASTIC_UNEVEN - Synthetically generated irregular road profiles that match measured
stochastic properties of typical roads. The profiles for left and right track are independent, or
may have a certain correlation.
Examples of 2D Roads
Sample files for all the road types for Adams/Car are in the standard Adams/Car database:
install_dir/shared_car_database.cdb/roads.tbl/
Sample files for all the road types for Adams/Tire are in:
install_dir/solver/atire/
Sample files for all the road types for Adams/Chassis are in:
Road Models in Adams/Tire 3
install_dir/achassis/examples/rdf/
Note that you must select a specific contact method, such as point-follower or equivalent plane, to define
how the roads will interact with the tires. Not all combinations of road, tire, and contact methods are
permitted. Allowable combinations are explained in Tire Models help under the description of the specific
tire model.
2D Road Model Parameters

The [PARAMETERS] block must contain the following data, some of which are independent of the type
of road.
Learn about parameters:
• Independent of Road Type
• Drum
• Flat
• Plank
• Polyline
• Pothole
• Ramp
• Roof
• Sine
• Sweep
• Stochastic Uneven
Parameters Independent of Road Type

The following parameters are required regardless of the road type.
[PARAMETERS] Independent of Road Type
The parameter: Indicates:

offset A constant shift of the road height values. For a flat road and offset = 0, the
road height is zero.
4 Adams/Tire

rotation_angle_xy_plane Rotation angle of the xy-plane about the road z-axis. In Adams/Car,
vehicles start running along the negative x-axis by default. It also might be
convenient to use positive x-values in the .rdf. In that case, choose
rotation_angle_xy_plane = 180 (deg).
mu Road friction correction factor (not the friction value itself), to be
multiplied with the respective rubber friction values of the tire model.
Default setting: mu = 1.0.
Parameters for Road Type of Drum

If ROAD_TYPE = drum, then define the following parameters:
[PARAMETERS] for Road Type of Drum

diameter Diameter of the tire test drum. When the diameter is < 0, the road model
simulates the outer drum. With positive rolling speed, the inner drum will
rotate clockwise and the outer drum counter-clockwise.
v Rolling speed of drum surface (be sure to keep vehicle at speed zero,
otherwise, the wheels move away from the drum).
Drum center is located at x = 0.
number_cleats Number of extra cleats on drum (number_cleats = 0 allowed).
cleat_height Height of extra cleats.
cleat_starting_angle Drum angle coordinate of first cleat.
cleat_length Length of cleat, measured in circumferential direction of drum. Example of
specifying cleat_length.
cleat_bevel_edge_length Length of bevel edge of cleat, measured in circumferential direction of
drum. Bevel edge has 45° slope. Example of specifying
cleat_bevel_edge_length.
acceleration_time Optional time span at the beginning of the simulation, during which the
drum is accelerated to a nominal rolling speed.
Parameters for Road Type of Flat

If ROAD_TYPE = flat, then no further parameters are required.
Parameters for Road Type of Plank

If ROAD_TYPE = plank, then define the following parameters:
[PARAMETERS] for Road Type of Plank

height Height of plank.
start Start of plank (travel distance).
length Length of plank, measured along x-axis.
bevel_edge_length Length of bevel edge, measured along x-axis. Bevel edge has 45° slope. When
bevel_edge_length < 0, rounded corners instead of bevel edges are used. In this
case, radius of the corner is |bevel_edge_length|.
direction Direction of plank relative to y-axis. If the plank is placed crosswise, direction =
0. If the plank is along the x-axis, direction = 90.
Parameters for Road Type of Polyline

If ROAD_TYPE = poly_line, then the [PARAMETERS] block must have a (XZ_DATA) subblock. The
subblock consists of three columns of numerical data:
• Column one is a set of x-values in ascending order.
• Columns two and three are sets of respective z-values for left and right track.
The following is an example of the full [PARAMETERS] Body for a road type of polyline:
$---------------------------PARAMETERS
[PARAMETERS]
OFFSET = 0
ROTATION_ANGLE_XY_PLANE = 180
$
(XZ_DATA)
0 0 0
1000 100 50
2000 -1000 100
3000 -100 100
3001 50 0
4000 -100 100

6 Adams/Tire
The XZ_DATA subblock can be extremely large. In this case, only the portion that is needed at the
moment is loaded. To facilitate efficient reloading while simulation is running, do not use any comment
lines in a subblock that contains more than 2000 lines.
Parameters for Road Type of Pothole

If ROAD_TYPE = pot_hole, then the parameters are:
[PARAMETERS] Data for Road Type of Pothole

depth Depth of pothole.
start Start of pothole (travel distance).
length Length of pothole.
Parameters for Road Type of Ramp

If ROAD_TYPE = ramp, then the parameters are:
[PARAMETERS] Data for Road Type of Ramp

height Height of ramp.
start Start of ramp (travel distance).
slope Slope of ramp. 1 means 45°.
Parameters for Road Type of Roof

If ROAD_TYPE = roof, then the parameters are:
[PARAMETERS] Data for Road Type of Roof

height Height of roof (triangle-shaped obstacle).
start Start of roof (travel distance).
length Length of roof, measured along x-axis.
Parameters for Road Type of Sine

If ROAD_TYPE = sine, then the parameters are:
[PARAMETERS] Data for Road Type of Sine

amplitude Amplitude of sine wave (a).
wave_length Wave length of sine wave (  e ).
start Start of sine waves (travel distance) (ss).
The road height, z, is given by:
2
z  s  = a  sin  ------  s – s s 

Parameters for Road Type of Stochastic Uneven

A stochastic uneven road profile both for left and right wheels is generated, with properties very close to
measured road profiles.
In a first step, discrete white noise signals are formed on the basis of nearly uniformly distributed random
numbers. Two of these numbers are assigned to every 10 mm of travel path. The distribution of these
random numbers is approximated by summing several equally distributed random numbers, taking
advantage of the ‘law of large numbers’ of mathematical statistics.
Next, these values are integrated with respect to travel distance, using a simple first order time-discrete
integration filter. The independent variable of that filter is not time, but travel path. That is why the filter
cutoff frequency is controlled by a path constant instead of a time constant. The filter process results in
two approximate realizations of white velocity noise; that is, two signals, the derivatives of which are
close to white noise. Signals with that property are known as road profiles with waviness 2. Several
investigations in the past showed that the waviness derived from measured road spectral densities ranges
from about 1.8 to 2.2.
The last step is to linearly combine the two realizations of the above process: z 1  s  , z 2  s  , resulting in
the left and right profile z l  s  , z r  s  . This is done such that the two signals are completely independent
·
if corr rl = 0.0 , and identical if corr rl = 1.0 :
corr rl
z l  s  = z 1  s  + --------------  z 2  s  – z 1  s  
2
corr rl
z r  s  = z 2  s  –  --------------  z 2  s  – z 1  s  
 2 
8 Adams/Tire
If ROAD_TYPE = stochastic_uneven, then the parameters are:

[PARAMETERS] for Road Type of Stochastic Uneven

intensity Variable to control intensity of white velocity noise, which approximates
measured spectra of road profiles fairly well.
path_constant Variable to control high-pass integration filter.
correlation_rl Variable to control correlation between left and right track:
• If 0, no correlation.
• If 1, complete correlation (that is, left track = right track).
Can be any value between 0 and 1.

start Start of unevenness (travel distance).
Parameters for Road Type of Sweep

If ROAD_TYPE = sine_sweep, then the parameters are:
[PARAMETERS] Data for Road Type of Sine Sweep

start Start of swept sine wave (travel distance) ( s s ).
end End of swept sine wave (travel distance) ( s e ).
amplitude_at_start Amplitude of swept sine wave at start travel distance ( a s ).
amplitude_at_end Amplitude of swept sine wave at end travel distance ( a e ).
wave_length_at_start Wave length of swept sine wave a start travel distance (  ).

s

wave_length_at_end Wave length of swept sine wave at end travel distance. Must be less than or
equal to wave_length_at_start (  e ).
10 Adams/Tire

sweep_type • sweep_type = 0: frequency increases linearly with respect to travel
distance.
• sweep_type = 1: wave length decreases by a constant factor per cycle.
Depending on the value of sweep_type, the road height is given by the

following functions,
where:
1 1
f s = ----- and f e = -----
s e
• Linear sweep: (sweep_type = 0) The frequency increases linearly with

respect to travel distance. The road height value z(s) as function of
travel distance s is calculated as follows:
 ae – as   s – ss   fe – fs   s – ss 
z  s  =  a s + --------------------------------------  sin  2    f s + ------------------------------------   s – s s 
  se – ss     2  se – ss   
Note the factor 2 in the denominator is not an error. The actual frequency (=
derivative of the sine function argument with respect to travel path, divided
by 2  ; this is not equal to that factor that is multiplied by 2   s – s s  in the
sine function) is given by the following:
 fe – fs   s – ss 
f  s  = f s + ------------------------------------
se – ss
• Logarithmic sweep: (sweep_type = 1) with every cycle, the wave
length decreases by a constant factor. The road height value is
calculated as follows:
ae – as s
z  s  =  a s + ----------------  s – s s   sin  2  f s s  ln  ------------------------ 
 se – ss    s  + s s – s 
where:
fe
s  = -------------  s e – s s 
fe – fs
s  is the travel path where theoretically an infinitely high frequency was

reached, measured relative to sweep start s s . The actual frequency is given by:
s
f  s  = ------------------------ f s
s + ss – s
Adams/3D Spline Road Model

Learn how to use the Adams/3D Spline Road model to define a road:
• About Adams/3D Spline Road
• Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Types
• Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Keywords
• Using Adams/3D Spline Road
• About the Adams/3D Spline Road Property File
About Adams/3D Spline Road

Adams/3D Spline Road lets you define an arbitrary three-dimensional smooth road surface, such as
parking structures, racetracks, and so on. A smooth road is a road surface with a curvature, which is less
than the curvature of the tire. In addition, Adams/3D Spline Road lets you model three-dimensional road
obstacles, which are placed on top of the underlying smooth road surface.
The road centerline, width, bank angle, and left and right friction levels define the road surface
completely. The road data is stored in an XML file, which you can create and modify using the Road
Builder (Learn more about Using the Road Builder). The legacy TeimOrbit road definition file (.rdf) is
still supported, and can be translated to XML using the Road Builder. For a description of the information
contained in the .rdf file, see About the Adams/3D Spline Road Property File.
By specifying the coordinates of the road centerline, you can construct any line in three-dimensional
space. Adams/3D Spline Road assumes a flat cross-section for which the bank angle and width can be
specified for each data point. In addition, you can specify friction levels for left and right road sides.
Using Adams/3D Spline Road

You can reference the Adams/3D Spline Road just as you do any other .rdf by selecting your desired road
from an appropriate database. In addition, both Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis have a Adams/3D Spline
Road event, called 3D Spline Road. Graphics for the road are automatically generated for animation
purposes.
In the current version of Adams/3D Spline Road, both Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis offer multiple
methods to access the Adams/3D Spline Road capabilities:
• When running any full vehicle simulation you may use an Adams/3D Spline Road data file for
the road.
• When using with Driving Machine, you may also use a road data file as you would a driver
control data (.dcd) file to specify the vehicle path. The Driving Machine will then drive the
vehicle along the centerline of the road.
• When using with Adams/SmartDriver, you can use the road data file to replace the driver road
data (.drd) file. In this case, the vehicle will use the x, y, and z road centerline to define the
vehicle path.
12 Adams/Tire
Examples of event (.xml) file for use with Driving Machine and Adams/SmartDriver are shown next:
For Driving Machine:
<DcfMini name="3D_SMOOTH_ROAD" active="true"

userDefined="false" smoothingTime="0.1"
activeFlag="true" abortTime="1"
stepSize="0.01" hMax="0"
>
<DcfDemand name="steering" active="true"
userDefined="false"
demandType="steering"
actuatorType="rotation"
controlMethod="machine"
controlMode="absolute"
controlType="constant"
constantValue="0" initialValue="0" finalValue="0"
startTime="0" duration="0" rampValue="0"
maximumValue="0" cycleLength="0" amplitude="0"
initialFrequency="0" frequencyRate="0"
maximumFrequency="0" functionString="0"
>
…
<DcfMachine name="machine" active="true"
userDefined="false"
steerControl="file"
dcdSteerFile="mdids://acar_shared/roads.tbl/3d_road_smooth_ramp.xml"
steerRadius="0"
steerEntry="0"
turnDirection="right"
pathPositioning="default"
speedControl="lon_accel"
velocity="0" acceleration="0" jerk="0"
startTime="0.1"
samplePeriod="0.01"
>
For Adams/SmartDriver:
DcfMini name="3D_SMOOTH_ROAD" active="true"

userDefined="false" smoothingTime="0.1"
activeFlag="true" abortTime="1"
stepSize="0.01" hMax="0"
>
<DcfDemand name="steering" active="true"
userDefined="false"
demandType="steering"
actuatorType="rotation"
controlMethod="SmartDriver"
controlMode="absolute"
controlType="constant"
constantValue="0" initialValue="0" finalValue="0"
startTime="0" duration="0" rampValue="0"
maximumValue="0" cycleLength="0" amplitude="0"
initialFrequency="0" frequencyRate="0"
maximumFrequency="0" functionString="0"
>
…
<DcfSmartDriver name="smartdriver" active="true"
userDefined="false" task="vehicle_limits"
courseFile="mdids://acar_shared/roads.tbl/3d_road_smooth_ramp.xml"
max_driving_accel="70" max_braking_accel="70"
max_lh_turn_accel="70" max_rh_turn_accel="70"
samplePeriod="0.01"
/>
Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Types

The available road perturbations are:
• CROWN - Road crown along the road centerline.
• CURB - Curb at left, right, or both sides of the road.
• PLANK - Single plank with beveled edges or rounded corners.
• POLYLINE - Cubic spline description of the road profile for left and right wheel track.
• POTHOLE - Pothole of rectangular shape.
• RAMP - Ramp, either rising or falling.
• ROOF - Roof-shaped, triangular obstacle.
• ROUGHNESS - Generated irregular road profiles with stochastic properties similar to measured
roads.
• SINE - Sine wave with constant amplitude and wavelength.
• SWEEP - Sine wave with variable amplitude and wavelength.
• GRID - Regular Grid obstacle, the road height is defined by a matrix of road height points at
equal distance
Note that a specific contact method has to be selected, which defines how Adams/3D Spline Road
interacts with the tires. Not all combinations of road, tire, and contact methods are permitted. For more
information, see the topics under Tire Model in the Table of Contents.
Be aware that Adams/3D Spline Road perturbations can generally have small wavelength content.
Therefore, the combination of tire and contact methods should be able to handle this type of excitation.
Any number of perturbations can be defined. If an overlap exists between the perturbations, then
Adams/3D Spline Road superpositions the perturbations.
14 Adams/Tire
Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Keywords

The following sections explain the keywords for each perturbation type and those independent of the
perturbation type:
• Independent of Perturbation Type
• Coordinate System
• Crown Perturbation Type
• Curb Perturbation Type
• Plank Perturbation Type
• Polyline Perturbation Type
• Pothole Perturbation Type
• Ramp Perturbation Type
• Roof Perturbation Type
• Roughness Perturbation Type
• Sine Perturbation Type
• Sweep Perturbation Type
• Grid Perturbation Type
Keywords Independent of Perturbation Type

You must specify the following data in the .rdf file, independent of the type of perturbation.
Keywords Independent of Perturbation Type
Keyword: Description:
COORDINATE_SYSTEM The type of coordinate system:
• local for a local perturbation-bound coordinate system.
• distance if the perturbation is defined along the length of the
road.
START The start position of the perturbation.
• '0.0 0.0 0.0' for a local coordinate system.
• '0.0' for a distance-defined perturbation.
STOP The stop position of the perturbation.
• '1.0 0.0 0.0' for a local coordinate system.
• '1.0' for a distance-defined perturbation.
LENGTH The length of the perturbation. LENGTH is used in defining the local
coordinate system.
WIDTH The width of the obstacle. The obstacle width can be specified
independently of the road width.
FRICTION The friction coefficient of the obstacle.
ROAD_TYPE The perturbation type.
Coordinate System Keywords

Depending on the COORDINATE_SYSTEM keyword you selected as shown in Keywords Independent
of Perturbation Type, you can use two types of coordinate systems:
• Local coordinate system - The START and STOP keywords define the local coordinate system,
while the interconnecting line and the LENGTH keyword provide the direction of the
perturbation. Adams/3D Spline Road projects the road profile height in the local coordinate
system onto the smooth road surface.
• Distance coordinate system - The START and STOP positions are expressed in distance along
the road centerline or chord length. The direction and length are, therefore, defined implicitly.
The following combinations of coordinate system and perturbation types are valid:
Valid Combinations of Perturbation Type and Coordinate System
Coordinate system:
Perturbation type: Local: Distance:
CROWN X
CURB X
PLANK X
POLYLINE X
POTHOLE X
RAMP X
ROOF X
ROUGHNESS X
SINE X
SWEEP X
GRID X
16 Adams/Tire
Keywords for Crown Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'CROWN', then you must specify the keyword DATA_BLOCK = 'CROWN DATA',
with the name of the subblock (CROWN_DATA). The subblock consists of three columns of numerical
data:
• The first column is a set of distance-values in ascending order.
• The second column contains the height of the crown.
• The third column contains the crown coefficient.
The road profile height z is a function of width-coordinates  , obstacle width w , height z 0 , and crown
coefficient c r :
cr
z    = z 0 – 4 ----  2
w
See Illustration of Crown.
Keywords for Curb Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'CURB', then you must specify the following keywords. Illustration of Curb Keywords.
Keywords for Curb Perturbation Type
HEIGHT Height of the curb(s).
ROUND_OFF Round-off radius of the top of the curb.
TOP_WIDTH The width of the top of the curb.
EDGE_WIDTH The width of the edge of the curb.
SIDE The side of the road where the curb is positioned:
• LEFT
• RIGHT
• BOTH
Keywords for Plank Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'PLANK', then you must specify the following keywords.
Illustration of keywords for:
• Edged Plank
• Rounded Plank
Keywords for Plank Perturbation Type
HEIGHT Height of the plank.
BEVEL_EDGE_LENGTH Length of the beveled edge. A beveled edge has a 45º slope. When
BEVEL_EDGE_LENGTH < 0, 3D Spline Road uses rounded corners
instead of beveled edges. In this case, the radius of the corner is
|BEVEL_EDGE_LENGTH|.
Keywords for Polyline Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'POLYLINE', then you must specify the keyword DATA_BLOCK = 'XZ_DATA',
with the name of the subblock (XZ_DATA). The subblock consists of three columns of numerical data:
• The first column is a set of distance-values in ascending order.
• The second and third columns contain the road profile height of the left and right tracks,
respectively.
Keywords for Pothole Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'POTHOLE', then you must specify the 'DEPTH' keyword, which specifies the depth
of the pothole.
Illustration of Pothole keywords.
Keywords for Ramp Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'RAMP', then you must specify the following keywords. Illustration of Ramp
keywords.
Keywords for Ramps Perturbation Type
HEIGHT Height of the ramp.
SLOPE Slope of ramp. 1 corresponds to 45º.
Keywords for Roof Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'ROOF', then you must specify the following keywords. Illustration of Roof keywords.
18 Adams/Tire
Keywords for Roof Perturbation Type
HEIGHT Height of the roof.
LENGTH Length of the base of the triangular roof.
Keywords for Roughness Perturbation Type

The roughness perturbation type uses a mathematical model developed by Sayers (1.). The model is
empirical; it is based on the observed characteristics of many measured profiles of roads of various types.
The model provides the synthesis of profiles for both the left and right wheel tracks.
If ROAD_TYPE = 'ROUGHNESS', then you must provide the following keywords:
Keywords for Roughness Perturbation Type
GE Elevation PSD parameter.
GS Velocity PSD parameter.
GA Acceleration PSD parameter.
SAMPLE_INTERVAL The distance between the road profile data points.
CORRELATION_BASE Correlation base length for filtering (recommended value = 5.0 m).
LENGTH
SEED Seed for random numbers.
• If seed is negative, the computer's clock is used as a seed. An
infinite number of profiles can be generated to match the same set
of Sayers-model parameters.
• If seed is greater than zero, the value of the seed is used as the seed
to the random-number generator. This is a means of generating
reproducible profiles with the Sayers model.
References:
1. Sayers, M.W., "Dynamic Terrain Inputs to Predict Structural Integrity of Ground Vehicles."
UMTRI Report No. UMTRI-88-16, April 1988, 114 pp.
Keywords for Sine Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'SINE', then you must provide the following keywords. Illustration of Sine keywords.
Keywords for Sine Perturbation Type
AMPLITUDE Amplitude of the sine wave (a).
WAVE_LENGTH Wave length of the sine wave (l).
The road profile height z, is given by:
2
z  s  = a  sin  ------  s

Keywords for Sweep Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'SWEEP', then you must provide the following keywords. Illustration of Sweep
Keywords.
Keywords for Sweep Perturbation Type
AMPLITUDE_AT_START Amplitude of the sine wave at start (as a s ).
AMPLITUDE_AT_END Amplitude of the sine wave at end (ae a e ).
WAVE_LENGTH_AT_START Wave length of the sine wave at start (ls l ).

s
20 Adams/Tire
WAVE_LENGTH_AT_END Wave length of the sine wave at end (le l e ).
SWEEP_TYPE • SWEEP_TYPE = 0, then frequency changes linearly.

• SWEEP_TYPE = 1, then frequency changes logarithmically.
Depending on the value of SWEEP_TYPE, the road profile
height is given by the following functions:
• Linear sweep - The frequency changes linearly with distance
s. The road profile height z is given by:
 ae – as   s – ss  s
z  s  = a s + --------------------------------------  sin 2   f s  s   ln  ------------------------
se – ss s + ss – s
• Logarithmic sweep - With every cycle, the wavelength

decreases by a constant factor. The road profile is given by:
 ae – as   s – ss   fe – fs   s – ss 
z  s  = a s + --------------------------------------  sin 2    f s + ------------------------------------ 
se – ss  2  se – ss  
where:
fe
s  = -------------  s e – s s 
fe – fs
s¥ is the distance at which, theoretically, an infinitely high
frequency is reached, with respect to the start ss.
Keywords for Grid Perturbation Type

If ROAD_TYPE = 'GRID', then you must specify the keyword DATA_BLOCK = 'GRID DATA', with
the name of the sub block (GRID_DATA). The sub block should contain the road height data points as
function of the x- and y- position. The local start coordinates will correspond to the first row and the
center column will run along the line from START to STOP. In the example below, the z13 corresponds
to the local START coordinates. Column 3 will be along the START to STOP direction.
z11 z12 z13 z14 z15

z21 z22 z23 z24 z25
z31 z32 z33 z34 z35
z41 z42 z43 z44 z45
z51 z52 z53 z54 z55
z61 z62 z63 z64 z65
z71 z72 z73 z74 z75
z81 z82 z83 z84 z85

z91 z92 z93 z94 z95
The lateral distance between two points in a row is determined by the WIDTH of the obstacle and the
number of points in a row:
distance_y = WIDTH / (number of points in a row -1)
Similar, the longitudinal distance between two points in a column is determined by the LENGTH of the
obstacle and the number of points in a column:
distance_x = LENGTH / (number of points in a column -1)
3D Spline Road will calculate the road height using cubic splines through the road height data points. See
Illustration of Grid keywords.
About the Adams/3D Spline Road Property File

The following sections explain the data blocks in the Adams/3D Spline Road property file (.rdf). The last
section contains a sample .rdf.
• File Details
• Units Details
• Model Details
• Global Parameters
• Data Points Information
• Sample Road Data File
File Details
The first block of data, [MDI_HEADER], describes the TeimOrbit file:
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'rdf'
FILE_VERSION = 5.00
{COMMENTS}
'User entered comments go here'
MDI_HEADER Keywords
The keywords: Contains:

FILE_TYPE The file type.
FILE_VERSION Version of file; to be changed when modifications to this file are made.
22 Adams/Tire
The keywords: Contains:

FILE_FORMAT The format of the data; for TeimOrbit, this is always ASCII.
{COMMENTS} Descriptive comments about the file, such as what road this represents,
'User entered comments when the data was acquired, and so on.
go here'
Units Details
The [UNITS] blocks defines the units for the road:
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'meter'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
[UNITS] Keywords
The keywords: Specifies:

LENGTH Unit of length.
FORCE Unit of force.
ANGLE Angle in radians or degrees.
MASS Unit of mass.
TIME Unit of time.
Model Details
The [MODEL] block defines the road model and version:
[MODEL]
METHOD = '3D_SPLINE'
VERSION = 1.00
[MODEL] Keywords
The keyword: Determines:

METHOD Road contact algorithm that Adams/Tire uses. You must set
method='3D_SPLINE' to instruct Adams/Tire to use the Adams/3D Spline
Road spline algorithm.
VERSION Version of 3D_SPLINE algorithm being used; currently, 1.00.
Global Parameters
The [GLOBAL_PARAMETERS]block defines parameters applying to the entire road.
[GLOBAL_PARAMETERS]
CLOSED_ROAD = 'NO'
SEARCH_ALGORITHM = 'FAST'
ROAD_VERTICAL = '0.0 0.0 1.0'
FORWARD_DIR = 'NORMAL'
MU_LEFT = 0.5
MU_RIGHT = 0.6
WIDTH = 5.000
BANK = 0.0
[GLOBAL_PARAMETERS) Keywords
The keyword: Specifies:

CLOSED_ROAD Whether the road is closed or open. If the road is not structured to be
closed (the beginning and end of the road are not facing each other) and
you select the closed option, Adams/Tire creates a deformed road.
• YES - The road is closed.
• NO - The road is open.
SEARCH_ALGORITHM The type of algorithm to be used to determine the contact location. For
smooth roads, we recommend Fast algorithm.
• FAST - Specifies Fast algorithm.With Fast algorithm, caching is
–6
used if the input point is within 1 10 [m] distance from the
previous input point.
• SLOW - Specifies Slow algorithm. With Slow algorithm, no
caching is used and the greatest accuracy is achieved.
ROAD_VERTICAL Vector specifying the z-axis of the user-coordinate system with respect to
ISO-coordinate system. This option allows you to specify the road data
points in your preferred reference frame. During simulation, Adams/Tire
converts all the data points to the ISO-reference frame based on the
ROAD_VERTICAL values:
'0.0 0.0 1.0' - The z-axis of user-reference frame with respect to ISO
reference frame.
FORWARD_DIR Forward direction of the road:
• NORMAL - Vehicle travels along the specification of road data
point.
• INVERT - Vehicle travels in a direction opposite to that of
specified road data points.
24 Adams/Tire

MU_LEFT Road friction value on the left side of the road with respect to the
centerline of the road. Specifying road friction under
[GLOBAL_PARAMETERS] overwrites any specification of road friction
values in the [DATA_POINTS] block. See Data Points Information.
MU_RIGHT Road friction value on the right side of the road with respect to the
centerline of the road. Specifying road friction under
[GLOBAL_PARAMETERS] overwrites any specification of road friction
values in the [DATA_POINTS] block. See Data Points Information.
WIDTH Width of the road. If you specify WIDTH, it takes precedence over the
WIDTH value specified in the [DATA_POINTS] block. Even if this
parameter is set, you must specify the WIDTH parameter in
[DATA_POINTS]. If this parameter is not required, then you can omit it
from the road data file (.rdf). See Data Points Information.
BANK Slope angle of the road around its centerline in each data point. Zero bank
means a horizontal width line. A positive value specifies a slope along a
clockwise direction in ISO-reference frame.
If you specify this dimension, then it takes precedence over the BANK
value specified in the [DATA_POINTS] block. Even if you set this
dimension, you must specify a BANK value. If this dimension is not
required, then you can omit it from the .rdf file. See Data Points
Information.
Data Points Information

The [DATA_POINTS] block contains the road information in a tabular form. The following information
needs to be supplied for each entry.
[DATA_POINTS]
{ X Y Z WIDTH BANK MU_LEFT MU_RIGHT
OBSTACLES }
[DATA_POINTS] Keywords

X X coordinate of sampled road data point.
Y Y coordinate of sampled road data point.
Z Z coordinate of sampled road data point.
WIDTH Width of road at the sampled point.
BANK Angle of road at the sampled point; positive value specifies a slope along a
clockwise direction in ISO-reference frame.

MU_LEFT Road friction on the left side of road with respect to the centerline of the road
at the sampled point.
MU_RIGHT Road friction on the right side of road with respect to the centerline of the road
at the sampled point.
OBSTACLES The name of block that contains the perturbation information. This entry is
optional.
Sample Road Data File

$--------------------------------------------------------MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE = 'rdf'
FILE_VERSION = 5.00
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Example of 3d Smooth road'
$------------------------------------------------------------UNITS
[UNITS]
LENGTH = 'meter'
FORCE = 'newton'
ANGLE = 'radians'
MASS = 'kg'
TIME = 'sec'
$--------------------------------------------------------DEFINITION
[MODEL]
METHOD = '3D_SPLINE'
$---------------------------------------------------ROAD_PARAMETERS
[GLOBAL_PARAMETERS]
CLOSED_ROAD = 'NO'
SEARCH_ALGORITHM = 'FAST'
ROAD_VERTICAL = '0.0 0.0 1.0'
FORWARD_DIR = 'NORMAL'
MU_LEFT = 0.5
MU_RIGHT = 0.5
WIDTH = 5.000
BANK = 0.0
$-------------------------------------------------------DATA_POINTS
[DATA_POINTS]
{ X Y Z WIDTH BANK MU_LEFT MU_RIGHT
OBSTACLES }
12.50000E+00 4.60432E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
10.50000E+00 4.60432E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
5.50000E+00 4.60432E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900 0.900
CROWN
0.50000E+00 4.60432E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900 0.900
26 Adams/Tire
1.53081E-18 1.42109E-17 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900

0.900
-2.50000E+00 4.68958E-16 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-5.00000E+00 9.37916E-16 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-7.50000E+00 1.39266E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-1.00000E+01 1.84741E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-1.25000E+01 2.30216E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-1.50000E+01 2.77112E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-1.75000E+01 3.22586E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
-2.00000E+01 3.69482E-15 0.00000E-00 7.000 0.000 0.900
0.900
$-----------------------------------------------------END_DATA_POINTS
[CROWN]
COORDINATE_SYSTEM = 'distance'
START = 7
STOP = 16
WIDTH = 4
ROAD_TYPE = 'CROWN
DATA_BLOCK = 'CROWN_DATA'
FRICTION = 0.900
(CROWN_DATA)
{S HEIGHT CROWN}
7.00000E+00 0.00000E+00 0.00000E+00
8.00000E+00 1.25000E-02 3.12500E-03
9.00000E+00 5.00000E-02 1.25000E-02
1.00000E+01 8.75000E-02 2.18750E-02
1.10000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
1.20000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
1.30000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
1.40000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
1.50000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
1.60000E+01 1.00000E-01 2.50000E-02
Using the Road Builder

The Road Builder lets you create and edit 3D Spline Road property files in XML format. It is available
in Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis.
The following sections explain more about the Road Builder:
• Conversion of TeimOrbit Format 3D Spline Road Property Files to XML Format
• Starting the Road Builder
• Creating Road Property Files

• Opening Road Property Files
• Changing Units
• Saving Changes
• Displaying Header Information and Adding Comments
• Setting Global Parameters
• Setting Soil Properties
• Defining Road Data Points
• Defining Obstacles
• Defining Analytical Road
Conversion of TeimOrbit Format 3D Spline Road Property Files to XML Format

The Road Builder does not use TeimOrbit property files. If you open a TeimOrbit 3D Spline Road
property file in the Road Builder, it automatically converts it to XML format. This XML 3D Spline Road
property file is stored in the working directory and loaded in the Road Builder.
Starting the Road Builder

To start the Road Builder in Adams/Car:
• From the Simulate menu, point to Full-Vehicle Analysis, and then select Road Builder.
To start the Road Builder in Adams/Chassis:

• In Build mode, from the Utilities menu, select Road Builder.
In both cases, the Road Builder starts with the road_3d_sine_example.xml example road property file
loaded as shown in the figure below. The Road Builder consists of six tabs:
• Header - Displays header and units information and lets you enter comments. Learn more.
• Global - Sets parameters for the entire road. Learn more.
• Soil Properties - If road is used for the Soft Soil Tire model, the soil properties should be
entered. Learn more.
• Road Points - Sets parameters that define the points in the road. Learn more.
• Obstacle - Defines obstacles in the road. Learn more.
• Road Generator - Allows the user to create/modify road data file using segments. Learn more.
28 Adams/Tire
Creating a 3D Spline Road Property File
To create a new 3D Spline Road property file:

• From the File menu, select New.
When you create a new 3D Spline Road property file, the default values of the road vertical are set to
(0.0, 0.0, 1.0). Note that the road vertical is normalized at the Adams/Solver level.
Opening an Existing 3D Spline Road Property File
To edit an existing 3D Spline Road property file, do one of the following:

• From the File menu, select Open, and then browse for the desired file.
• To the right of the Road File text box, select the Browse button , and then browse for the
desired file.
Changing Units
To change the units:

1. From the Settings menu, select Units.
2. Change the units, and then select OK.
Saving Changes
To save changes you make to the XML file:

1. At the bottom of the Road Builder, select either Save or Save As.
2. If you selected Save As, enter the file name, and then select OK.
Displaying Header Information and Adding Comments

The Header tab shows information about the road file and the units of the 3D Spline Road object. You
can add comments in the Revision Comment area, as shown in the figure below.
To display header information and add comments:

1. Select the Header tab.
2. View the information and in the Revision Comment area, enter any comments to help you
manage the road property file.
30 Adams/Tire
Enter
Comments
here
Setting Global Parameters

Parameters that apply to the entire road are defined in the Global Tab, shown below. Learn more about
the global parameters.
To edit the parameters:

1. Select the Global tab.
2. Change the parameters as explained in global parameters.
Tip: To help you correctly enter values, the units for the current parameter appear in the
Current Field Unit text box.
Displays
units of
currently
selected
parameter
Setting Soil Properties

In case that the road is used for the Soft Soil Tire model the soil properties should be entered. These
properties are used by the Soft Soil Tire model only: when the Soil Properties are in the road data file,
but another tire model is used, they are ignored.
Note that the Soil Properties will be valid for the whole road area, no sections with specific other values
can be defined.
32 Adams/Tire
Defining Road Data Points

The Road Points tab shows the Road Data Points table, as shown in the figure below. Learn about 3D
Spline Road data points. Using the table, you can add and delete road data points and display the points
as a plot so you can visualize the road and make changes to it.
• Working with Data Rows
• Plotting Road Data Points
Working with Data Rows

You can edit any of the data in the rows of the Road Data Points table and add or delete rows. The
following provide you with the basics of enter data points in the table.
To edit the values in a row:

• Select the value you want to change, and then type a new value. Learn about the data point
values.
To add rows to the Road Data Points table:

1. Select Add Road Points, located below the table.
2. Enter the number of data points you want to enter, and then select OK.
The Road Builder adds the rows to the end of the table.
34 Adams/Tire
To delete rows in the Road Data Point table:

• Select the row or rows you want to delete, right-click the column Number, and then select
Delete Row(s).
The Road Builder renumbers the rows of the table.
To add a single row to the end of the table:

• Right-click the column Number, and then select Add Row.
To insert a single row below a selected row:

• Right-click the row in the column below which you want to add a row, and then select Insert
Row.
To copy and paste data in rows:

• Highlight the text you want to copy, and then select an copy (CTRL + C) data from a source and
paste (CTRL + V) it in the road data points table.
Plotting Road Data Points

You can visualize the road data plots by plotting them as x-y (x values versus y values) or x-z plots (x
values versus z values).
Note that if both the x-y plot and x-z plots are active, changes to road data points in one plot are not
automatically updated in the other plot. Close and reopen the plot after updating the main road data points
table.
Displays
table of
points,
which can
edit
directly
To plot the road data points:

• Select Show X-Y Plot or Show X-Z Plot to create a plot of the road, as shown in the figure
above for x-y values.
To fit the display of the plot into the plotting window, do one of the following:
• Select Fit.
• Right-click the plot, and then select Fit.
To view the data points in the plot:

• Right-click the plot, and then select Show Symbols.
• To view the data points as a curve:
• Right-click the plot, and then select Show Curve.
To zoom the display:

1. Select Zoom.
2. using the mouse, draw a box around the area of the plot you want to view.
36 Adams/Tire
To modify the road data points:

1. Right-click the plot, and then select Show Symbols.
2. Drag the points using the mouse. The new coordinates for the data points update in the table on
the right.
3. Select OK. (The road data points are not updated in the main table until you select OK.)
To exit the plot:

• In the upper right corner, select the X.
Defining Obstacles
The Obstacle tab shows the 3D Spline Road obstacles (also called road perturbations). If there is more
than one road obstacle, the Obstacle tab displays the Obstacle table, as shown in the figure below. If there
is only one road obstacle, the Obstacle tab shows the Obstacle Property Editor. You can only create a new
obstacle in the Obstacle table.
For each obstacle, all parameters are stored in the XML format 3D Spline Road property file. This will
make it easy to change obstacle type for a particular obstacle if data already exists.
Adding, Deleting, and Renaming Obstacles
To create a new road obstacle in the Obstacle table:

1. In the Name text box, enter the name of the obstacle.
2. Select Add.
3. Enter the values for the obstacle as explained in Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Keywords
To rename an obstacle:
• Right-click the obstacle name in the table, select Rename Obstacle, and then enter a new name.
To delete an obstacle:
• Right-click the obstacle name in the table, select Delete Obstacle.
Using the Obstacle Property Editor

The Obstacle Property Editor, shown in the figure below, shows the common and obstacle-specific
parameters. The obstacle-specific parameters portion of the dialog box only shows those parameters that
belong to the selected obstacle type.
Note that you cannot change the coordinate system in the Common Obstacle portion as the obstacle type
determines whether Local or Distance should be used.
You manage the data in the tables for the Polyline and Crown obstacle types in the same way you do road
data points. For more information on adding, deleting, and copying/pasting of data, see Defining Road
Data Points.
To display the Obstacle Property Editor, do one of the following:

• Right-click the obstacle name in the Obstacle table, and then select Modify with
PropertyEditor.
• Double-click the obstacle name in the obstacle table.
To return to the Obstacle table:
• Click the arrow at the top left side.

• To edit the values:
• Change the values as explained in Adams/3D Spline Road Perturbation Keywords.
Tip: To help you correctly enter values, the units for the current parameter appear in the
Current Field Unit text box.
38 Adams/Tire
Parameters
common
to all
obstacles
Parameters
specific
to the
selected
obstacle
Defining Analytical Road

Following example illustrates how to create/modify a road model analytically from scratch in
Adams/Road Builder. Road data can be created with multiple segments, each segment representing
predefined formulations like Linear, Curvature, and Transition Curve or through User Defined Functions
and User Defined Points.
Steps to Create a Road Data File:

New tab Road Generator is added to the Road Builder GUI. This tab allows the user to create/modify
road data file using segments.
To create a new segment, enter segment name in the Name field and click Add button. Segment name
should be unique. To make it easier for the user to create road profile, some basic functions were created.
User can use these functions by giving appropriate values.
40 Adams/Tire
To see the road points click on Export points to Data Table this will calculate the road points according
to the segment function and export them to the Road Points tab in the GUI.
To see the road points in 2D click button Show X-Y Plot & Show X-Z Plot. To see the road profile with
shell graphics click on Generate 3d Road. To see in 3D, user should have Adams/Car license.
Description of Functions:
Linear:
This function will create a straight line between two given points. Inputs required are Number of points,
Start point, End point, Width, Bank, mu Left and mu Right.
Curvature:
This function will create a curve. Inputs required for this function are Number of Points, Start point,
Center point, Tangent Point, Radius, Arc Length, Width, Bank, mu Left and mu Right.
42 Adams/Tire
Transition:
This function will connect the start and end point of the road. Inputs required for this are segment 1,
segment 1 point, segment 2, segment 2 point, Width, Bank, mu Left and mu Right.
User Defined Points:
This functionality allows the user to define their road points directly. This functionality is more useful in
the case when a user wants to use the existing road point which is already in the old road data file format.
The points are appended to the road points table.
User Defined Functions:

User can calculate points using their own functions.
For example:
User function = s*75; s*10; 0
Function Start = -10
Function End = 10
Calculation of Road Point:
-10*75; -10*10; 0
-9*75; -9*10; 0
-8*75; -8*10; 0
44 Adams/Tire
Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Model

The 3D Shell Road utilizes a three-dimensional tire-to-road contact model that computes the volume of
intersection between a road and tire. From the intersection volume the method computes an equivalent
plane's effective road normal, penetration, tire to road contact point, and effective road friction. The road
is modeled as a set of discrete triangular patches, the tire as a set of cylinders. This model lets you
simulate a vehicle that is hitting a curb or pothole, or moving on rough, irregular road surfaces.
The 3D Shell Road uses data from both the tire property and road property files. The road model uses
these blocks from the tire property file:
• Units
• Unloaded_Radius
• Width
• Shape
From the road property file it uses these blocks:

• Title
• Units
• Model
• Offset
• Nodes
• Element
Applying the Tire Carcass Shape

This section discusses how the three-dimensional shell road applies the tire carcass shape, which is
defined in the tire property file (for more information on defining shape in the tire property file, see Fiala
Tire Carcass Shape). The contact algorithm interpolates the tire carcass shape to a given number of
equally spaced points.
You define the tire carcass shape as a set of points in the shape table of the tire property file. Adams/Tire
assumes that tire carcass shape is symmetrical over the center line of the tire. Therefore, you need to enter
shape points for only half of the tire width. If the tire carcass shape is not defined, Adams/Tire defines it
as a rectangular shape based on the radius and width of the tire.
You define carcass shape in terms of relative values (scales). Absolute coordinate values for the shape
are computed by multiplying relative values with the unloaded radius and half-width of the tire. The
relative width of the tire must be given in ascending order from 0.0 to 1.0, where the value 0.0
corresponds to the center line of the tire.
Tire Carcass Defined Using Given Shape and Interpolated Values
46 Adams/Tire
Road Property File

The contact algorithm works from a triangle tessellated road representation. The figure below depicts a
road surface formed by six nodes numbered 1 through 6. The six nodes together form four triangular
patch elements denoted as A, B, C, and D. The unit outward normal for each triangular patch is shown
for the sake of clarity. Much like finite-element mesh convention, you define a road by first specifying
the coordinates of each node in the road-reference-marker axis system. Subsequently, you specify the
three nodes that form each triangular patch. For each triangular patch, you can specify a coefficient of
friction.
Road Representation in Adams/Tire
Defining the 3D Shell Road Surface

You use a road property file to define the three-dimensional road surface. The road property file consists
of five data blocks:
• Header
• Units
• Model
• Nodes
• Elements
These blocks of data can appear in any order in the file, and keywords can appear in any order within the
block to which they belong.
The road property file can contain more data than what the 3D Shell Road currently requires. The 3D
Shell Road searches for the blocks and keywords it needs and disregards any additional information in
the file. Any line that is not recognized as input data is treated as a comment, and therefore skipped.
Therefore, you can use almost any character to begin a comment line, but we recommend that you use
$'s, !'s, or #'s to avoid confusion. Avoid using comment lines beginning with a square bracket ( [ ), or lines
that could interfere with keywords.
Tables must always appear as one set of data. No comment or empty lines are allowed between lines.
Tables must always have a header line beginning with a brace, ( { ).
48 Adams/Tire
A keyword and its value are separated by an equal sign (=). You must enter strings within single (' ') or
double (" ") quotes.
Examples of Blocks:
Units Block
Block header: [UNITS]
Keywords: Allowed values:
LENGTH = {'meter', 'mm', 'cm', 'km', 'inch', 'mile'}
Model Block
The method keyword in the block determines the road contact algorithm Adams/Tire uses. You must set
method='3D' to instruct Adams/Tire to use the 3D Shell Road algorithm.
Block header: [MODEL]
METHOD = {'3D'}
Nodes Block
Block header: [NODES]
NUMBER_OF_NODES = <an integer number>
Tabular data:
{ node x_value y_value z_value }
1 <a real number (X)> <a real number (Y)> <a real number (Z)>
2 <a real number (X)> <a real number (Y)> <a real number (Z)>
...
<an integer number> <a real number (X)> <a real number (Y)> <a real
number (Z)>
Elements Block
Block header: [ELEMENTS]
NUMBER_OF_ELEMENTS = <an integer number>
Tabular data:
{ node_1 node_2 node_3 mu }
<an integer number> <an integer number> <an integer number> <a real
number>
number>
...
number>
Soft Soil Road Model
Soft Soil Road Model

When using the Adams/Tire Soft Soil tire model, the road file needs a section that with the soil properties.
All Adams/Tire road formats can be used in combination with the Soft Soil tire model as long as the road
file contains a section in which these soil properties are specified. For further details see the section Using
the Soft-Soil tire model.
50 Adams/Tire
OpenCRG Road Model
OpenCRG Road Model

The OpenCRG Road Model (CRG = 'Curved Regular Grid') is based on the open source code delivered
at http://www.opencrg.org/
The website states about the background of this road model:
'Its objective is the provision of a series of open file formats and tools for the detailed description of road
surfaces.
The predecessor of OpenCRG® is a format called CRG which has been used internally for several years
by Daimler AG. An entire suite of MATLAB® and FORTRAN tools had been developed for the handling,
evaluation and generation of CRG data.
This knowledge and a whole new series of tools including a new C-API shall be made available to the
broad public by means of the OpenCRG® initiative. Users shall be enabled to use all data, libraries and
code samples on this website with minimum opensource licensing restrictions.'
For details about the use and format of the CRG road files is referred to the users manual available at the
website. Below the use of CRG within Adams is explained.
The OpenCRG road can be used with any Adams/Tire tire model.
Positioning of the OpenCRG road

In general the position of the CRG measured road data will not match with the required position for your
(vehicle model). There are two options to change the position of the road:
1. Change the position and/or orientation of the road/tire reference marker (std_tire_ref)
2. Define the x, y, z reference point in the .crg file, by adding the following data block (see also
OpenCRG user's manual):
$ROAD_CRG_MODS
refpoint_x = -666.0
refpoint_y = -132.5
refpoint_z = 29.8
refpoint_phi = 0.0
Note: Some .crg files contain binary formatted data blocks. Adding ascii statements in
such .crg file may easily destroy the format and make the file un-readable for the
OpenCRG code. One may avoid editing the existing .crg file by using the
$ROAD_CRG_FILE feature in a master .crg file. An example of a master file is the
sample_country_road_repositioned.crg in the acar_shared/tires.tbl folder.
Messaging by OpenCRG
By default the messaging level is set to writing out (fatal) errors only (level 1). Changing the messaging
level can be done by setting the environment variable CRG_MESSAGE_LEVEL:
OpenCRG Road Model
CRG_MESSAGE_LEVEL = 0 dCrgMsgLevelNone
1 dCrgMsgLevelFatal
2 dCrgMsgLevelWarn
3 dCrgMsgLevelNotice
4 dCrgMsgLevelInfo
5 dCrgMsgLevelDebug
OpenCRG road visualization

Visualization of the OpenCRG roads is supported within Adams/Car. At the end of a simulation the road
grid will be visualized using default settings for grid and overall road size. The maximum number of grid
datapoints used in these default settings can be changed using an environment variable
CRG_MAX_VIS_POINTS:CRG_MAX_VIS_POINTS = 10000.
52 Adams/Tire
OpenCRG Road Model
However, the user can specify his own detailed preferences for visualization by adding his specification
in a $ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION data block in the .crg file.
$ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION
visualization_increment_u = 0.25 !for grid size in long. direction
visualization_increment_v = 0.25 !for grid size in lat. direction
visualization_start_u = -10.0 !point where visualization starts
visualization_start_v = -5.0 !point where visualization starts
visualization_end_u = 700.0 !point where visualization ends
visualization_end_v = 5.0 !point where visualization ends
Notes: • If the visualization_start and visualization_end values exceed the

measured road area the output of CRG is shown in a difference color (green).
• If the increment values are smaller then the measured grid value, the measured grid
value is taken.
• The $ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION can also be specified in the a master .rdg file
that is referring to another file using the $ROAD_CRG_FILE block.
OpenCRG Road Model
Patches (in red) with detailed grids can be shown by adding

$ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION_PATCH_# blocks within the $ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION data
block, see the example below.
$ROAD_CRG_VISUALIZATION_PATCH_1
visualization_increment_u = 0.014
visualization_increment_v = 0.0132
visualization_start_u = 20.0
visualization_start_v = -1.0
visualization_end_u = 22.0
visualization_end_v = 1.0
The defined start, end and increment values of patches may be modified by the visualization routines to
fit the patch in the global grid size of the road.
54 Adams/Tire
OpenCRG Road Model
Adams/SmartDriver support
The .crg files can also be used for the desired path on the x-y plane in case of a ‘Full-Vehicle Analysis
 Course Event' or a ‘Full-Vehicle Analysis  Adams/SmartDriver’ analysis. The x and y
coordinates are derived by converting the u at v = 0 coordinates towards the x, y coordinate system. Also
the ‘Full-Vehicle Analysis  Path Optimization’ tool can deal with the .crg files.
Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis quasi-statics

When quasi-statics does not converge, setting the following environment variable may help:
QS_USE_VARINF='YES'
User-Written Tire/Road Models
2 Adams/Tire
Overview of Creating User Tire and Road Models

This section of the help explains how to create your own tire models for use with Adams/Tire. To use this
help, you must have:
• Intermediate proficiency using Adams/Solver, Adams/Car, Adams/Chassis, or Adams/View.
• Ability to compile and link user-written subroutines with Adams/Solver to build an
Adams/Solver user library.
• Advanced knowledge of tire mechanics and tire modeling.
• Basic knowledge of FORTRAN programming.
• Access to a source code debugger.
You can create tire or road models that extend the capabilities of Adams/Tire to better meet your needs.
You create a tire model by writing a TYRSUB subroutine that Adams/Tire calls to calculate tire forces
and moments. You create a road model by writing a ARCSUB subroutine that Adams/Tire calls to
determine the tire-road contact point, local road normal, and road coefficient of friction.
The sections introduce you to creating tire and road models:
• How Adams/Tire Works
• What Adams/Tire Expects Tire Models to Do
• Steps to Create a Tire or Road Model
• Example Tire Model
How Adams/Tire Works

Before you create a tire or road model it is important to know a little about how Adams/Tire works, and
how, in particular, Adams/Tire decides what tire model or road model to use. When you add tires to your
Adams model and submit it for analysis (Flow of Information in Adams/Tire):
• Adams/Solver invokes Adams/Tire because of the GFORCE and DIFF statements with USER
functions in the Adams model.
• Adams/Tire gets the Tire Property File name from a STRING statement in the Adams model,
opens the file, and reads portions of it to determine which tire model to use (for example, Fiala,
MF-TYRE, or your tire model). If the [MODEL] block in tire property, for example, looks like
this:
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'USER'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'TYR501'
Adams/Tire uses the tire model implemented in subroutine TYR501.
• Adams/Tire gets the Road Property File name from another STRING statement in the Adams
model, opens the file, and reads portions of it to determine which road model to use (for
example, 2D, 3D, or your road model). If the [MODEL] block in the road property file, for
example, looks like this:
User-Written Tire/Road Models 3
[MODEL]
METHOD = 'USER'
USER_SUB_ID = 400
Adams/Tire uses the road model implemented in subroutine ARC400.
• Adams/Tire then calls the tire model to initialize it. And, in turn, the tire model calls the road
model to initialize it.
• Adams/Tire also calls the tire model many times during a simulation, passing it the wheel states
(displacement, orientation, and velocity). The tire model calls the road model, which returns the
tire-road contact point, local road normal, and coefficient of friction. The tire model then
calculates the tire forces and moments and returns them to Adams/Tire.
The following figure shows the relationship between Adams/Tire, tire models, road models, and the tire
and road property files.
Flow of Information in Adams/Tire
What Adams/Tire Expects Tire and Road Models to Do

Learn about expectations for:
4 Adams/Tire
• Tire Models
• Road Models
Tire Models
Adams/Tire executes in two basic phases:
• Initialization - During the initialization phase, Adams/Tire expects a tire model to:
• Read parameters from the tire property file and return them to Adams/Tire for storage in
static memory.
• Call the road model so it can read the road property file.
• Simulation - During the simulation phase, Adams/Tire expects a tire model to:
• Call the road model to obtain the tire-road contact point, local road normal, and coefficient
of friction.
• Calculate tire forces and moments and return them in System International (SI) units
(Newton and Newton-meters) in the ISO-C (TYDEX) axis system (see About Axis Systems
and Sign Conventions).
• Return other results in an array for plotting and output. For example, return slip angle,
inclination angle, and effective rolling radius.
The interaction between Adams/Tire and tire models generally adheres to the TYDEX Working Group's
Standard Tire Interface v1.4 (STI v1.4).To learn more about how Adams/Tire interacts with tire models,
including the calling arguments for TYRSUB, see Creating Tire Models.
Road Models
Adams/Tire does not directly call road models. Instead, Adams/Tire calls the tire, and the tire model
(TYRSUB) calls the road model. Again, there are two basic phases of execution:
• Initialization - During initialization, Adams/Tire expects a road model to read parameters from
the road property file and return them through the tire model to Adams/Tire for storage in static
memory.
• Simulation - During simulation, road models calculate the tire-road contact point, local road
normal, and local coefficient of friction. The road model calculates these quantities based on the
location and orientation of the wheel center of the tire. To learn more about road models, see
Creating Road Models.
Steps to Create a Tire or Road Model

Use the following steps as a guide when creating your own tire or road model:
1. Create your own model using an example tire or road model as a guide. Before you begin you
should consider:
• How your model differs from existing models included with Adams/Tire.
• How your tire model will calculate tire kinematic quantities, such as slip angle. Adams/Tire
provides utilities you might want to use (see Utilities for Reading Property Files).
• What outputs Adams/Tire requires for tire and road models. And, in the case of a tire model,
what additional quantities you might want to output.
2. Create an example property file for use with your tire or road model and the code to read the file.
Before you begin you need to know:
• What parameters your tire or road property files will contain, including those required by
Adams/Tire.
• How to read the parameters from the file and how to convert these parameters from the units
specified in the property file to SI units (meters-kilograms-seconds).
• Where to store the parameters in the tire (TYRARR) or road (ROPAR) parameters array so
Adams/Tire can save them between calls to your TYRSUB.
For more information, see Defining and Reading Tire Property Files.
3. Create a private version of an Adams/Car Adams/Solver user library (currently you cannot add a
user tire or road models outside of Adams/Car). To learn how, see Performing Simulations.
4. Test your tire or road model using a simple Adams model and the private Adams/Car
Adams/Solver user library. You can find a simple Adams model and Adams/Solver command file
for testing tires and roads at install_dir/solver/atire/test_rig.{adm,acf}. Access to a debugger is
helpful to verify that your tire model is working properly.
Example Tire Model

Adams/Tire includes an example tire model and its related files that implement a Fiala tire model with
relaxation effects.
The example illustrates all the tasks a typical tire model must perform and provides you with a starting
point when creating your own tire models. The example consists of the following files located at
install_dir/solver/atire/usrsubs:
• A tire property file incorporating a relaxation length parameter: usr_fiala.tir
• A subroutine for reading the tire property file: rpf501.f
• A TYRSUB that calls rpf501 to read the tire property file and that computes the tire forces and
moments: tyr501.f
• An include file that tyr501.f and rpf501.f share. The include file defines the locations in the
TYRARR array of parameters read from the tire property file: tyr501.inc
• Other include files that tyr501.f requires: abg_varptr.inc and ac_tir_jobflg.inc
To learn more about the default Fiala tire model supplied with Adams/Tire, see Using the Fiala Handling
Force Model.
6 Adams/Tire
Creating Tire Models

You create a user tire model by writing a TYRSUB subroutine that Adams/Tire calls to calculate tire
forces and moments. Learn about:
• Instructing Adams/Tire to Call Your TYRSUB
• Tasks Your TYRSUB Must Perform
• TYRSUB Arguments
Instructing Adams/Tire to Call Your TYRSUB

You instruct Adams/Tire to call your TYRSUB by defining a tire property file that specifies a user
property file format and subroutine ID that matches your TYRSUB. For example, Adams/Tire calls
TYR501 if it finds the following in the tire property file:
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = 'USER'
FUNCTION_NAME = 'TYR501'
Your TYRSUB generally will read data it needs from the tire property file. In addition, Adams/Tire
requires each tire property file to contain specific information about units, tire dimensions, tire stiffness,
and tire damping. For more information about defining and reading tire property files, see Defining and
Reading Tire Property Files.
Tasks Your TYRSUB Must Perform

All TYRSUBs must perform these tasks:
1. Read any data it requires from the tire property file.
2. Call the ROAD subroutine to initialize the road model and to determine the road location, local
road normal, and road coefficient of friction.
3. Calculate the tire forces and moments in units of Newtons and Newton-meters and return them to
Adams/Tire at the wheel center in the ISO-C axis system (see About Axis Systems and Sign
Conventions).
4. Load results, such as slip angle, in the VARINF array for plotting.
5. Handle errors. For example, report when needed data is missing from the tire property file.
The TYDEX Working Group's Standard Tire Interface version 1.4 (STI v1.4), to which Adams/Tire
generally adheres, governs how and when your TYRSUB performs these tasks. According to STI v1.4,
the TYRSUB performs specific tasks based on the value of the integer argument JOBFLG. The skeletal
TYRSUB example, shown below, shows which tasks the TYRSUB performs based on JOBFLG. The
arguments and their declarations are omitted here for brevity. For complete descriptions of the arguments,
see TYRSUB Arguments.
Skeletal TYRSUB Example

SUBROUTINE TYRxxx(....)
include 'ac_sti_jobflg.inc'
include 'abg_varptr.inc'
IF ( JOBFLG .EQ. INIT .OR.

. JOBFLG .EQ. RESET ) THEN
c Read Tire Property File
ENDIF
c Call The ROAD Subroutine
CALL ROAD(....)
IF ( JOBFLG .EQ. NORMAL .OR.

. JOBFLG .EQ. DIFF ) THEN
C Calculate The Tire Forces And Moments
c Tire Kinematics
c Tire Forces And Moments At Contact Patch
c Transfer Forces And Moments to Wheel Center in ISO C-Axis System
c Load Results In VARINF Array
ENDIF
c Handle Errors
RETURN
END
Reading The Tire Property File

During the initialization process, Adams/Tire calls your TYRSUB with JOBFLG = 2 (INIT ). When
JOBFLG = INIT, your TYRSUB should open and read the tire property file. Your TYRSUB can statically
store the data read from the property file or return it to Adams/Tire in the TYPARR array. Adams/Tire
stores the contents of TYPARR in static memory between calls to your TYRSUB.
Adams/Tire requires all tire property files to contain specific information in TeimOrbit format that it
reads before calling your TYRSUB. For more information about these requirements see Defining and
Reading Tire Property Files. Finally, Adams/Tire provides utilities for reading property files employing
TeimOrbit format. For information about these utilities and TeimOrbit format see Utilities for Reading
Property Files.
Calling the ROAD Subroutine

Each time Adams/Tire calls your TYRSUB, your TYRSUB must call the ROAD subroutine to ensure
that the ROAD subroutine is initialized properly and can perform its work of calculating the tire-road
contact point, the local road normal, and coefficient of friction.
8 Adams/Tire
Adams/Tire passes a pointer to the ROAD subroutine to your TYRSUB. Therefore, your TYRSUB
declares ROAD as an external and never knows the exact subroutine that is called. This allows your
TYRSUB to work with different road models without having to alter your TYRSUB.
Calculating Tire Forces and Moments

When Adams/Tire calls your TYRSUB with JOBFLG = NORMAL (0) or DIFF (5), your TYRSUB
should calculate and return tire forces and moments. To calculate tire forces and moments, typically your
TYRSUB will:
• Call the ROAD subroutine.
• Calculate tire kinematics.
Note: Adams/Tire provides utilities for calculating slip angle, inclination angle, longitudinal slip,
and other quantities in SAE coordinates. See Utilities for Reading Property Files.
• Calculate tire forces and moments at the tire contact patch.

• Transfer the forces and moments from the contact patch to the wheel center in ISO-C axis system
for return to Adams/Tire.
Loading Results For Plotting

When Adams/Tire calls your TYRSUB with JOBFLG = NORMAL(0) or DIFF (5), your TYRSUB
should load results in the VARINF array. The specific results and their location in the VARINF array are
defined in include file:
install_dir/solver/atire/usrsubs/abg_varptr.inc.
For example, abg_varptr.inc defines integer parameters giving the location of the lateral and longitudinal
slips that you use, such as:
VARINF( slipi_ptr ) = alpha
VARINF( slipx_ptr ) = kappa
Where alpha and kappa are the lateral and longitudinal slip, respectively, calculated by your TYRSUB.
Note: Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis use the effective rolling radius returned in the VARINF
array to calculate initial wheel rotational velocities. In addition, Adams/SmartDriver
examines the lateral and longitudinal slips returned in VARINF to determine how close a
vehicle is to its limit of adhesion. So if you plan to use your TYRSUB with these products,
you must load results in the VARINF array.
Handling Errors
According to TYDEX STI v1.4, a TYRSUB should not stop the execution of a simulation because of a
fatal error. Instead, it should use the IERR argument to return a fatal error and use the TYRMOD
argument to return an error message. The simulation code can then cleanly terminate execution. In
Adams/Tire, however, you can call the Adams/Solver utility, ERRMES, from your TYRSUB to output a
message to your screen and message file to terminate the Adams execution.
TYRSUB Arguments
The following sections provide an overview of the arguments in TYRSUB based on their function, and
then describes each argument in order of calling sequence:
• TYRSUB Calling Sequence
• TYRSUB Input Arguments
• TYRSUB Output Arguments
• TYRSUB Argument Descriptions
TYRSUB Calling Sequence

The following sample code shows the calling sequence for arguments in TYRSUB:
Subroutine TYRXXX(
+ NDEV, ISWTCH, JOBFLG, IDTYRE,
+ TIME, DIS, TRAMAT, ANGTWC, VEL, OMEGA, OMEGAR,
+ NDEQVR, DEQVAR, NTYPAR, TYPARR,
+ NCHTDS, CHTDST, ROAD, IDROAD,
+ NROPAR, ROPAR, NCHRDS, CHRDST,
+ FORCES, TORQUE, DEQINI, DEQDER, TYRMOD,
+ NVARS, VARINF, NWORK, WRKARR,
+ NIWORK, IWRKAR, IERR)
TYRSUB Input Arguments

The types of input arguments are:
• Job Control
• States
• Tire Properties
Job Control
There is only one job control argument: JOBFLG. The value of JOBFLG determines the task that
TYRSUB performs, such as reading the tire property file or evaluating the tire forces and moments.
Subroutine TYRXXX(
10 Adams/Tire
States
The tire states contain the displacement, orientation, and velocity information about the wheel and wheel
carrier (hub). The state arguments are:
Subroutine TYRXXX(
Tire Properties
The tire properties arrays (TYPARR) contain the data that your TYRSUB reads from the tire property
file during initialization and returns to Adams/Tire. Adams/Tire stores this array statically.
The integer NTYPAR is the size of the TYPARR array, which is currently limited to 300.
Subroutine TYRXXX(
TYRSUB Output Arguments

The types of output arguments are:
• Forces and Moments
• Information
• Error Handling
Forces and Moments

The arguments FORCES and TORQUE return the forces and moments on the wheel at the wheel center.
TYRSUB returns the forces and moments in units of Newtons and Newton-meters, respectively,
according to the TYDEX ISO-C coordinate system. For more information on the TYDEX axis systems,
see Tire Axis Systems.
Subroutine TYRXXX(

Information
TYDEX STI supports the output of tire information, such as contact patch forces and slip angle, through
the variable information array (VARINF).
Subroutine TYRXXX(
Error Handling
TYDEX STI states that the TYRSUB may not terminate execution of the calling program, but rather
should return an error code (IERR) and message text (TYRMOD). Adams/Tire modifies the standard and
allows TYRSUB to call the Adams/Solver utilities USRMES or ERRMES for purposes of error handling
and stopping execution, if desired.
Subroutine TYRXXX(
12 Adams/Tire
TYRSUB Argument Descriptions

The following TYRSUB argument descriptions are listed in order of calling sequence:
• NDEV • IDROAD
• ISWTCH • NROPAR
• JOBFLG • ROPAR
• IDTYRE • NCHRDS
• TIME • CHRDST
• DIS • FORCE
• TRAMAT • TORQUE
• ANGTWC • DEQINI
• VEL • DEQDER
• OMEGA • TYRMOD
• OMEGAR • NVARS
• NDEQVR • VARINF
• DEQVR • NWORK
• NTYPAR • WRKARR
• TYPARR • NIWORK
• NCHTDS • IWRKAR
• CHTDST • IERR
• ROAD
NDEV
An integer variable that contains the value of the logical output device number for error messages. We
recommend calling the Adams/Solver utilities USRMES or ERRMES rather than writing directly to the
NDEV device. This ensures proper handling of the error message. For more information, see USRMES
and ERRMES in the Adams/Solver Subroutines online help.
ISWTCH
An integer variable that contains the value of the USE_MODE control switch. Adams/Tire sets the
ISWTCH variable to zero in all cases except dynamic and quasi-static simulations (for example,
Adams/Solver modes 4 and 6). For dynamic and quasi-static simulations, ISWTCH = TYPARR(1).
JOBFLG - (Job Control Flag)

An integer variable whose value determines the action TYRSUB should take. Table 1 shows the values
and meaning of JOBFLG
JOBFLAG Values and Descriptions:
Parameter in
Description: Value: ac_sti_jobflg.inc:
INITIALIZE JOBFLG = 2 INIT
RESET JOBFLG = 3 RESET
INQUIRE* JOBFLG = 1 INQUIRE
END SIMULATION JOBFLG = ENDSIM = ENDSIM
99
SUCCESSFUL JOBFLG = SSTEP = 4 SSTEP
INTEGRATION STEP*
NORMAL JOBFLG = NORMAL = NORMAL
EVALUATION 0
DERIVATIVE JOBFLG = DIFF = 5 DIFF
EVALUATION
* Indicates item is not supported in current version of Adams/Tire.
Each value is explained below.

• INITIALIZE (JOBFLG = 2)
The first call to a TYRSUB always has JOBFLG=init=1. TYRSUB opens and reads any files
necessary to process the tire data before the actual simulation begins.
• RESET (JOBFLG = 3)
The TYRSUB is called with JOBFLG=reset=3 after the first initialization while IFLAG=true.
You can ignore reset mode in Adams/Tire. This deviates from the TYDEX STI definition stating
that the tire parameters array may have changed.
• INQUIRE (JOBFLG = 1)
Currently, Adams/Tire does not support JOBFLG=inquire=1. TYDEX STI states that a
TYRSUB when called with JOBFLG=inquire=1 should return the needed dimensions of the
TYPAR, DEQVAR, VARINF, WORK, and IWRAR arrays. For example, a tire that requires 30
states integrated (30 modes) would set NDEQVAR=30 to give the needed dimension of the
DEQVAR array. Currently, Adams/Tire limits the number of integrated states to two. These are
usually used for relaxation length in the longitudinal and lateral direction. Therefore, this
JOBFLG setting is not used in this release of Adams/Tire.
• END SIMULATION (JOBFLG = endsim = 99)
The TYRSUB is called with JOBFLG=endsim=99 just before Adams/Solver is excited. The
TYRSUB should close any open files and free any memory allocated. Message handling is not
available at this point during execution. Therefore, calls to ERRMES or USRMES do not
function.
• SUCCESSFUL INTEGRATION STEP (JOBFLG = sstep = 4)
14 Adams/Tire
Currently, Adams/Tire does not support JOBFLG = sstep = 4 in its version of TYDEX STI.
When JOBFLG = sstep = 4, the input states (such as displacement and velocity) are converged
states.
• NORMAL EVALUATION (JOBFLG =normal = 0)
When called with JOBFLG = normal = 0, TYRSUB returns the tire forces and torques based on
the inputs.
• DERIVATIVE EVALUATION
(JOBFLG = diff = 5)
When called with JOBFLG = diff = 5, TYRSUB should return tire forces and torques based on
the inputs. Adams/Solver uses the returned value to estimate the partial derivatives of the forces
and torques with respect to the inputs.
IDTYRE
An integer variable that provides the ID of the GFORCE statement that applies the tire forces and
moments to the wheel.
TIME
A double-precision variable that provides the current simulation time.
DIS
A double-precision array of dimension three, which specifies the values of the wheel carrier translational
displacement (x, y, z) at the wheel center with respect to the road reference marker expressed in the road
reference marker's axis system in units of meters.
TRAMAT
A double-precision array of dimension 3 x 3, which specifies a transformation matrix used to transform
data from the wheel carrier axis system to the road reference marker axis system.
ANGTWC
A double-precision variable, which specifies the rotational angle of the wheel with respect to the wheel
carrier in radians.
VEL
A double-precision array of dimension three, which specifies the values of the wheel carrier translational
velocities (x, y, z) at the wheel center with respect to the road reference marker expressed in the wheel
carrier (ISO-C) axis system in units of meters/second.
OMEGA
A double-precision array of dimension three, which specifies the wheel carrier angular velocity at the
wheel center with respect to the road reference marker expressed in the wheel carrier (ISO-C) axis system
in units of radians/second.
OMEGAR
A double-precision variable that specifies the value of the rotational speed of the rim with respect to the
wheel carrier about the wheel's (rim's) spin axis in radians/second.
NDEQVR
An integer variable the dimension of DEQVAR, default is two, which means that Adams/Tire supports
tire models using two differential equations.
The number of states can be set by adding N_TIRE_STATES in the [MODEL] section of the tire
property file:
[MODEL]
N_TIRE_STATES = <number of required stated>
DEQVAR
A double-precision array that provides the values of the differential equations associated with the tire.
Note that to determine the values in the DEQVAR array, Adams/Tire integrates the derivatives that the
tire model returns in the DEQDER array.
NTYPAR
An integer variable that represents the dimension of the tire parameters array (TYPARR). If NTYPAR
equals zero, TYPARR contains no values.
TYPARR
The tire parameters array. A double-precision array of dimension NTYPAR that contains the values of
the tire model parameters. If the PROPERTY_FILE_FORMATin the tire property file is set to 'USER',
NTYPAR is set to zero and the tire property file name is passed to the STI in the CHTDSTstring. The
maximum size of TYPARR is 300.
NCHTDS
An integer variable that gives the number of characters in the tire property file name (CHTDST).
CHTDST
The tire property file name. A character variable of length 256 that provides the tire property file name
and path (for example: "/usr/people/cjones/tire.tpf ").
16 Adams/Tire
ROAD
The external symbol name that provides the road contact subroutine that TYRSUB calls to determine the
local road normal and tire-road contact point.
IDROAD
An integer that specifies the branch flag for the road contact model method. The value is set according
to the contents of the road property file (.rdf). Reserved values are:
900 BEDPLATE used for suspension analysis
901 2D Handling (point follower) Contact method
902 2D Durability Contact method
903 3D Handling (point follower on a smooth road)
904 3D Durability Contact method
For more information, see Creating Road Models.
NROPAR
An integer variable that gives the dimension of ROPAR. If NROPAR equals zero, ROPAR contains no
values.
ROPAR
The road parameters array. A double-precision array of dimension NROPAR, which contains the values
of the road contact model parameters. If the method is set to 'USER' in the [MODEL] block of the road
property file, then NROPAR is set to zero, and the road property file name is passed to the STI in
character variable CHRDST. For more information, see Creating Road Models.
NCHRDS
An integer variable that provides the number of characters (length) of the road property file name.
CHRDST
The road property file name. A character variable of length 256 that holds the road property file name
and path, for example: /usr/people/cjones/road.dat.
FORCE
The tire force vector. A double-precision array of dimension three, that TYRSUB outputs. It provides tire
forces at the wheel center in Newtons expressed in the TYDEX-C (ISO-C) axis system.
TORQUE
The tire moment vector. A double-precision array of dimension three that the TYRSUB outputs. It
provides the tire moments at the wheel center in Newton-Meters expressed in the TYDEX-C (ISO-C)
axis system.
DEQINI
A double-precision array of dimension NDEQVR. It specifies the initial values of the differential
equations (DEQVAR) associated with the tire. When JOBFLG = inquire = 1, TYRSUB returns the initial
values of the differential equations. For other values of JOBFLG, the values returned in DEQINI are
ignored. Currently, Adams/Tire does not use values returned in DEQINI. The initial values of differential
equations are always set to zero.
DEQDER
A double-precision array of dimension NDEQVR. It provides the time derivative of the differential
equations (DEQVAR) associated with the tire. When JOBFLG = normal = 0 or JOBFLG = diff = 5,
TRYSUB must return values for DEQDER. For other values of JOBFLG, any values returned in DEQINI
are ignored.
TYRMOD
A character variable of length 256 containing a descriptive error message. Adams/Tire outputs the
message to the screen and message file (.msg) when the value of IERR is not equal to zero.
NVARS
An integer parameter giving the maximum size, currently 40, of the VARINF array. A TYRSUB must
not assign a value to NVARS.
VARINF
The tire-variable information array. A double-precision array of dimension NVARS for outputting
information, such as tire contact patch forces and slip angle, which the simulation does not use directly.
TYDEX STI specifies that the first six values of the VARINF array should hold the contact patch forces
and moments in the TYDEX-H (ISO-W) axis system.
NWORK
An integer parameter giving the dimension of the working array (WRKARR), currently one. A TYRSUB
must not assign a value to NWORK.
WRKARR
The working array. A static double-precision array of dimension NWORK the tire model may use as
desired. Currently, the working array is limited to a dimension of one. Adams/Tire stores these values for
each tire between calls to TYRSUB.
NIWORK
An integer parameter giving the dimension of the integer working array (IWRKAR), currently one. A
TYRSUB must not assign a value to NIWORK. As specified in TYDEX STI, when Adams/Tire adds
support for the JOBFLG = inquire = 1, TYRSUB can return the actual dimension of IWRKAR using
NIWORK.
18 Adams/Tire
IWRKAR
The integer working array. A static integer array of dimension NIWORK, which is currently limited to
one, that TYRSUB can use as needed. Adams/Tire stores these values for each tire between calls to the
TYRSUB.
IERR
The integer variable giving an error value. Valid values are:
• 0 No error
• 1 Warning: Calling program should print message contained in TYRMOD
• 2 Error: Calling program must not use the outputs
• 3 Fatal Error: Calling program should stop execution.
Defining and Reading Tire Property Files

Learn more about creating tire property files:
• About Tire Property Files
• Example Tire Property File
• Required Blocks
About Tire Property Files

When you create your own user tire model, you must also define your own tire property file. At a
minimum, this file instructs Adams/Tire to call your tire model to compute tire forces and moments
during a simulation and supplies to Adams/Tire required information about the tire.
Adams/Tire requires every tire property file to supply:
• Tire model to be used (for example, a reference that causes Adams/Tire to call your TYRSUB).
• Units of the data contained in the file.
• Dimensions of the tire: unloaded radius, width, and aspect ratio.
• Tire vertical stiffness and damping.
Because Adams/Tire reads the above information from every tire property file, you must provide it in the
form shown in the next sections.
Besides the required data, your property file can contain any information in any form you want. If you
choose to structure the data in TeimOrbit format, MSC supplies a set of utilities for reading the data from
your file. These utilities include routines to obtain unit conversion factors so you can convert data to SI
units. For more information, see Utilities for Reading Property Files.
Example Tire Property File

$-----------------------------------------------------------
MDI_HEADER
[MDI_HEADER]
FILE_TYPE
= 'tir'
FILE_VERSION
= 2.0
FILE_FORMAT
= 'ASCII'
(COMMENTS)
{comment_string}
'Tire
- XXXXXX'
'Pressure
- XXXXXX'
'Test Date
- XXXXXX'
'Test tire'
20 Adams/Tire
$----------------------------------------------------------------
units
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'mm'
FORCE
= 'newton'
ANGLE
= 'degree'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'sec'
$----------------------------------------------------------------
model
[MODEL]
! use mode
1
2
! ---------------------------------
! smoothing
X
!
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT
= 'USER'
FUNCTION_NAME
= 'TYR501'
USE_MODE
= 2.0
$------------------------------------------------------------
dimension
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS
= 309.9
WIDTH
= 235.0
ASPECT_RATIO
= 0.45
$-----------------------------------------------------------parameter
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS
= 310.0
VERTICAL_DAMPING
= 3.1
ROLLING_RESISTANCE
= 0.0
CSLI
= 1000.0
CALPHA
= 800.0
CGAMMA
= 0.0
UMIN
= 0.9
UMAX
= 1.0
RELAXATION_LENGTH
= 0.0
$---------------------------------------------------------------shape
[SHAPE]
{radial width}
1.0
0.0
1.0
0.2
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.6
1.0
0.7
1.0
0.8
1.0
0.85
1.0
0.9
0.9
1.0
Required Blocks
Your tire property file must contain a specific set of blocks that Adams/Tire expects. These blocks can
appear in any order, and your tire property file can contain other blocks that you define. The blocks that
your tire property file must contain are:
• [MODEL] Block
• [UNITS] Block
• [DIMENSION] Block
• [PARAMETER] Block
[MODEL] Block
The [MODEL] block specifies the tire model that Adams/Tire will use. For your tire model, specify a
property file format of “USER”and a function name that is the entry point to the tire functions, such as:
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT = “USER”
FUNCTION_NAME = “TYR501”
In the example above, Adams/Tire calls subroutine TYR501 to read the tire property file and to evaluate
the tire forces and moments.
22 Adams/Tire
[UNITS] Block
A [UNITS] block specifies the units of the data in the tire property file. This enables Adams/Tire to
convert any data it reads from the tire property file to SI units (meters kilograms, Newtons, seconds,
radians). Any data your TYRSUB reads from the tire property file should also be converted to SI units,
as the example TYRSUB illustrates.
An example [UNITS] block is shown below:
[UNITS]
LENGTH
= 'mm'
FORCE
= 'newton'
ANGLE
= 'radians'
MASS
= 'kg'
TIME
= 'sec'
The allowed values for unit strings are:
FORCE: FORCE : 'KG_FORCE', 'NEWTON',

'KNEWTON','POUND_FORCE',
'KPOUND_FORCE', 'DYNE', 'OUNCE_FORCE'
MASS: 'KG', 'GRAM', 'POUND_MASS', 'KPOUND_MASS',
'SLUG', 'OUNCE_MASS'
LENGTH: 'KM', 'METER', ' CM', 'MM', 'MILE', 'FOOT', 'INCH'
TIME: 'MILLISECOND', 'SEC', 'MINUTE', 'HOUR'
ANGLE: 'DEGREE', 'RADIAN'
Note: You can use the utility subroutine ATRTOU to read the [UNITS] block from a tire property
file and then use the utility subroutine ACUNFN to obtain unit conversion factors. For
more information, see ATRTOU and ACUNFN.
[DIMENSION] Block
The [DIMENSION] block specifies the tire's unloaded radius, width, and aspect ratio. Adams/Tire uses
these values to size wheel and tire graphics.
[DIMENSION]
UNLOADED_RADIUS = real_value > 0
WIDTH = real_value > 0
ASPECT_RATIO = 1 > real_value > 0
[PARAMETER] Block
The [PARAMETER] block specifies the vertical stiffness and damping of the tire. Adams/Tire makes this
information available to Adams/Car and Adams/Chassis during suspension analysis by incorporating a
test-rig tire.
[PARAMETER]
VERTICAL_STIFFNESS = real_value > 0
VERTICAL_DAMPING = real_value >= 0
24 Adams/Tire
Creating Road Models

You create a road model by writing a road evaluation function that tire models call to determine tire-road
contact points, local road normal, and coefficient of friction. Learn about:
• Instructing Adams/Tire to Use Your Road Function
• Tasks Your Road Function Must Perform
• Skeletal Road Function Example
• Road Function Subroutine Calling Sequence
• Road Function Input Arguments
• Road Function Output Arguments
Instructing Adams/Tire to Use Your Road Function

You instruct Adams/Tire to use your road function by defining a road property file that specifies
METHOD="USER" and contains a user function name that matches your road function. For example,
Adams/Tire uses function ARC501 if the road property file contains:
[MODEL]
METHOD = 'USER'
USER_SUB_ID = 501
Then, during a simulation Adams/Tire passes the address of your road function in the ROAD argument
to TYRSUB. TYRSUB then calls your road function to calculate the tire-road contact point, local road
normal, and coefficient of friction.
From Adams/Tire, TYRSUB passes to your road function the name of the road property file so your road
function can open and read data from the file.
Tasks Your Road Function Must Perform

All road functions must perform these tasks:
1. Read any data it requires from the road property file.
2. Calculate the tire-road contact point, local road normal, and road coefficient of friction.
3. Handle errors. For example, report when needed data is missing from the road property file.
The value integer argument JOBFLG governs how and when your ARCSUB performs these tasks. The
skeletal road function example, shown next, shows which tasks the road function performs based on
JOBFLG. The arguments and their declarations are omitted here for brevity. For information on the
ARCSUB arguments, see Road Function Input Arguments.
Skeletal Road Function Example

SUBROUTINE ARC501(....)
include 'ac_sti_jobflg.inc'
IF ( JOBFLG .EQ. INIT .OR.

. JOBFLG .EQ. RESET ) THEN
c Read Road Property File
ENDIF
IF ( JOBFLG .EQ. NORMAL .OR.

. JOBFLG .EQ. DIFF ) THEN
c Calculate Tire-Road Contact Point, Road Normal, and

c Coefficient of Friction.
ENDIF
c Handle Errors
RETURN
END
Road Function Subroutine Calling Sequence

SUBROUTINE ARC501(JOBFLG, IDTYRE,
& TIME, DIS, TRAMAT,
& IDROAD, NROPAR, ROPAR, NCHRDS, CHRDST,
& NSHAPE, SHAPE, UNLDRD, WIDTH,
& NROAD, EFFVOL, EFFPEN, RCP,
& RNORM, SURFAC, IERR, ERRMSG )
Road Function Input Arguments

The input arguments are explained below in calling sequence order:
• JOBFLG
• IDTYRE
• TIME
• DIS
• TRAMAT
• IDROAD
• NROPAR
• ROPAR
• NCHRDS
26 Adams/Tire
• CHRDST
• NSHAPE
• SHAPE
• UNLDRD
• WIDTH
JOBFLG
An integer variable that contains the value of the initialization flag. JOBFLG takes the value:
• 0 - Normal mode
• 1 - Subroutine must return the actual dimensions of NTYPAR, NDEQVR, NVARS, NIWORK,
NWORK(Not used in Adams/Tire)
• 2 - First initialization
• 3 - Re-initialization during simulation
• 4 - Successful step (not used in Adams/Tire)
• 5 - Adams/Solver is differencing (unique to Adams/Tire)
• 99 - Final simulation step (not used in Adams/Tire)
IDTYRE
An ID of the GFORCE statement that applies the tire forces and moments to the wheel.
TIME
A double-precision variable that contains the value of the current simulation time.
DIS
A double-precision array of dimension 3, which specifies the values of the wheel carrier translational
displacement (x, y, z) at the wheel center with respect to the road reference marker.
TRAMAT
A double-precision array of dimension 3 x 3, which specifies a transformation matrix used to transform
data from the wheel carrier coordinate system to the coordinate system of the road reference marker.
IDROAD
An integer that specifies the road model method (for example, 900 for ARC900).
NROPAR
An integer variable that represents the dimension of ROPAR. If NROPAR is equal to zero, ROPAR
contains no available values.
ROPAR
A double-precision array of dimension NROPAR, which contains the values of the road model
parameters. If [MODEL] -> METHOD in the road property file is set to 'USER', NROPAR is set to zero
and the road property file name is passed to the STI in the CHRDST string.
NCHRDS
An integer that represents the dimension of CHRDST.
CHRDST
A character string of dimension NCHRDS, which contains the name of the road property file. The
CHRDST string contains the full path of the file up to a maximum of 256 characters.
NSHAPE
An integer that represents the dimension of SHAPE. If NSHAPE = 0, then the cross section defaults to a
cylindrical shape.
SHAPE
A double-precision array of dimension (2,NSHAPE) representing the shape of the tire carcass cross-
section:
• 1 = Radius [%]
• 2 = Width [%]
Legal values for radius and length are:

• 1.0 £ Radius £ 0.0
• 0.0 £ Width £ 1.0
Note: 1.0 = 1/2 width
For example, the following shows how data is stored in the SHAPE array:
Shape (1) = First
fractional radius
Shape (2) = First
fractional width
Shape (3) = Second
fractional radius
Shape (4) = Second
fractional radius
28 Adams/Tire
NSHAPE
An integer that represents the dimension of SHAPE. If NSHAPE = 0, then the cross section defaults to a
cylindrical shape.
SHAPE
A double-precision array of dimension (2,NSHAPE) representing the shape of the tire carcass cross-
section:
• 1 = Radius [%]
• 2 = Width [%]
Legal values for radius and length are:

• 1.0 £ Radius £ 0.0
• 0.0 £ Width £ 1.0
UNLDRD
A double-precision variable that specifies the unloaded radius.
WIDTH
A double-precision variable that specifies the total width of the tire.
Road Function Output Arguments

The output arguments are listed below in calling sequence order:
• NROAD
• EFFVOL
• EFFPEN
• RCP
• RNORM
• SURFAC
• IERR
• ERRMSG
NROAD
An integer value that is used to define the surface type. NROAD takes the following values:
• 0 - No road data
• 1 - In contact with the road
EFFVOL
A double-precision variable that contains the value of the effective penetrated volume between the tire
carcass and the road.
EFFPEN
A double-precision variable that contains the value of the effective penetration between the tire carcass
and the road.
RCP
A double-precision array of dimension three, which contains the values of the contact point location
relative to the road reference marker.
RNORM
A double-precision array of dimension three, which contains the road normal vector. This vector is
directed out (upward) from the road surface.
SURFAC
A double-precision variable that contains the value of the average surface friction.
IERR
An integer variable giving the error status of the road contact subroutine. IERR takes the following
values:
• 0 = No error
• 1 = Warning
• 2 = Error - Do not use the results
• 3 = Fatal Error
ERRMSG
A character string of dimension 80 that contains descriptive error messaging that is passed to the main
tire calling routine through TYRMOD.
Note: Inside the road model, STOP statements are not allowed.
30 Adams/Tire
Utilities for Reading Property Files

Writing code to read a file can be a tedious task when creating a user tire or road model. If you already
have an existing tire or road property file format and reader, you may need only to modify the format and
reader to accommodate the blocks and parameters that Adams/Tire requires. If you do not have an
existing property file reader, then Adams/Tire provides a set of utilities for reading TeimOrbit format files
that you can use to read property files.
The following sections describe the TeimOrbit format, outlines how to use the utilities that Adams/Tire
provides, and documents the calling sequence of the utilities. In addition, it describes the calling sequence
of utilities you call to obtain unit conversion factors.
Learn about:
• About TeimOrbit Format
• Using Read TeimOrbit (RTO) Utilities
• Utilities for Reading TeimOrbit Format Property Files
About TeimOrbit Format

All the standard Adams/Tire tire and road property files employ the TeimOrbit format. TeimOrbit
formatting is a way of organizing data into:
• Blocks denoted by brackets "[", "]"
• Subblocks denoted by parenthesis "(", ")"
• Tables denoted by braces "{", "}"
A subblock is always the child of a block. A table can be a child of either a block or a subblock.
For example, a TeimOrbit file might contain the following blocks and subblocks:
[BLOCK_1]
PARAMETER_1 = 1.0
(SUB-BLOCK_1)
PARAMETER_2 = 2.0
{TABLE_1}
1.0 2.0
2.0 3.0
[BLOCK_2]
PARAMETER_2 = 'TWO'
{TABLE_2}
1.0 2.0
2.0 3.0
(SUB-BLOCK_2)
PARAMETER_1 = 'ONE'
Parameters and tables are located for reading according to the block and/or subblock in which they reside.
Therefore, PARAMETER_2 in BLOCK_2 is not confused with PARAMETER_2 in BLOCK_1. This
example, which uses realistic names, illustrates where parameter are placed:
[VERTICAL_DATA]
STIFFNESS = 310.0
DAMPING = 14.3
[LATERAL_DATA]
STIFFNESS = 232.0
DAMPING = 11.2
Any strings beginning with a dollar sign "$" are ignored and, therefore, are used as comments. Before
you create your own property file, we recommend that you review some existing files to learn how they
are structured.
Using Read TeimOrbit (RTO) Utilities

The process of reading a property file using the RTO utilities is:
1. Open the file using subroutine RTO_OPEN_FILE_F2C.
2. Read the [UNITS] block using subroutine ATRTOU.
3. Obtain unit conversion factors from Adams/Solver using subroutine ACUNFN.
4. Read the desired data from the file and convert the data to SI units using various read TeimOrbit
utilities as explained in ACUNFN.
5. Close the file using subroutine RTO_CLOSE_FILE_F2C.
Utilities for Reading TeimOrbit Format Property Files

You can use the following utilities to read data from TeimOrbit format files:
• ACUNFN
• ACUNFN_F2C
• ACUNMP
• ATRTOU
• RTO_OPEN_FILE_F2C
• RTO_CLOSE_FILE_F2C
• RTO_READ_QUOTED_STRING_F2C
• RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_STRING_F2C
• RTO_READ_INTEGER_F2C
• RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_INTEGER_F2C
• RTO_READ_REAL_F2C
• RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_REAL_F2C
• RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C
• RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C
• RTO_START_SUBBLOCK_TABLE_READ_F2C
32 Adams/Tire
ACUNFN
Calling Sequence
Subroutine ACUNFN ( UNITS, CV2MDL, CV2SI )
Description
Given unit strings read from a property file, ACUNFN returns conversion factors from property file units
to model and SI units. Generally, you proceed a call to ACUNFN by a call to ATRTOU to read the
[UNITS] block from a property file.
You use the unit conversion factors that ACUNFN returns to convert data read from a property file to
either model or SI units (Newtons, kilograms, meters, seconds, radians). For example, if you read a
damping coefficient from a property file that has units of force*time/length and you need to convert that
value to model units, then you might do the following:
damp_coeff = damp_coeff*CV2MDL(1)*CV2MDL(4)/CV2MDL(3)
Arguments
Argument: Type*: Storage: Use* and Description:

UNITS CA 12x5 R Array of five 12-character
strings read from the
• UNITS(1): force
property file containing the
• UNITS (2): mass unit names.
• UNITS (3): length
• UNITS (4): time
• UNITS (5): angle
CV2MDL DA 5 E Conversion factor from
property file units to model
• CV2MDL(1)
(dataset) units.
Force conversion
• CV2MDL(2)
Mass conversion
• CV2MDL(3) Length
conversion
• CV2MDL(4)
Time conversion
• CV2MDL(5)
Angle conversion

CV2SI DA 5 E Conversion factor from
property file units to SI
• CV2SI(1)
units. SI units are Newtons,
Force conversion kilograms, meters, seconds,
• CV2SI(2) and radians.
Mass conversion
• CV2SI(3)
Length conversion
• CV2SI(4)
Time conversion
• CV2SI(5)
Angle conversion
*Key:
Type: A = array; C = character; D = double precision; I = integer (for example, DA indicates
double-precision array).
Use: R = referenced, but not set; E = evaluated (for example, the subroutine sets the value of this
argument).
ACUNFN_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine ACUNFN_F2C ( FORCE, MASS, LENGTH, TIME, ANGLE, CV2MDL, CV2SI)
Description
Provides an entry point to ACUNFN from C-language routines.
Arguments

FORCE C 12 R Force string from property
file [UNITS] block.
MASS C 12 R Mass string from property
file [UNITS] block.
LENGTH C 12 R Length string from property
file [UNITS] block.
TIME C 12 R Time string from property
file [UNITS] block.
34 Adams/Tire

ANGLE C 12 R Angle string from property
file [UNITS] block.
CV2MDL DA 5 E Conversion factor from
property file units to model
• CV2MDL(2)
(dataset) units.
Mass conversion
• CV2MDL(3)
Length conversion
• CV2MDL(4)
Time conversion
• CV2MDL(5)
Angle conversion
CV2SI DA 5 E Conversion factor from
property file units to SI
• CV2SI(1)
units. SI units are Newtons,
Force conversion kilograms, meters, seconds,
• CV2SI(2) and radians.
Mass conversion
• CV2SI(3)
Length conversion
• CV2SI(4)
Time conversion
• CV2SI(5)
Angle conversion
*Key:
Type: A = array; C = character; D = double precision; I = integer (for example, DA indicates
double-precision array).
Use: R = referenced, but not set; E = evaluated (the subroutine sets the value of this argument).
ACUNMP
Calling Sequence
Subroutine ACUNMP ( UN_IN, UN_OUT )
Description
Maps standard property file (Adams/View) unit strings to Adams/Solver unit strings.
Arguments
Argument: Type: Storage: Use* and Description:

UN_IN CA 12x5 R Array of five 12-character strings
read from the property file containing
• UN_IN(1): force
the unit names.
• UN_IN(2): mass
• UN_IN(3): length
• UN_IN(4): time
• UN_IN(5): angle
UN_OUT CA 2x5 E Array of five two-character strings
containing the Adams/Solver unit
string corresponding to the unit
strings read from the property file.
*Key:
Type: A = array; C = character; D = double precision; I = integer (for example, DA indicates double-
precision array).
ATRTOU
Calling Sequence
SubroutineATRTOU (ID, UNITS)
Description
Reads the [UNITS] block from a property file and returns a character array containing the unit strings for
force, mass, length, time, and angle. Use ATRTOU with ACUNFNto obtain conversion factors from
property file units to model units or SI units.
Before calling ATRTOU, you must call RTO_OPEN_FILE_F2C to open the property file for reading. If
the [UNITS] block is not found in the file or there is a problem reading one of the unit strings, ARTOU
writes a message to the message file and terminates Adams/Solver execution.
36 Adams/Tire
Arguments

ID I - R Identifier of the Adams dataset
statement associated with the
property file being read (for
example, the ID of the tire GFORCE
statement when reading a tire
property file). Identifies the
statement when an error occurs.
UNITS C.A. 12x5 E Array of five 12-character strings
read from the tire property file
• UNITS(1): force
containing the unit names.
• UNITS(2): mass
• UNITS(3): length
• UNITS(4): time
• UNITS(5): angle
*Key:
precision array).
Use: R = referenced, but not set; E = evaluated (for example, the subroutine sets the value of this
argument).
RTO_CLOSE_FILE_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_CLOSE_FILE_F2C (FileName, FileNameLen, Success)
Description
Closes a previously opened file.
Arguments
Argument: Type*: Storage: Use* and description:

FileName C 256 R File name with full path
FileNameLen I - R Number of characters in the file name (not
the length of the FileName array).

Success I - E • If the file was found and closed,
success is returned as one (1).
• If the file was not found or could
not be closed, success is returned as
zero (0).
*Key:
precision array).
RTO_OPEN_FILE_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_OPEN_FILE_F2C (FileName, FileNameLen, Success)
Description
Opens a file for reading by the TeimOrbit utilities.
Note: Before using any of the other RTO utilities, you must first open a file using this subroutine.
Arguments

FileName C 256 R File name with full path (for example,
'/usr/people/smith/tire.tir')
FileNameLen I - R Number of characters in the file name (not
Success I - E • If the file was found and opened,
success is returned as one (1).
• If the file was not previously
opened, success is returned as zero
(0).
*Key:
precision array).
38 Adams/Tire
RTO_READ_INTEGER_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_READ_INTEGER_F2C (
BlockName, BlockNameLen,
AttributeName, AttribNameLen,
Value, Success )
Description
Reads an integer value assigned to an attribute in a block in the open file. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_READ_INTEGER_F2C( 'GEAR_RATIOS', 11,
+ 'N_GEARS', 7, Value, Success)
will read this from an open file:
[GEAR_RATIOS]
N_GEARS = 5
On return, the integer variable Value is 5 and Success is 1.
Arguments

BlockName C 256 R Block name in file containing the desired
subblock.
BlockNameLen I - R Number of characters in the block name.
Attribute Name C 256 R The name of the attribute sought in the file.
Attribute NameLen I - R Number of characters in the attribute name.
Value I - E On return, the string value of the attribute.
Success I - E • If the value is read, success is
returned as one (1).
• If the read fails, success is returned as
zero (0).
*Key:
precision array).
RTO_READ_QUOTED_STRING_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine
RTO_READ_QUOTED_STRING_F2C
( BlockName, BlockNameLen,
Value, ValueLen, Success )
Description
Reads the string associated with an attribute in a block of a file. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_READ_QUOTED_STRING_F2C( 'MYBLOCK', 7, 'MYSTRING',
+ 8, Value, ValueLen, Success)
reads the data:
[MYBLOCK]
MYSTRING = 'heretofore'
On return:
• The character array Value holds ‘heretofore’
• The integer ValueLen is 10
• Success is 1
Arguments

attribute.
BlockNameLen I - R Number of characters in the file name (not
AttributeName CI - R Name of attribute sought in the file.
AttributeName Len I - R Number of characters in attribute name.
Value C 256 E On return the string value of the attribute.
ValueLen I - E Number of characters in value.
Success I - E • If a value is read, success is
• If the read fails, success is
returned as zero (0).
*Key:
precision array).
40 Adams/Tire
RTO_READ_REAL_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_READ_REAL_F2C (
Value, Success)
Description
Reads a real value assigned to an attribute in a block in the open file. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_READ_INTEGER_F2C('GEAR_RATIOS', 11,
+ 'FINAL_DRIVE', 11, Value, Success)
reads this data from an open file:
[GEAR_RATIOS]
FINAL_DRIVE = 4.11
On return, the variable Value is 4.11 and Success is 1.
Arguments

BlockName C 256 R Block name in file containing the desired subblock.
Attribute Name C 256 R The name of the attribute sought in the file.
Attribute NameLen I - R Number of characters in the attribute name.
Value D - E On return, the value of the attribute.
Success I - E • If the value is read, success is returned as
one (1).
• If the read fails, success is returned as zero
(0).
*Key:
precision array).
RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_INTEGER_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_INTEGER_F2C (
SubBlockName, SubBlockNameLen,
Value, Success)
Description
Reads an integer value assigned to an attribute in a subblock of a block in the open file. For example, the
call:
CALL RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_INTEGER_F2C( 'TIRE_DATA', 9,
+ 'LATERAL_FORCE', 13, 'N_SLIP_ANGLES', 13,
+ Value, Success )
reads this data from the file:
[TIRE_DATA]
(LATERAL_FORCE)
N_SLIP_ANGLES = 6
On return, the integer variable Value is 6 and Success is 1.
Arguments

subblock.
SubBlockName C 256 R Name of subblock in file containing the
desired attribute.
SubBlockNameLen I - R Number of characters in the subblock
name.
Attribute Name C 256 R The name of the attribute sought in the
file.
Attribute NameLen I - R Number of characters in the attribute
name.
Value I - E On return the value of the attribute.
*Key:
precision array).
42 Adams/Tire
RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_REAL_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine
RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_REAL_F2C (
BlockName, BlockNameLen, SubBlockName, SubBlockNameLen,
Value, Success)
Description
Reads a real value assigned to an attribute in a subblock of a block in the open file. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_REAL_F2C( 'FORCES', 6, 'FY', 2,
+ 'DAMPING_COEFF', 13, Value, Success )
reads this data from an open file:
[FORCES]
(FY)
DAMPING_COEFF = 1.72
On return, the variable Value is 1.72 and Success is 1.
Arguments

BlockName C 256 R Block name in file containing the
desired subblock.
BlockNameLen I - R Number of characters in the block
name.
SubBlockName C 256 R Name of subblock in file containing
the desired attribute.
name.
file.
name.
Value D - E On return the value of the attribute.

*Key:
precision array).
RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_STRING_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_STRING_F2C (
SubBlockName, SubBlockNameLen,
Value, ValueLen, Success )
Description
Reads a string assigned to an attribute in a subblock of a block in the open file. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_READ_SUBBLOCK_STRING_F2C( 'FORCES', 6, 'FY',
+ 2, 'DAMPING', 7, Value, ValueLen, Success )
reads the data:
[FORCES]
(FY)
DAMPING = 'on'
On return:
• Character array Value holds ‘on’
• The integer ValueLen is 2
• Success is 1
Arguments

subblock.
44 Adams/Tire

desired attribute
name.
file.
name.
Value C 256 E On return the string value of attribute.
ValueLen I - E Number of characters in value.
*Key:
precision array).
RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C
(Value, ValueLen, Success)
Description
Reads a single line from a table. Use RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C after first locating the start of
table using either RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C or
RTO_START_SUBBLOCK_TABLE_READ_F2C. Typically, you use
RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C in a while loop to read an entire table. For example, to read this table:
[MYBLOCK]
{ X Y }
0.0 0.24
0.1 0.48
0.3 0.96
Use code, such as the following:
c --- Locate the start of the table ---
CALL RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C( 'MYBLOCK', 7,
+ Format, FormatLen, Success )

IF ( Success .eq. 0 ) THEN
c --- Table Not Found ---
ELSE
10 CONTINUE
CALL RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C( Value, ValueLen, Success )
IF ( Success .eq. 0 ) then
c --- End of table found ---
GOTO 20
ELSE
c --- Parse string in Value To retrieve values, then go
c get another line of the table.
c
c The first time through this loop Value holds
c " 0.0 0.24/n"
c
c The third time through this loop Value holds
c " 0.3 0.96/n"
c ---
GOTO 10
ENDIF
ENDIF
20 CONTINUE
Arguments

Value C 256 E On return the nth line of a table.
ValueLen I - R Number of characters in value.
Success I - E • If the value is read from the table, success is
• If the end of the table is found, success is
*Key:
precision array).
RTO_START_SUBBLOCK_TABLE_READ_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_START_SUBBLOCK_TABLE_READ_F2C (
BlockName, BlockNameLen, SubBlockName, SubBlockNameLen,
Format, FormatLen, Success )
46 Adams/Tire
Description
Locates the start of a table in a subblock of a block in a file before calling
RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C. There can be only one table per subblock. The start of a table is
denoted by braces {" and "}. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_START_SUBBLOCK_TABLE_READ_F2C
( 'MYBLOCK', 7,
+ 'MYSUBBLOCK', Format, FormatLen, Success)
Searches for this data in the open file:
[MYBLOCK]
(MYSUBBLOCK)
{ S FX FY }
0.0 1.15 -2.13
0.1 2.15 -2.13
0.2 1.48 -2.13
On return:
• Format contains the string, “ _S_FX_FY”
• FormatLen contains the integer 9
• Success contains the integer 1
Arguments

subblock.
desired attribute.
name.
Format C 256 E The string containing the table column
headings.
FormatLen I - E The number of characters in the Format
string.

*Key:
precision array).
RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C
Calling Sequence
Subroutine RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C (
BlockName, BlockNameLen, Format, FormatLen, Success)
Description
Locates the start of table in a block in a file before calling RTO_READ_TABLE_LINE_F2C. There can
be only one table per block. The start of a table is denoted by braces {" and "}. For example, the call:
CALL RTO_START_TABLE_READ_F2C( 'MYBLOCK', 7, Format,
+ FormatLen, Success)
Searches for this data in the open file:
[MYBLOCK]
{ X Y }
0.0 0.24
0.1 0.48
0.3 0.96
On return:
• Format contains the string, " XY"
• FormatLen contains the integer 6
• Success contains the integer 1
Arguments

subblock.
48 Adams/Tire

Format C 256 E The string containing the table column
headings.
FormatLen I - E The number of characters in the Format string.
Success I - E • If the value is read, success is returned
as one (1).
• If the read fails, success is returned as
zero (0).
*Key:
precision array).
Utilities for Calculating Tire Forces and Moments

Adams/Tire provides a set of utility subroutines you can use in your user tire model to calculate tire
kinematics and vertical forces and to transfer tire forces and moments from the contact path to the wheel
center. Learn about the utilities:
• ACTCLC
• ACTFZ
• XCP2HB
ACTCLC
Calling Sequence
SUBROUTINE ACTCLC(TRAMAT, VEL, OMEGA, OMEGAR, RADIUS, RNORM,
VLON, VCPLON, VCPLAT, VCPVRT,
ALPHA, GAMMA, KAPPA,
URAD, CPMTX)
Description
Given the wheel/tire's orientation (TRAMAT) and velocity (VEL, OMEGA, OMEGAR) relative to the
road and the local road normal (RNORM), ACTCLC computes tire kinematics in the SAE axis system.
The tire kinematics are:
• Contact-patch velocities
• Slip angle (ALPHA)
• Inclination angle (GAMMA)
• Longitudinal slip (KAPPA)
• SAE contact-patch axis system (CPMTX)
• Unit vector directed from the wheel center to the contact patch (URAD)
Arguments
Argument: Type:* Storage: Use* and Description:

TRAMAT DA 3,3 R Transformation from ISO wheel carrier
(TYDEX ISO-C system) axis system to road
(earth) axis system.
VEL DA 3 R Translational velocity of wheel carrier in ISO
wheel carrier axis system.
OMEGA DA 3 R Rotational velocity of wheel carrier in ISO
50 Adams/Tire

OMEGAR DS 1 R Rotational speed of the rim (wheel) with respect
to the wheel carrier about the +y axis of the ISO
RADIUS DS 1 R The loaded tire radius (for example, distance
from the wheel center to the road surface in the
plane of the wheel).
RNORM DA 3 R Unit vector giving the local road normal in the
road (earth) axis system. The road normal must
be directed upward from the road surface.
VLON DS 1 E The longitudinal velocity of the tire in TYDEX
ISO-C axis system.
VCPLON DS 1 E The SAE contact-patch longitudinal velocity.
VCPLAT DS 1 E The SAE contact-patch lateral velocity.
VCPRVT DS 1 E The SAE contact-patch vertical velocity.
ALPHA DS 1 E Slip angle in SAE axis system.
GAMMA DS 1 E Inclination (camber) angle.
KAPPA DS 1 E Longitudinal slip ratio.
URAD DA 3 E Unit vector directed from wheel center to
contact patch expressed in road (earth) reference
marker axis system.
CPMTX DA 3,3 E Transformation matrix from the SAE contact-
patch axis system to the road (earth) reference
marker axis system.
*Key:
precision array).
ACTFZ
Calling Sequence
SUBROUTINE ACTFZ (VCPVRT, RADIUS, TIREK, TIREC, UNLRAD,
FRCRAD, ERRMSG, IERR)
Description
ACTFZ uses the contact-patch vertical velocity in the SAE coordinate system to compute the radial
damping. It replaces PNTFRC for calculating tire vertical force.
Arguments

VCPVRT DS - R Vertical contact-patch velocity in SAE
coordinates (+z is downward)
RADIUS DS - R Loaded tire radius
TIREK DS - R Tire stiffness <n/m>
TIREC DS - R Tire damping <n*s/m>
UNLRAD DS - R Unloaded tire radius <m>
FRCRAD DS - E Radial (vertical) force <n>
ERRMSG CA 80 E Error message
IERR IS - E Error code:
IERR = 0, normal execution
IERR = 3, problem calling IMPACT function
*Key:
precision array).
XCP2HB
Calling Sequence
SUBROUTINE XCP2HB(FCP, TCP, RAD, TRNMTX, FORCES, TORQUE)
Description
XCP2HB transforms the contact-patch forces and torques to hub forces and torques expressed in the road
reference marker axis system:
forces = [cpmtx]fcp
torque = rad X ([cpmtx]fcp) + [cpmtx]tcp
Arguments
Argument: Type:* Storage: Use* and description:

FCP DA 3 R Contact patch forces expressed in SAE axis system
(+z is downward).
TCP DA 3 R Contact patch torques expressed in SAE axis system
(+z is downward).
52 Adams/Tire
Argument: Type:* Storage: Use* and description:

RAD DA 3 R Radius vector from wheel center to contact patch
expressed in the road reference marker axis system.
CPMTX DA 3,3 R Transformation matrix from SAE contact-patch
axis system to the road reference marker axis
system.
FORCE DA 3 E Hub forces expressed in the road reference marker
axis system.
TORQUE DA 3 E Hub torques expressed in the road reference marker
axis system.
*Key:
precision array).
User written tire plug-in: Using a tire demand loaded library
User written tire plug-in: Using a tire demand loaded

library
Next to linking a user written tire model to the solver, another option is possible: creating a user dynamic
library with the user written code (mdi cr-u) and use the tire plug-in to load the user tire dynamic library.
The tire model dynamic library should be built using with the mdi script option 'Adams User-DLL' or
'User Adams/Solver library'.
In the tire property file the [MODEL] section should contain following statements:
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='USER'
FUNCTION_NAME ='<tiruserlibname>::TYR<number>'
Similar demand loaded library functionality is available for user-written roads:
[MODEL]
PROPERTY_FILE_FORMAT ='USER'
FUNCTION_NAME ='<roaduserlibname>::ARC<number>'
54 Adams/Tire
User written tire plug-in: Using a tire demand loaded library
Appendix
2 Adams/Tire
Edged Plank
Edged Plank
Appendix 3
Example of specifying cleat_length
Example of specifying cleat_length

4 Adams/Tire
Illustration of Curb Keywords
Illustration of Curb Keywords

Appendix 5
Illustration of Crown
Illustration of Crown
6 Adams/Tire
Illustration of Grid keywords
Illustration of Grid keywords

Appendix 7
Illustration of Pothole keywords
Illustration of Pothole keywords

8 Adams/Tire
Illustration of Ramp keywords
Illustration of Ramp keywords

Appendix 9
Illustration of Roof keywords
Illustration of Roof keywords

10 Adams/Tire
Illustration of Sine keywords
Illustration of Sine keywords

Appendix 11
Illustration of Sweep Keywords
Illustration of Sweep Keywords

12 Adams/Tire
Rounded Plank
Rounded Plank

Using Adams/Tire - MD Adams 2010

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Welcome to Adams/Tire

Adams/Tire Handling Module

• Using the UA-Tire Model

Adams/Tire 3D Spline Road Module

Adams/Tire 3D Shell Road Module

Specific Tire Models

Features in Adams/Tire Modules

Adams/Tire modules: Features: Requirements:

Which Tire Model Should You Use?

Typical Applications for Each Tire Model

Use and Understanding of Adams/Tire

How to Use Adams/Tire

2. Reference an existing tire property file from:

Understanding Adams/Tire Processes

Flow of Information in Adams/Tire

Determining Tire and Road Model to Use

• The tire model returns the forces and moments to Adams/Solver.

Defining Tires in Adams/Car

To modify tires in a subsystem:

Defining Tires in Adams/Chassis

To modify tires in Adams/Chassis:

Tires Tab in Adams/Chassis

Defining Tires in Adams/Solver

Statements Needed for Defining Tires

Statements Needed for Adding Tires to Your Model

Statement types: Purpose in dataset:

MARKER Locations and Orientations

Defining Tires in Adams/View

• Creating a Tire-Wheel Assembly

Creating a Tire-Wheel Assembly

To create a tire-wheel assembly in Adams/View:

To create the road:

Defining Wheel Inertia

Adams/Tire Handling and Motorcycle Modules

Simulations and Results

To submit your dataset to the Adams/Car version of Adams/Solver, do one of the

To create an Adams/Solver user library:

To submit your dataset to Adams/Solver using your Adams/Solver user library:

• 902 - Branch flag for tire request subroutine.

Example of a request in a dataset.

z = inclination angle (degrees)

z = vertical force (model units)

r1 = residual overturning moment (model units)

r2 = rolling resistance moment (model units)

r3 = aligning moment (model units)

z = vertical force (model units)

r1 = residual overturning moment (model units)

r2 = rolling resistance moment (model units)

r3 = aligning moment (model units)

z = inclination angle (radians)

z = vertical force (model units)

r1 = overturning moment (model units)

r2 = rolling resistance moment (model units)

r3 = aligning moment (model units)

z = longitudinal coefficient of friction

r1 = lateral coefficient of friction

r2 = FXMAX = DX + SVX (peak  from Pacejka + vertical

r3 = FYMAX = DY + SVY (peak  from Pacejka + vertical

r1= longitudinal relaxation length*

r2 = lateral relaxation length*

z = effective plane angle*

r1= effective plane curvature*

About Axis Systems and Sign Conventions