Earthquake

Earthquake Source
Orientation of Fault Slip
Focal Mechanisms
Earthquake Size
Magnitude
Seismic Moment
Energy
Fault Models
Main source: J. Moris
KAGI 2006 lecture notes

What is the cause of

Earthquakes ?
- Associated with faults
(source or cause?)
- Associated with magma?

Magnitude and intensity measure different

characteristics of earthquakes :
Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of
the earthquake. It is determined from measurements on
seismographs and is commonly measured using the Richter
scale.
Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the
earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from
effects on people, human structures, and the natural
environment. In Indonesia it is measured by using the
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale.

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (after Bold, 1999)

Intensity

Ground
acceleration
( 1g = cm.sec-2/980)

Effects

Magnitude

Shaking no felt, no damage : not felt

1.0 - 3.0

II

Shaking weak, no damage: felt only by a

few persons at rest, especially on upper
floors of buildings

3.0 -

III

Felt quite noticeably indoors, especially

on upper floors of buildings. Vibration
like passing of truck.

- 3.9

IV

0.015 - 0.02 g

Shaking light, no damage: during the day

felt indoors by many, outdoors by very
few. At night some awakened. Dishes,
windows, doors disturbed; walls make
creaking sound.

4.0 -

0.03 0.04 g

Shaking moderate, very light damage:

felt by nearly everyone, many awakened.
Some dishes, windows and so on broken;
cracked plaster in a few places; unstable
objects overturned. Pendulum clocks
may stop.

- 4.9

VI

0.06 0.07 g

Shaking strong, light damage: felt by all,

many frightened and run outdoors. Some
heavy furniture moved; a few instances
of fallen plaster.

5.0 -

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (cont.)

Intensity

Ground
acceleration
( 1g = cm.sec-2/980)

Effects

Magnitude

VII

0.10 0.15 g

Shaking very strong, moderate damage:

everybody run outdoors. Damage
negligible in buildings of good design
and construction; slight to moderate in
well-built ordinary structure;
considerable in poorly built or badly
designed structures.

- 5.9

VIII

0.25 0.30 g

Shaking severe, moderate to heavy

damage: damage slight in specially
designed structures; considerable in
ordinary substantial buildings with
partial collapse; great in poorly built
structures. Falls of chimneys, factory
stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Sand
and mud ejected in small amount.
Changes in well water.

6.0 -

IX

0.50 0.55 g

Shaking violent, heavy damage: damage

considerable in specially designed
structure; well-designed frame structures
thrown out of plumb; great in substantial
buildings, with partial collapse.
Buildings shifted off foundations.
Ground cracked conspicuously.
Underground pipes broken.

- 6.9

Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale (cont.)

Effects

Magnitude

Intensity

Ground
acceleration
( 1g = cm.sec-2/980)

> 0.60 g

Shaking extreme, very heavy damage;

some well-built wooden structure
destroyed; most masonry and frame
structures destroyed with foundations;
ground badly cracked. Rails bent. Land
slides considerable from river banks and
steep slopes. Shifted sand and mud.
Water splashed, slopped over banks.

> 7.0

XI

Few, if any, (masonry) structure remains

standing. Bridges destroyed. Broad
fissures in ground. Underground
pipelines completely out of service. Earth
slumps and land slips in soft ground.
Rails bent greatly.

XII

Damage total. Waves seen on ground

surfaces. Line of sight and level
destroyed. Objects thrown into the air.

What can we Learn about the Source

from Seismic Waves?
Location
Fault orientation and Slip Direction
Earthquake size Magnitude and Seismic Moment
Energy
Fault length Rupture Directivity

Types of faults
Normal fault

Thrust (Reverse) fault

Strike-slip fault

Thrust fault
1999 Chi-Chi Taiwan earthquake

Nojima Fault
Kobe Earthquake, 1995

Okada, 1999

Examples of P-wave radiation pattern

Left-lateral strike-slip
E

Right-lateral strike-slip
E

Thrust fault

Normal fault

Focal Mechanisms

The March 26, 1997, Kagoshima earthquake

N8E

Aftershocks

N98E

Earthquake Size Magnitude

Charles Richter
1900-1985

M = log A log A0
Richter, 1958

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range
Ml
Mj
mb
Ms
Mw

Local magnitude (California)

JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)
Body wave magnitude
Surface wave magnitude
Moment magnitude

0.1-1 sec
5-10 sec
1-5 sec
20 sec
> 200 sec

Earthquake size - Seismic Moment

Area (A)

Slip (S)
Seismic Moment = (Rigidity)(Area)(Slip)

M 0 (t ) = S u (t )

Seismic moments and fault areas

of some famous earthquakes

2004 Sumatra
400 x 1027 dyne-cm
Mw 9.0

A Small Earthquake, M3.8

Hanore Fault

M3.8
May 21, 2000

Thrust Fault

1 km

Kyoto Univ.

West

East

Fault Areas of
Damaging Earthquakes

1995 Kobe
Mw 6.9

Deaths
1944
1946
1995

1944 Tonankai
Mw 8.1

1223
1330
6310
1946 Nankai
Mw 8.1

Aftershocks of the
2004 Sumatra-Andaman
earthquake Mw9.3
stretch for about 1300 km

Conclusions
Earthquake sources are a double couple force system
which is equivalent to Fault Slip
The moment tensor describes the Force System
for earthquakes and other physical processes
From earthquake waves we can determine earthquake
moment, orientation of faulting, fault size

Additional notes

Radiated Energy

Log10(E) = 1.5Mw + 11.8

Kanamori, 1977

Types of Magnitude Scales

Period Range
Ml
Mj
mb
Ms
Mw

Local magnitude (California)

JMA (Japan Meteorol. Agency)
Body wave magnitude
Surface wave magnitude
Moment magnitude

0.1-1 sec
5-10 sec
1-5 sec
20 sec
> 200 sec

Summary: Magnitude and Energy

M = log A log A0
(Richter, 1958)
Log10 E = 1.44Ms + 5.24
(Bath, 1966)
Log10 E = 1.5Mw + 11.8
(Kanamori, 1977)
Mw = 2/3 Log10 M0 16.3
(Hanks and Kanamori, 1979)

Earthquake size - Seismic Moment

Area (A)

Slip (S)
Seismic Moment = (Rigidity)(Area)(Slip)

M 0 (t ) = S u (t )