First Edition - 2009 Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation Technical Publications Pune’Table ‘of Contents a Chapter-1 Measurement and instrumentation Theory (1-1) to(t -46) Chapter-2 Indicating Instruments and Theory of Valtmetors - Ammetors (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Digital Meters @-1) to (3-20) Chapter-4 Measurement of Resistance (4-1) 10 (4-48) Chapter-5 A.C. Bridges 5-1) to (5-48) Chapter-6 _ Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power (6-1) to(6 -52) Chapter-7 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments (7-1) to(7 -40) Chapter-8 _ Energy Meier Theory (@- 1) to (8-26) Chpater-9 Instrument Transformers (@-1)to(9-44) Chapter-10 Oscilloscope (AC - 1) to (10-44) Chapter-11 Transducers (41-1) to (11-64) Chapter - 12 _ Measurement of Non-electrical Quantities (12- 1) to (12-48) Features of Book ‘te Use of clear, plain and lucid language making the understanding very easy. H | Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ! \# Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. | {4 Important concepts are highlighted using Key Points throughout the book. ' {# Large number of solved examples. ‘ ' Approach of the book resembles class room teaching. ' %# Book provides detailed insight into the subject. Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of UoP University - 2008 Course S.E. [Electrical Engineering] Semester-I Analog and Digital Electronics -& Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation @as Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation ISBN 9788184316605 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this bock should be reproduced in ony form, Electronic, Mechorical, Photocopy or any information storage and {etriaval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune® #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411.030, India. Printer = Alert DTPiters ‘Sune. 10/3 Sihagad Road, Pe 411 044The importance of Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired us to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Electrical Measurements and Instrumentation. * The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a Proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All care has been taken to make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepts of the subject. The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. We wish to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book a reality. Much needed moral support and encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by our whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well appreciated. Authors UL A. Bakshi A.V. Bakshi KA Bakshi Dedicated to Guonsay1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement ... 1.2 Performance Characteristics... 1.2.1 Calibration... 4.3 Static Characteristics 1.3.1 Accuracy. .. 1.3.2 Precision. .. no le leo Ia FS Kio Is lem len len 1.3.2.2 Significant Figures... 1.3.3 Error. 1.3.4 Sensitivity 1.3.5 Resolution... 1.3.6 Threshold... 43.7 Linearity .. 1.3.8 Zero Drift.. 4.3.9 Reproducibility 1.3.10 Stability... F211 Telrenee ss sianinisiiwievss abies 1.3.12 Range or Span O90 Olt eae esa eens oes eeEraTE ETE 1.3.14 Hysteresis. 4.3.15 Dead Space or Dead Zone. 4.3.16 Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift. 1.4 Dynamic Characteristics ... 4.4.1 Speed of Response B i =1.42 Fidelity . 1-16 4.43 Lag.... 21248 1.4.4 Dynamic Error. . 1-16 1.5 Calibration. 1-17 1.6 Calibration Methodology 447 1.6.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology . . 21-17 1.6.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology 1-48 1.7 Block Diagram of Generalized Instrumentation System 1-19 4.7.1 Primary Sensing Element..............0.0.......0, . 1-20 1.7.2 Variable Conversion Element. ......0.:.2.:c:cesseeeesceeseseesesseeieees 1°20 1.7.3 Variable Manipulation Element. - 1-20 1.7.4 Data Transmission Element. . 21-21 1.7.5 Data Presentation Element..............:sssesssseesesetensesteeeeseeee 1-2) 1.8 Standard .... 1-21 1.8.1 Intemational Standards . 1-22 LOZ Pinay COMA i isi si ves vaitored Klis see Mees ve SANS - 1-22 ABS SOCOMAY SENAAE i iii is ciasae nos Lana aisacecbiews es stieee 18h 1.84 Working Standards 1-23 1.9 Standards for Mass and Length 1-23 1.40 Time Standards... 1-24 1.11 Frequency Standards. 1-25 1.44.1 Primary Standards .. . 24-25 1.11.2 Secondary Standards. = 1-25 1.12 Voltage Standards 4-26 1.13 Resistance Standard: 41-26 1.14 Current Standards...... 1-30 1.15 Methods of Measurement 41-30 1.15.1 Direct Method of Measurement ...........0.cscservecessecncres eens era eee 1-30 1.15.2 Indirect Method of Measurement . 1.16.1 Acthe/Passive Insinaments .. ........00. sso sees see esses seen ess seese ners 1-31 4.16.2 NullDefiection Type Instruments ...1.16.3 Monitoring/Control Instruments . 1.16.4 Analog/Digital Instruments... . 1.16.4.4 Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments... 1.16.5 Absolute/Secondary Instruments 4.165.1 Types of Secondary Instruments 1.17 Types of Errors .. 1.17.4 Gross Errors. 1.17.2 Systematic Errors 1.17.2.1 Instrumental Errors. 1.17.2.2 Environmental Errors. . 1.17.2.3 Observational Errors... 1.17.3 Random Errors... . Examples with Solutions Review Question: els is lela & Is ls lols le 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Essential Requirements of an Istruments . 2.3 Deflecting System 2.4 Controlling System. 2.4.1 Gravity Control. 2.4.2 Spring Control 2.4.3 Comparison of Controlling Systems . 2.5 Damping System. 25.1 Air Friction Damping 2.5.2 Fluid Friction Damping. 2.5.3 Eddy Current Damping 2.6 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC) . 2.6.1 Torque Equation 2.6.4 Taut Band Instrument _ 2.6.5 Temperature Compensation ..........ssssseeesseveseeeneees2.6.6 Errorsin PMMC Instrument . 2.7 Moving fron Instruments . 2.7. Moving [ron Attraction Type Instruments... see 2.7.2 Moving Iron Repulsion Type Instrument . .. . 2.7.2.4 Radial Vane Repulsion Type instrument... 2.2.2.2 Concentiis Vane Repulsion Type Instrument te ea a 2.7.3 Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments ..........s0sseseseseseeeeeeeseee 2-19 2.7.4 Advantages . 2.7.5 Disadvantages. 2.7.6 Errors in Moving lton Instruments ........s660seseeessseeeeeetteeeeeeseas 2-24 2.8 Basic D.C. Ammeter 2.9 Multirange Ammeters. 2.10 The Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt....... 2.10.1 Precautions to be Taken while using an Ammeter 2.11 Requirements of a Shunt 2.12 Basic D.C. Voltmeter. 2.13 Multirange Voltmeters 2.13.1 Universal Multiplier .. . 2.14 Sensitivity of Voltmeters. 2.14.1 Loading Effect 2.14.2 Precautions to be Taken while using a Voltmeter.............sceeceseaes red 2.14.3 Requirements of a Multiplier Examples with Solutions Review Questions .... 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Advantages of Digital Voltmeters... 3.3 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeters.. 3.4 Basic Block Diagram of DVM.. 3.5 Ramp Type DVM 3.5.1 Linear Ramp Technique 915.2 Staircase Ramp Technique........ecsesesseseeseeeeseeseeeaeeeeveseeees 13-53.6 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM ... 3.7 Voltage to Frequency Converter Type Integrating DVM 3.7.4 Interpolating Integrating DVM. 3.8 Successive Approximation Type DVM. 3.10 Resolution and Sensitivity. 3.11 General Specifications of DVM Review Questions . 4.1 Introduction .. 4.2 Classification of Resistances 4.3 Voltmeter-Ammeter Metho« 4.4 Series Type Ohmmeter.. 4.5 Shunt Type Ohmmeter 4.6 Wheatstone Bridge 4.8.1 Balance Condition 4.6.2 Industrial Form of Wheatstone Biige 4.7 Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge . 4.8 Wheatstone Bridge Under Small Unbalance . 4.8.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current. 4.8.2 Galvanometer Current Under Unbalanced Condition . 4.8.3 S, Interms of Current Sensitivity of Gatvanometer. 4.9 Measurement Errors ... 4.10 Advantages and Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.10.1 Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge 4.11 Applications of Wheatstone Bridge... 4.12 Kelvin Bridge - Measurement of Low Resistance 4.13 Kelvin's Double Bridge Method for Low Resistance Measurement 4 - 20 4.13.1 Practical Kelvin's Double Bridge .........0:ceceseeeen eee ceereesentaeeeee 4-224.14 Measurement of High Resistance. 4.14.1 Use of Guard Circuits 4.15 Megger.. 4.45.1 Principle of Operation 4.15.2 Construction 4.15.3 Working... 4.15.4 Applications... 4.16.1 Methods of Measurement of Earth Resistance 4,16.1.1 Fall of Potential Method . . 4,161.2 Use of Megger Earth Tester . . 4.17 Methods for Measurement of High Resistances 4.17.4 Direct Deflection Method .. 4.17.2 Loss of Charge Method . 4.17.3 Megohm Bridge Examples with Solutions Review Question: 5.1 Introduction ... 5.1.1 Advantages of Bridge Circuit 5.2 Types of Bridges. 5.3 A.C. Bridges. 5.3.1 Sources and Detectors . 5.3.2 Bridge Balance Equation ....... 5.4 Capacitance Comparison Bridge 5.5 Inductance Comparison Bridge. 5.6 Maxwell's Bridge 5.6.1 Maxwell's Inductance Bridge 5.6.2 Maxwell's Inductance Capacitance Bridge..........0:ccsseseeseeeseeeeeenere 5-11 5.6.3 Advantages of Maxwell Bridge . 5.6.4 Disadvantages of Maxwell Bridge - 5.7 Anderson Bridge .5.7.1 Advantages of Anderson Bridge, ...........sccseeereeseeseeerneeeusenneeee 5.7.2 Disadvantages of Anderson Bridge 5.8 Schering Bridge ..... 5.8.1 Power Factor and Loss Angle . 5.9 High Voltage Schering Bridge 5.10 Shielding and Grounding of Bridges .. Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 6.1 Introduction to Power Measurement. 6.1.1 Necessity of Waitmeter 6.1.2 AC. Power 6.2 Electrodynamometer Type Instruments . Gi toiquebistlon csi icnmle albloccanenteeensan 6.2.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic Instruments... 6.2.4 Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Instruments 6.2.5 Errors in Electrodynamomeler instruments... oe. 000.202 eseseesseeseessnenes 6.3 Single Phase Dynamometer Wattmeter.. 6.3.1 Torque Equation. 6.3.2 Reading on Watimeter ........0cscscecteeeeeereesenseeseeneeoeeseentenes 6.3.3 Shape of Scale of Dynamometer Wattmeter . §.4 Errors in Wattmeter. 6.4.1 Error due to Pressure Coil Inductance 6.4.2 Error due to Pressure Coil Capacitance 6.4.3 Error due to Method of Connection .. 6.4.4 Eddy Current Errors 6.5 Low Power Factor Electrodynamic Type Wattmeter 6.6 Power in Three Phase System 6.7 Examples of Wattmeter Connections and Corresponding Readings. 6 - 24 6.8 Single or One Wattmeter Method 6-266.8.1 Star Connected Load .. 6.8.2 Delta Connected Load . 6.8.3 Disadvantages 6.9 Three Wattmeter Method 6.10 Blondel's Theorem...... 6.11 Two Wattmeter Method..... 6.11.1 Proof of Two Wattmeter Method. 6.12 Power Factor Calculation by Two Wattmeter Methor 6.13 Effect of P.F. on Wattmeter Readings . 6.14 Reactive Volt-Amperes by Two Wattmeter Method 6.15 Advantages of Two Wattmeter Method..... 6.16 Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter Method... 6.17 Modified Version of 2 Wattmeter Method as Single Wattmeter Method .... 6.18 One Wattmeter Method for Reactive Voltamperes Measurement . 6.19 Three Phase Wattmeter... Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 7.1 Introduction 7.1.4 Vibrating Reed Type Frequency Meter 7.1.2 Electrical Resonance Type Frequency MEL ...........ccseeseeeeeseeseeenees 7-3 7.1.3 Weston Frequency Meter . 7.2 Frequency Counter .. 7.2.4 Analog Frequency Meter 7.3 Principle of Digital Frequency Counter 7.4 Digital Frequency Counter... 7.5 Period Measurement... 7.5.1 Multiple Period Averaging 7.6 Time Interval Measurement... 7.7 Frequency Ratio Measurement.. 7.8 Universal Counter...7.9 Power Factor Meters..... 7.10 Single Phase Electrodynamometer Type Power Factor Meter 7.40.1 Working of Meter 7.11 Moving Iron Power Factor Meter.. 7.11.1 Rotating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter. 7.11.2 Altemating Field Type Moving Iron Power Factor Meter 7.12 Phase Meters 7.12.4 Digital Phase Meter 7.12.2 Comparison of Analog and Digital Phase Meter. 7.13 Power Analyzer. 7.13.1 Block Schematic of Power Analyzer 7.43.2 Important Features of Power Analyzet..........0-sseeseseeeeseesssseeeeees 7-28 7.13.3 Applications of Power Analyzer 7-29 7.13.4 Source and Load Problems and Sources of Problem: 7.14 Trivector Meter... 7.15 TOD Meter ... 7.16 Electronic Multimeter .. 7.16.1 Use of Multimeter for D.C. Voltage Measurement....................2:sssseee 7.16.2 Use of Multimeter as an Ammeter .. . see 7.16.3 Use of Multimeter for Measurement of A.C. Voltage . 7.16.4 Use pf Multimeter for Resistance Measurement ..........66eseeerenrerrenee 7.16.5 Advantages. . . 7.16.6 Disadvantages 7.17 Digital Multimeter 7.18 Specifications of Digital Multimeter Review Questions... 8.1 Introduction .. 8.2 Single Phase Energymeter .. 8.2.1 Construction... 8.3 Theory of Single Phase Induction Type Energymeter .. : B34 Torque Equation... . 26... cee cece cece cree eee eee eens esas eeeeener tees eres,8.4 Errors and Compensations ... i 8.4.4 Lag Adjustment or Power Factor is: 8.422 Light Load Adjustment or Friction Adjustment . 8.4.3 Creeping Adjustment 8.4.4 Overload Compensation, 8.4.5 Voltage Compensation... 8.4.6 Temperature Compensation 8.4.7 Main Speed Adjustment. . 8.5 Advantages of Induction Type Energymeter.. 8.6 Disadvantages of Induction Type Energymeter 8.7 Three Phase Energymeter..... 8.7.1 Three Element Energymeter .............. aeugnanemacnamane crete 8.7.2 Two Element Energymeter. .. . . 8.8 Calibration of an Energymete: 8.9 Phantom Loading...... 8.10 Electronic Energymeter. SE IGUAI ANAC citi tell aadibenaard aes ted ib ahinante nal bee Examples with Solutions Review Questions .... 9.1 Introduction... 9.2 Current Transformers (C.T.) ..... 9.2.1 Working Principle . . . 9.3 Construction of Current ‘Transformers 9.3.1 Wound Type Current Transformer... ...ssssseeeseeseeee essere eseensneenens 9.3.2 Bar Type Current Transformer. 9.4 Why Secondary of C.T. should not be Open 9.5 Potential Transformers (P.T.). 9.5.1 Construction 9.6 Comparison of C.T. and P.T. 9.7 Ratios of Instrument Transformers 9.7.4 Ratio Correction Factor (RCF).9.8 Burden of an Instrument Transformet 9.9 Theory of Current Transformers .... 9.9.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio ..... 0... esse tee tee ee ee reese ee ee een ee en ee seve 9-10 9.9.2 Derivation of Phase Angle () of Transformer . 9.9.3 Errors in Current Transformer 9.9.3.1 Rafio Error 9.9.3.2Phase Angle Enor.. . . . 9.9.4 Characteristics of Curent Transformer. 9.10 Theory of Potential Transformers .... 9.10.1 Derivation of Actual Ratio. 9.10.2 Derivation of Phase Angle 9.10.3 Characteristics of Potential Transformers . . 9.11 Reduction of Errors in Instrument Transformers... 9.12 Advantages and Disadvantages of Instrument Transformers 9.13 Difference between instrument and Power Transformers .. uf 9.14 Extension of Range of Wattmeter using Instrument ‘Transformers. 9-30 9.14.1 Phasor Diagrams and Correction Factors 9.15 Use of C.T. and P.T. in Energy Measurement.. Examples with Solutions. Review Questions... 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). 10.2.1 Electron Gun ‘ 10.2.2 Deflection Sytem. 0... .ssescssecsseneessdeceneegeneneesesanseaeesens 10.2.3 Fluorescent Screen . 10.2.4 Glass Tube. 10.2.5 Base . 40.3 Basic Principle of Signal Display.. 10.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope IOAT ORT. .cs sas sierarpnce aati aes eee, eee ey 10.4.2 Vertical Amplifier. ...... 00.0... cce cece eee eeeae esse ree eeeeeeeeeseneeee 10-910.4.3 Delay Line. 2... SNS RRS 10.4.3.1 Lumped Parameter Delay Line... . . 10.4.3.2 Distributed Parameter Delay Line . . 410.44 Trigger Circuit. 10.4.5 Time Base Generator... sess eseee eee een ee eee eens een ee eteenen erences 10-12 10.4.6 Horizontal Amplifier oo... 00... ccce cee ece eset ee ee esse ee eenenenee eens 10-12 10.4.7 Power Supply 10.5 Front Panel Controls of Simple C.R.O. 10.5.1 Basic Controls ...... 6. cesses ects ee scee ee ent senses eeeeneeseweaeues 10.5.2 Vertical Section. . 10.5.3 Horizontal Section . 10.5.4 Z-Avis Intensity Contol .......0ccccccseceeeceecceeceeeeeeseeseeteees 10.6 Time Base Generator..... 10.6.1 Why Sweep Generator is Called Time Base Generator ? . . 10.6.2 Requirements of Time BaS@..... 6... see seeeeecee tenet e reece teen ene nene 10.6.3 Basic Principle of Time Base Generator. 10.6.4 Time Base Block Diagram 10.6.5 Trigger Generators... # O68 Sect Nodes Se acrsccxsamemernrrerrneantgayerneninannes 10.6.7 TTL Trigger Mode. 10.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation . 10.8 Bandwidth... 10.9 Dual Trace Oscilloscope 10.9.1 Altemate Mode. oc (098 Chop Mode od vesvernommerseerscuyeommercsoumenmer ae eeaTeaeNN 10.9.3 Electronic Switch 10.9.4 Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace Oscilloscope. 10.9.5 Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes 10.10 Dual Beam Oscilloscope. 10.10.1 Muliple Beam Oscilloscopes . . 10.10.2 Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes. .........6ssseeeeee 10-34 10.11 C.R.O. Measurements ...10.111 Voltage Measurement ....... 22.60 6c cece eee cc eee eec eee eeeeeeaeeeee 10.11.2 Current Measurement........... 10.11.3 Period and Frequency Measurement. 10.11.4 Need of C.R.O. in Electronic Practical 10.12 Lissajous Figures... 10.12.1 Measurement of Phase Difference . 0.12.2 Measurement of Frequency... . 10.13 Applications of C.R.O.. Examples with Solutions Review Questions... 11.1. Introduction 11.2 Classification of Transducers... 11.2.1 Active and Passive Transducer . . 11.2.1.1 Active Transducers. . 11.2.2 Passive Transducers. € ve "12 2hcorieg Taran Pc. 2 14 11.22.1 Capacitive Transduction oe 4 11.222 Eleeoagnae Transduction oe oe 11-5 11.2.2.3 inductive Transduction... . . we 1-5 11.22.4 Piezoelectric Transduction . . . +e 11-6 11.22.5 Photovoltaic Transduction. . . . oe 16 11.22.6 Photoconductive Transduction. . . 1-6 11.2.3 Analog and Digital Transducers 1-6 1.2.3.1 Analog Transducers +. 1-6 11.23.2 Digital Transducers . + 1-6 11.2.4 Primary or Secondary. 11.2.5 Transducer and Inverse Transducer 11.3 Characteristics of Transducers .. 11.4 Transducer Selection Factors 11.5 Passive Transducers . 11.6 Resistive Transducers .... 11.7 Potentiometric Resistance Transducers .. 11.7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Resistance Potentiometers ................ 11-1111.8 Strain Gauge Transducers... aii 11.8.1 Principle of Operation and Construction of Strain Gauges..................06 11-13 11.8.2 Derivation of Gauge Factor 14.8.3 Types of Strain Gauges 11.8.4 Basic Forms of Resistance Wire Strain Gauges 11.8.5 Desirable Characteristics of Resistance Wire Strain Gauge ................5 14-19 11.8.6 Semiconductor Strain Gauge 11.8.7 Comparison of Metal Gauge with Semiconductor Strain Gauge . 11.8.8 Rosette Strain Gauges... 2... .ecee eee ne ee et eee ene ee nee ee een ene 11.8.9 Applications of Strain Gauges 11.9 Load Cells... 11.10 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) 11.10.1 Construction of RTD... 1110.2 Advantages of RTD 11.10.3 Disadvantages of RTD 11.11 Thermistors..... 14.11.4 Construction of Thermistor 11.1.2. Resistance Temperature Characteristics 11.113 Voltage Current Characteristics... .ccesceeseseeceeeeeneeeraeee 11.11.4 Current Time Characteristics. 11.415 Advantages . 11.1.6 Limitations . 11.11.8 Comparison between Resistance Thermometer and Thermistor . . ¥ . 1-34 44.1.9 Signal Conditioning Circuit 11.12 Inductive Transducers... 11.12.1 Transducer based on Principle of Change in Self Inductance with Numberof Tums ..........sscseeseeeeeeerenere ree 1-33 11.122 Variable Permeability Inductive Transducer .........66¢eeceeeeeeeeeree = 11-33 11.123 Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer. 11.12.4 Eddy Current Type Inductive Transducer. .11.13 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) ... 11.13.1 Construction and Working of LVDT .... 11,13.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of LVDT . 11.14 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) 11.15 Capacitive Transducers |... 11.5.1 Variation in Capacitance 11.15.2 Capacitance Type Level Meter 11,15.3 Capacitive Pressure Transducer . 11.15.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitive Transducers ............. 11.16 Active Transducers .... 11.17 Thermoelectric Transducers - Thermocouple 11.17.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena . 11.17.2 Construction of Thermocouple . 11.17.2.1 Materials used for Thermocouples: 11.17.3 Thermoelectric Laws, 11.17.4 Thermopiles .... 11.17.5 Advantages and Limitations of Thermocouple 11.17.6 Desirable Characteristics of Thermocouple 11.18 Piezoelectric Transducers. 11.18.1. Basic Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer . 11.48.4.4 Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer 14.18.2 Applications of Piezoclectic Transducer 11.19 Photoelectric Transducers 11.19.1 Photoemissive Transducers . 11.19.1.4 Vacuum Phototube . aug 2 14.19.1.2Gas-Filed Phototubes 6... 1. 14.19.1.3 Photomuttiplier Tube... . 11.19.2 Photoconductive Transducers . . . 11.19.2.1 Photoconductive Cell, ee 11.19.2.2 Photodiodes . . 11.19.3 Photovoltaic Transducers. 11.19.3.1 Photovoltaic cell, 11.19.3.2 Phototransistors Review Questions...12.1 Introduction 12.2 Pressure Measurement. 12.3 Classification of Pressure ... 12.4 Manometer... 12.5 Mechanical Pressure Measuring Elements Pressure Sensors .. 12.5.1 Diaphragms .... 12.5.2 Capsule ..... 12.5.3 Bourdon Tube. ....... ree 2 12-6 12.5.4 Bellows 12.6 Electric Pressure Transducers. 12.7 High Pressure Measurement .. 12.7.4 Principle of Operation....... 12.7.2 Construction of Bulk Modulus Resistance Pressure Gauge. 12.7.3 Derivation... 12.8 Vacuum Gauges 12.8.1 McLeod Gauge 42.8.2 Thermal Conductivity Gauge 12.8.2.4 Pirani Gauge . 12.8.2.2 Thermocouple Vacuum oe 12.9 Temperature Measurement ... 12.9.1 Absolute Thermodynamic Scale or Kelvin Scale 12.9.2 Thermal Expansion Methods ................... 12.9.3 Optical Pyrometer. 12.9.3.1 Disappearing Filament Type Optical Pyrometer 12.9.4 Radiation Pyrometer . 12.9.4.1 Total Radiation Pyromter - 4% 12.10 Flow Measurement .... 12.101 Mass Flow Rate 12.10.2 Volume Flow Rate 12.10.2.1 Head Type Flow Meters (Based cn Differential Pressure Measurement)... . 12-25 12.10.2.2 Variable Area Meter (Rotameter) 12-28 12.10.23 Mechanical FlowMeler. ee 12-29 12.10.24 Electromagnetic Flow Meters 12-2912.10.2.5 Anemometers (Hot Wire Anemometer) 2 2... ee win 12-31 12.11 Ultrasonic Detectors... 12.11.1 Flow Measurement... 12.12 Level Measurement 12.13 Mechanical Method... 12.14 Hydraulic Method. 12.15 Electrical Methods. 12.1.1 Resistive Method . 12.15.2 Inductive Method . 0.2... ceececeseeeeeseeeeesssessesseeneseeeaeens 12.15.3 Capacitive Method 12.16 Pneumatic Method 12.17 Nucleonic Method 12.18 Ultrasonic Method Review Questions...Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.1 Introduction The measurement of any quantity plays very important role not only in science but in all branches of engineering, medicine and in almost all the human day to day activities. The technology of measurement is the base of advancement of science. The role of science and engineering is to discover the new phenomena, new relationships, the laws of nature and to apply these discoveries to human as well as other scientific needs. The science and engineering is also responsible for the design of new equipments. The operation, control and the maintenance of such equipments and the processes is also one of the important functions of the science and engineering branches. All these activities are based on the proper measurement and recording of physical, chemical, mechanical, optical and many other types of parameters. ‘The measurement means, to monitor a process or a operation and using an instrument, express the parameter, quantity or a variable in terms of meaningful numbers. Such a measurement gives in depth knowledge of the process and the parameter and helps in further modifications, if required. Thus the measurement provides us with a means of expressing a natural phenomena or the various processes, in quantitative terms. The feedback information is possible with the help of measurement techniques, which helps in achieving goals and objectives of various engineering processes and systems. ‘The measurement of a’ given parameter or quantity is the act or result of a quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and an unknown quantity to be measured. For the result to be meaningful, there are two basic requirements ;- 1, The comparison standard is accurately defined and commonly accepted, and 2. The procedure and the instrument used for obtaining the comparison must be provable. (-4)EMandI 1-2 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory The major problem with any measuring instrument is the error. Hence, it is necessary to select the appropriate measuring instrument and measurement procedure which minimises the error. The measuring instrument should not affect the quantity to be measured. Key Point: The measuring instrument may be defined as a device for determining the value or magnitude of a quantity or variable. An electronic instrument is the one which is based on electronic or electrical principles for its measurement function. The measurement of any electronic or electrical quantity or variable is termed as an electronic measurement. 1.1.1 Advantages of Electrical and Electronic Measurement The advantages of an electrical and electronic measurement are :- 1. Most of the quantities can be converted by transducers into the electrical or electronic signals. 2. An electrical or electronic signal can be amplified, filtered, multiplexed, sampled and measured. 3. The measurement can easily be obtained in or converted into digital form for automatic analysis and recording. 4, The measured signals can be transmitted over long distances with the help of cables or radio links, without any loss of information. 5. Many measurements can be carried either simultaneously or in rapid succession. 6. Electronic circuits can detect and amplify very weak signals and can measure the events of very short duration as well. 7. Electronic measurement makes possible to build analog and digital signals. The digital signals are very much required in computers. The moder development in science and technology are totally based on computers. 8. Higher sensitivity, low power consumption and a higher degree of reliability are the important features of electronic instruments and measurements. But, for any measurement, a well defined set of standards and calibration units is essential. This chapter provides an introduction to different types of errors in measurement, the characteristics of an instrument and different calibration standards. Key Point : The physical, chemical, electrical quantity, property, process, variable or a condition to be measured is referred as measurand. The various physical measurands are pressure, level, force, strain, velocity, etc. while the important electrical measurands are voltage, current, power and frequency. 1.2 Performance Characteristics The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories:-EM and! 1-3 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory i) Static characteristics and —_ ii) Dynamic characteristics Some applications involve measurands which are either constant or varying very slowly with time. Key Point: The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly varying with time or mostly constant, i.e, do not vary with time, is called static characteristics. While, when the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed with the help of differential equations. Key Point: The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is called dynamic characteristics. ‘The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called calibration. 1.2.1 Calibration Key Point: Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or marking a scale so that the readings of an instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard. In other words, it is the procedure for determining the correct values of measurand by comparison with the measured or standard ones. The particular instrument is compared with either a primary standard, secondary standard with higher accuracy or an instrument with known accuracy. The calibration offers a guarantee to the device or instrument that it is operating with required accuracy, under the stipulated environmental conditions. It creates the confidence of using the properly calibrated instrument, in user's mind. The periodic calibration of an instrument is very much necessary. The calibration procedure involves the steps like visual inspection for various defects, installation according to the specifications, zero adjustment etc. The calibration characteristics can be determined by applying known values of quantities to be measured and recording the corresponding output of the instrument. Such output values are then compared with the input, to determine the error. Such a record obtained from calibration is called calibration record. It is generally recorded in the tabular form. If it is represented in the graphical form, it is called calibration curve. Such a calibration record or calibration curve is useful to obtain the performance characteristics of an instrument. The performance of the instrument is not guaranteed by the calibration. It only indicates whether the performance of the instrument is meeting the accuracy and range specification or not. If the device has been repaired, aged, adjusted or modified, then recalibration is carried out.EMandI 1-4 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3 Static Characteristics As mentioned earlier, the static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities which do not vary with time. The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity, threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and linearity. 1.3.1 Accuracy It is the degree of closeness with which the instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity to be measured. It denotes the extent to which we approach the actual value of the quantity. It indicates the ability of an instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity. The accuracy can be expressed in the following ways = 1) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Full Scale Reading’ : - In case of instruments having uniform scale, the accuracy can be expressed as percentage of full scale reading. For example, the accuracy of an instrument having full scale reading of 50 units may be expressed as + 0.1 % of full seale reading. From this accuracy indication, practically accuracy is expressed in terms of limits of error. So for the accuracy limits specified above, there will be + 0.05 units error in any measurement. So for a reading of 50 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units ie 0.1 % while for a reading of 25 units, there will be error of + 0.05 units in the reading ie. + 0.2 %. Thus as reading decreases, error in measurement is + 0,05 units but net percentage error is more. Hence, specification of accuracy in this manner is highly misleading. 2) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of True Value’ :- This is the best method of specifying the accuracy. It is to be specified in terms of the true value of quantity being measured. For example, it can be specified as + 0.1 % of true value. This indicates that in such cases, as readings get smaller, error also gets reduced. Hence accuracy of the instrument is better than the instrument for which it is specified as percent of full scale reading. 3) Accuracy as ‘Percentage of Scale Span’ : - For an instrument, if aj,, is the maximum point for which scale is calibrated, ie. fulll scale reading and a,,, is the lowest reading on scale. Then (@max — Amin) 8 called scale span or span of the instrument. Accuracy of the instrument can be specified as percent of such scale span. Thus for an instrument having range from 25 units to 225 units, it can be specified as + 0.2 % of the span i.e. + [(0.2/100) x (225 - 25) which is + 0.4 units error in any measurement. 4) Point Accuracy : Such an accuracy is specified at only one particular point of scale. It does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale. The general accuracy of an instrument cannot be specified, in this manner. But the general accuracy can be specified by providing a table of the point accuracy values calculated at various points throughout the entire range of the instrument. Thus the accuracy, in whatever way it may be specified, gives the equipment accuracy with a particular set up and other conditions and does not include any personal accuracy.EM and! 1-5 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3.2 Precision It is the measure of consistency or repeatability of measurements. Key Polnt : It denotes the closeness with which individual measurements are departed or distributed about the average of number of measured values. Let us see the basic difference between accuracy and precision. Consider an instrument on which, readings upto zjyath of unit can be measured. But the instrument has large zero adjustment error. Now every time reading is taken, it can be taken down upto z-iath of unit So as the readings agree with each other, we say that the instrument is highly precise. But, though the readings are precise upto ao of unit, the readings are inaccurate due to large zero adjustment error. Every reading will be inaccurate, due to such error, Thus a precise instrument may not be accurate. Thus the precision means sharply or clearly defined and the readings agree among themselves. But there is no guarantee that readings are accurate. An instrument having zero error, if calibrated properly, can give accurate readings but in that case still, the readings can be obtained down upto zanth of unit only. Thus accuracy can be improved by calibration but not the precision of the instrument. Consider another example. A known weight of 100 grams is measured by an instrument. Five times, the weight has been recorded. The readings obtained are 103, 104, 105, 103, 105. The average indicated value is 104 grams. Hence the maximum deviation from the average reading is +1 gram in 100 grams actual value. Thus, the scale of the instrument can be calibrated to read +1 gram. But what about the accuracy ? The readings are not accurate. The accuracy of the instrument is only (105 - 100/100)% ie. 5 % . Thus there is a precision of + 1 % but the accuracy is only 5 %. Key Point: This confirms the fact, that high degree of precision does not guarantee the accuracy. It is the accurate calibration’ that makes the accurate measurement possible. The precision is composed of two characteristics + © Conformity and © Number of significant figures. 1.3.2.1 Conformity Consider a resistor having true value as 2385692 0, which is being measured by an ohmmeter. Now, the meter is consistently measuring the true value of the resistor. But the reader, can read consistently, a value as 2.4 MQ due to nonavailability of proper scale. The value 24 MQ is estimated by the reader from the available scale. There are no deviations from the observed value. The error created due to the limitation of the scale reading is a precision error. The example illustrates that the conformity is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for precision. Similarly, precision is necessary but not the sufficient condition for accuracy.EM and! 1-6 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Key Point: An accurate instrument should be precise but a precise instrument may not be accurate. 4.3.2.2 Significant Figures The precision of the measurement is obtained from the number of significant figures, in which the reading is expressed. The significant figures convey the actual information about the magnitude and the measurement precision of the quantity. For example, a resistance of 110 2, specified by an instrument may be closer to 109 @ or 111 Q. Thus there are 3 icant figures. While if it is specified as 110.0 © then it may be closer to 110.1 Q or 109.9 ©. Thus there are now 4 significant figures. Key Point: Thus more the significant figures, the greater is the precision of measurement. Number of times, the large numbers with zeros before a decimal point are used to approximate populations or the amounts of money. For example, the price of a vehicle is reported as Rs. 450,000. This means the true value of the vehicle lies between Rs. 449,999 and Rs. 450,001. Thus, there are six significant figures. But what is the meaning of the reported price is, it is closer to Rs. 450,000 rather than Rs. 440,000 or Rs. 460,000. In this case, there are only two significant figures. To avoid this confusion, the large numbers are expressed in a scientific notation using the powers of ten. For example, the price of Rs. 450,000 must be expressed as 4.5 x 10°. Thus now, there are only two significant figures. The uncertainty due to the zeros to the left of the decimal point is usually resolved by such scientific notation. The precision can be mathematically expressed as = P where P = Precision X, = Value of n™ measurement Xn = Average of the set of measured values hump Example 1.1: The table shows the set of 5 measurements recorded in a laboratory. Calculate the precision of the 34 measurement. Measurement Number Value of Measurement 1 49 51 62 alatesEM andi 1-7 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory = 0.964 ie. 96.4 % _ | 52-50. 50.2 This is the precision of the 3" measurement. 4.3.3 Error The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. Key Point: The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an error. Mathematically it can be expressed as, A> Am where e = Error A, = Measured value of the quantity = True value of the quantity In this expression, the error denoted as e is also called absolute error. The absolute error does not indicate precisely the accuracy of the measurements. For example, absolute error of +1 V is negligible when the voltage to be measured is of the order of 1000 V but the same error of +1 V becomes significant when the voltage under measurement is 5 V or so. Hence, generally instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified. Mathematically, the relative error can be expressed as, Absolute error _ True value - Measured value ey = Abseluteoror True value True value thee A, The percentage relative error is expressed as,Cu 4 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as, where A= and as where a = Percentage accuracy The error can also be expressed as a percentage of full scale reading as, Error as a percentage of full scale reading where fs.d. = Full scale deflection. wep Example 1.2: The expected value of the voltage to be measured is 150 V. However, the measurement gives a value of 149 V. Calculate i) absolute error; ii) percentage error; ifi) relative accuracy; io) percentage accuracy and v) error expressed as percentage of full scale reading, if the scale range is 0-200 V. Solution: The expected value means true value, Ay = 150V The measured value is given as 149 V. A, = 49V i) @ = Absolute error = Ay Ag =150-149=41V ii) ee, = itt) A iv) %a = Ax 100 = 0.9933 x 100 = 99.33 %EM and! 1-9 Measurement and instrumentation Theory v) % error expressed as percentage of full scale reading is, ApmAg fs.d. x 100 sah. = 39% 100 As fs.d. is 200 V = 05% 1.3.4 Sensitivity The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be measured. Mathematically it is expressed as, ___ Infinitesimal change in output ‘Tafinitesimal change in input Thus, if the calibration curve is linear, as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (a), the sensitivity of the instrument is the slope of the calibration curve. Fig. 1.1 Sensitivity If the calibration curve is not linear as shown in the Fig. 1.1 (b), then the sensitivity varies with the input. The sensitivity is always expressed by the manufacturers as the ratio of the magnitude of quantity being measured to the magnitude of the response. Actually, this definition is the reciprocal of the sensitivity is called inverse sensitivity or deflection factor. But manufacturers call this inverse sensitivity as a sensitivity. Inverse sensitivity = Deflection factoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 1-12 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.3.8 Zero Drift The drift is the gradual shift of the instrument indication, over an extended period during which the value of the input variable does not change. The zero drift is defined as the deviation in the instrument output with time, from its zero value, when the variable to be measured is constant. The whole instrument calibration may gradually shift by the same amount. There are many environmental factors which affect the drift. These factors are stray electric field, stray magnetic field, temperature changes, contamination of metal, changes in the atomic structure, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear, corrosion, etc. The drift is undesirable and cannot be easily compensated for. It must be carefully guarded against by continuous inspection. 1.3.9 Reproducibility Output - It is the degree of closeness with which a given + Repeatability value may be repeatedly measured. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of time. The perfect reproducibility indicates no drift in the instrument. The repeatability is defined as variation of scale reading and is random in nature. Both reproducbility and the repeatability are a measure of the closeness with Fig. 1.3 which a given input may be measured again and again. mo The Fig. 1.3 shows the input and output relationship with positive and negative repeatability. 1.3.10 Stability The ability of an instrument to retain its performance throughout its specified operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability. 1.3.11 Tolerance The maximum allowable error in the measurement is specified interms of some value which is called tolerance. This is closely related to the accuracy. Actually tolerance is not the static characteristics of measuring instrument but it is mentioned because in some instruments the accuracy is specified interms of tolerance values. Key Point : The tolerance indicates the maximum allowable deviation of a manufactured component from a specified value.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 1-16 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Fe) = a ... Laplace of sinusoidal input From the dynamic behaviour of the measuring system, the various dynamic characteristics of the system can be obtained. The various dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, log and the dynamic error. 1.41 Speed of Response It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It indicates activeness of the system. Key Point; The system should respond very quickly to the changes in the input. 1.4.2 Fidelity It indicates how much faithfully the system reproduces the changes in the input. It is the ability of an instrument to produce a wave shape identical to wave shape of input with respect to time. Key Point: It is defined as the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without dynamic error. 1.4.3 Lag Every system takes some time, whatever small it may be, to respond to the changes in the measured variable. This retardation or delay in the response of a system is called lag. This is also called measuring lag. The lags are of two types :- 1. Retardation Lag : In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the variable has occurred. 2. Time Delay : In this case, response begins after some time called dead time, after the application of input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error. 1.4.4 Dynamic Error It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, aseuming zero static error.EM and! 1-17 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory The Fig. 1.11 shows the dead time, ie. time delay and the dynamic error. Input Quantity to be measured and time Fig. 1.11 Dynamic characteristics 1.5 Calibration The calibration is the procedure for determining the correct values of messurand by comparison with the standard ones. The standard of device with which comparison is made is called a standard instrument. The instrument which is unknown and is to be calibrated is called test instrument. Thus in calibration, test instrument is compared with the standard instrument. 1.6 Calibration Methodology ‘There are two fundamental methodologies for obtaining the comparison between test instrument and standard instrument. These methodologies are, 1. Direct comparisons 2. Indirect comparisons 1.6.1 Direct Comparison Calibration Methodology In a direct comparison, a source or Standard instrument generator applies a known input to the meter A under test. The ratio of what meter is indicating and the known generator values calibrated co. gives the meter’s error. In such a case meter is ‘ test instrument while generator is the standard instrument. The deviation of meter from the Fig. 1.12(a) Meter calibration standard value is compared with the allowable mance limit. If meter deviation exceeds the allowance, then the meter is considered to be out of tolerance. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (a). Test instrument 1 *EM and! 1-18 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Test instrument With the help of direct comparison a generator or source also can be calibrated. In such calibration, the meter acts as a standard instrument while the generator acts as a test Fig. 1.12(b) Generator calibration instrument. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (b). ‘The transducer converts the signal from one form to another. Hence if transducer is to be calibrated using direct comparison then both generator as well as meters are the standard instruments while the transducer acts as a test instrument. The transducer characteristics are then expressed as a ratio between the device's output fo its input, in the appropriate input and output measurement units. This is shown in the Fig. 1.12 (c). ‘Standard instrument Standard instrument Test instrument Standard instrument Fig. 1.12 (c) Transducer calibration 1.6.2 Indirect Comparison Calibration Methodology In the indirect comparison, the test instrument is compared with the response of standard instrument of same type i.e. if test instrument is meter, standard instrument is also meter, if test instrument is generator, standard instrument is also generator and so on. Test instrument If the test instrument is a meter then the same input is applied to the test meter as well as a standard meter. Thus the indication of test : meter is compared with the indication of the standard meter for the same stimulus or input. Care must be taken that during the comparison process, the source supplying input to both Standard instrument Fig. 1.13 (a) Meter calibration must have the required level of stability. The magnitude of input is not important. This is Test instrument shown in the Fig. 1.13 (a). In case of generator calibration, the output of both the generators, test as well as standard, are set to same nominal levels. Then a transfer meter is used which measures the outputs of both standard and test generators. From the linearity and the resolution of the transfer meter, the generator is calibrated. The set up for the generator calibration is shown in the Fig. 1.13 (b). Fig. 1.13 (b) Generator calibration ¥ .aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and 1 1-20 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory Each element is made up of number of distinct components which perform a particular function in the measurement procedure. In the block diagram, the function of each element is important rather than the construction of the element. 41.7.1 Primary Sensing Element An element of an instrument which makes first, the contact with the quantity to be measured is called primary sensing element. Thus first detection of the measurand is done by the primary sensing element. In ammeter, coil carrying current to be measured is a primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary sensing element which converts the measurand into a corresponding electrical signal. Key Point: In general, a transducer converts a physical quantity from one form to other but in case of electrical and electronic measurements, it converts physical quantity to be measured into an analogous electrical signal. 1.7.2 Variable Conversion Element The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form such as voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an output may not be suitable for the actual measurement system. For example if the measurement system is digital then the analog signal obtained from the primary sensing element is not suitable for the digital system. Thus analog to digital converter is required which is nothing but variable conversion element. Key Point: Some instruments do not need variable conversion element while some need more than one. The original information about the measurand must be retained as it is while doing such conversion. 1.7.3 Variable Manipulation Element The level of the output from the previous stage may not be enough to drive the next stage. Thus variable manipulation element manipulates the signal, preserving the original nature of the signal. Key Point: The manipulation involves the change in numerical value of the signal. For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retaining the original nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after variable conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output of the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case atenuators are used as the variable manipulation elements. Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, dipping, clamping etc, to obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highlyEM and! 1-21 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory distorted form. Such a process is called signal conditioning. Thus in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation, the signal conditioning is also done in the second stage. Hence second stage is called data conditioning or signal conditioning elements. 1.7.4 Data Transmission Element When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary to. transmit the data from one stage to other. This is achieved by the data transmission element. The signal conditioning and data transmission together is called intermediate stage of an instrument. 1.7.5 Data Presentation Element \ ‘The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring, controlling or ' analysing purposes. Thus the person handling the instrument must get the information in the proper form, according to the purpose for which it is intended. This function is done by the data presentation element. If the data is to be monitored then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras are used as data presentation elements. For control and analysis purpose, the microprocessors, computers and microcontrollers may be used as data presentation elements. The data presentation stage may be called terminating stage of an instrument. curent_| woven |__[Memets 24 ore ool ‘components Primary Data Data Data sensing conditioning transmission presentation. Fig. 1.15 Block schematic of an ammeter For example consider a simple analog meter used to measure current or voltage as shown in the Fig. 1.15 The moving coil is primary sensing element. The magnets and coil together act as data conditioning stage to convert current in a coil to a force. This force is transmitted to the pointer through mechanical linkages which act as data transmission element. The pointer and scale act as data presentation element. Selecting the proper instrument for a particular type of measurand needs the knowledge of the performance characteristics of an instrument. Let us discuss the types of performance characteristics of an instrument. 1.8 Standard All the instruments are calibrated at the time of manufacture against a measurement standard. A standard of measurement is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A standard means known accurate measure of a physical quantity. Other physical quantities are compared with the standards to obtain their values.EM and! 1-22 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory A unit is realised by reference to an arbitrary material standard or to natural phenomenon including physical and atomic constants. For example, the fundamental unit of mass ie. kilogram, defined as the mass of a cubic decimeter of water as its temperature of maximum density of 4 °C. This unit is represented by a material standard ic. by the mass of international prototype kilogram, consisting of a platinum-irridium alloy cylinder which is preserved at the Intemational Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes, near Paris and is the material representation of the unit kilogram. The unit of length ie. metre is represented by the distance between two fine lines engraved on gold plugs near the ends of a platinum-irridium alloy at 0 °C and mechanically supported in a prescribed manner. Similarly, for all the units including fundamental and derived units, the different standards have been developed. All these standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes, near Paris. The different types of standards of measurement are classified as, 1. International Standards 2. Primary Standards 3. Secondary Standards 4. Working Standards Let us discuss in brief, each of these categories of standards. 4.8.1 International Standards International standards are defined as the international agreement. These standards, as mentioned above are maintained at the Intemational Bureau of Weights and Measures and are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements interms of fundamental units of Physics. These international standards are not available to the ordinary users for the calibration purpose. For the improvements in the accuracy of absolute measurements, the international units are replaced by the absolute units in 1948. Absolute units are more accurate than the intemational units. 1.8.2 Primary Standards These are highly accurate absolute standards, which can be used as ultimate reference standards. These primary standards are maintained at National Standard Laboratories in different countries. These standards representing fundamental units as well as some electrical and mechanical derived units are calibrated independently by absolute measurements at each of the national laboratories. These are not available for use, outside the national laboratories. The main function of the primary standards is the calibration and verification of secondary standards.EMandI 1-23 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.8.3 Secondary Standards ‘As mentioned above, the primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories. The various industries need some reference standards. So, to protect highly accurate primary standards the secondary standards are maintained, which are designed and constructed from the absolute standards. These are used by the measurement and calibration laboratories in industries and are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong. Each industry has its own standards, For example, the national bureau of standards has set up National Secondary Standards in the United States of America. The particular industry maintaining the secondary standards is responsible for the calibration of these standards. These standards are periodically sent to the national standard laboratories for calibration. The national laboratories sent them back to the industries with the certification, comparing them with the primary standards, The certification indicates the measuring accuracy of secondary standards interms of a primary standard. 1.8.4 Working Standards These are the basic tools of a measurement laboratory and are used to check and calibrate the instruments used in laboratory for accuracy and the performance. For example, the resistor manufacturing industry maintains a standard resistor in the laboratory for checking the values of the manufactured resistors. The manufacturer verifies that the values of the manufactured resistors are well within the specified accuracy limits. Thus, the working standards are some what less accurate than the primary standards. Thus, the working standards are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance. 1.9 Standards for Mass and Length 1. Primary standard of mass : The material representation of mass is the prototype kilogram preserved at the Iniernational Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes, near Paris. The primary unit of mass is a prototype kilogram kept at National Physical laboratory of every country. The accuracy of these standards is 1 part in 10° and these are occasionally verified against the standard kept at the International Bureau. 2, Secondary standards of mass : These are kept by the industrial laboratories and have an accuracy of 1 ppm (parts per million). These are checked against the primary standards kept at the National laboratories. 3. Working standards of mass : These are commercially used and available in wide range of values to suit for almost every application. These standards have accuracy of the order of 5 ppm. These are verified against secondary standards. 4, International unit of length : The intemational unit of length is metre. It was first defined as the ten-millionth part at the meridional quadrant through Paris. Materially it is represented by the distance between two lines engraved on a platinum-irridium barEM and! 1-24 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory preserved at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Later in 1960, it was redefined interms of optical standard which is orange-red radiation of Krypton atom. The internationally specified Krypton-86 discharge lamp, excited and observed under well defined conditions, emits orange light whose wavelength is the basic standard of length to 1 ppm accuracy. The SI unit metre is now defined as equal to 1650763.73 wavelengths in vacuum of the orange-red radiation of the Krypton-86 atom. 5. Working standards of length : The precision gauge block made up of steel is widely used industrial working standard of length. These steel blocks have two plane parallel surfaces which are specified distance apart, with accuracy tolerances in the range of 0.15-0.25 microns. Such blocks are cheaper and have very high accuracy. 1.10 Time Standards For many years, the rotation’ of earth about its axis was considered as a uniform time scale. But after various experiments and precise observations the astronomers concluded that the rotation of earth about its axis was not really uniform rotation. Even after the corrections applied to it, the rotation of the earth showed irregularities and long term drifts. After considering all these irregularities and variations, the second was defined as 1/86400 parts of an average rotation of the earth about its axis viewed with respect to the sun. After that the International Committee adopted a new standard time called atomic time. The need of time interval which is really uniform and that can be observed and measured precisely with available electronic instruments leads to the atomic time standard. It is based on the transitions that occur spontaneously and continuously in energy states of cesium 133 atom. The standard to be employed is the transition between the two hyperfine levels F = 4, m, = 0 and F = 3, mp = 0 of the fundamental state of the atom of cesium 133 undisturbed by external fields and the value 9,192, 631, 770 hertz is assigned. The atomic time can be observed easily on the electronic instruments. Also it is possible to count the number of transitions in cesium vapour. All the standards are checked continuously and compared with the reference standards by the International Committee. For atomic time, there was time difference of 100 usec. over a period of two years. Thus atomic time is used as basis for precise time measurement. ‘The requirement of precise navigation and satellite tracking is the correlation of time or period with the rotation of earth about its axis. For that, several other time of day scales are invented which avoids day to day variations. The mean solar time is one of such scales. It is based up on the average interval for all solar days during the year. This avoids the day to day variations due to the tilt of the axis of the earth and eccentricity of orbit. The sidereal time is the another scale which is based upon the rotation of the earth with respect to the stars rather than the sun. The duration of the sidereal day is taken as 23 hr 56 min and 4.09 sec. 4EMandI 1-28 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.11 Frequency Standards The fundamental standard of frequency is the period of rotation of the earth about its axis. All standards of frequency must be ultimately referred to this fundamental standard for calibration purposes. The practical standards can be classified as, i) Primary standards —_ii) Secondary standards The primary standard of frequency is considered as an oscillator which generates constant frequency over very long period. This primary standard is checked directly with the rotation of the earth about its axis. The secondary standard of frequency is considered as an oscillator which have its frequency checked periodically against the primary standards. That means the secondary standard is the oscillator whose output frequency is calibrated against a primary standard. In recent days, due to advanced technology it is possible to use spectrum lines as frequency standard. For example, ammonia gas has an absorption line at a frequency of 23870.1 MHz. This line is taken as a reference line for controlling the frequency of an oscillator by using automatic frequency control, This system keeps output frequency of an oscillator close to the frequency corresponding to the spectrum line. 1.11.1 Primary Standards The primary standards are obtained by using quartz crystal oscillator having constant frequency output over long period. The frequency stability of a crystal oscillator is long time without readjustments. Fig. 1.16 Arrangement for comparing primary standards The Fig. 1.16 shows typical arrangement for comparing primary standard with fundamental standard i.e. the rotation of the earth about its axis. In this system, the crystal oscillator works in frequency range 50 to 100 KHz, Its temperature coefficient is low and it gives output with constant amplitude. Here crystal oscillator gives 100 kHz. This frequency is divided in steps using frequency divider circuits till the frequency 1 kHz is obtained. This signal of 1 kHz frequency becomes drive of an electronic clock which gives correct time when driven by 1 kHz frequency signal. This time is periodically checked with the standard observatory time. 1.11.2 Secondary Standards The secondary frequency standards are also derived using the crystal oscillators. When the great precision is not required, some design considerations are relaxed such as temperature control, use of crystal oscillator out of optimum range of frequency as 50-100 KHz, etc. Adopting very similar methods, the crystal oscillator frequency can be maintained constant over very long period.EM and! 1-26 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.12 Voltage Standards 1. Primary standard of voltage : It is the saturated normal Weston cell which was developed by Edword Weston in 1892. The Fig. 1.17 shows the construction of Weston saturated cell. The cell is in the form of "'H' shaped glass vessel. The mercury electrode acts as positive while the cadmium mercury amalgam acts as a negative electrode. The electrolyte is a saturated solution of cadmium sulphate. A paste of mercury sulphate . placed on the mercury. This acts as a depolarizing agent. The excess of solid cadmium sulphate crystals in the electrolyte space and the depolarizer ensures that the solution is always saturated at all the temperatures. H vessel of glass Cadmium sulphate solution Cadmium sulphate crystal Cadmium Mercury sulphate crystal sulphate Mercury Cadmium mercury ‘amalgam Platinum wires Fig. 1.17 Saturated Weston cell The limbs of H vessel are hermetically sealed and the connections to the external circuit are made through platimum wires. The reaction representing the cell action is, Cd + Hg, SO, = Cd SO, + 2Hg The cell is kept in oil bath to control the temperature of cell within 0.01 °C. The voltage of the Weston cell is 1.01858 V, at 20 °C. The relation between e.m.f. and temperature is given by, E, = Ej — 46107 (t-20)—0.95x10-6 (t-20)? +1010-9 (t~20)3 The life span of the cell is 10 to 20 years and drift in the value of voltage is about 1 HV per year.EM andI 1-27 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 2. Secondary standard of voltage : The saturated cells are temperature dependent. Thus as a secondary standard the unsaturated Weston cell is used. The construction of this cell is shown in the Fig. 1.18. The cell is similar to saturated Weston cell, only the cadmium sulphate crystals are absent. Cadmium sulphate Porous solution spacer Mercury Porous mate 7 spacer Porous Cadmium plug mercury Jf amalgam Mercury = * > ~ Platinum wires Fig. 1.18 Unsaturated Weston cell The cadmium sulphate solution is saturated at 4 °C and hence unsaturated at room temperature. In addition a ‘sputum’ or retaining member like porous plug is used over each electrode to hold the material in place and thus the cell is portable. It is necessary for a cell to keep it for few days to settle so that accurate measurement results can be obtained, The cell is enclosed in backelite case. The emf. of unsaturated cell lies in the range of 1.018 V to 1.020 V. This cell becomes less stable with age. The e.m-f. decreases by 30 to 50 wV per year. Once a year, the cell must be checked in a standardizing laboratory and get certified. 3. Laboratory standards of voltage : In recent years, semiconductor device like zener diode can be used to generate the voltage reference. When reverse biased and operated in breakdown region, the voltage across it remains constant and called zener voltage. The Fig. 1.19 shows the zener diode in the laboratory standard of voltage. The supply voltage E which is the output of bridge rectifier is much higher than the zener voltage which ensures the breakdown of the zener diode. The resistance R is high which acts as current limiting resistor, keeping the zener diode current below its safe value. If supply voltage changes, then most of these changes cause variations in voltage drop across R, with very small change in the zener diode current. Hence output referenceEM and! 1-28 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory R Ac. Zev Reference stony © il SoM vollage Transformer Fig. 4.19 Zener diode laboratory standard of voltage voltage remains constant. The zener diodes having reverse voltages in the range of 45 V are used as they have negligible resistance temperature coefficient. If high output voltage is necessary then many low voltage zener diodes are connected in series to obtain it. 1.13 Resistance Standards 1. Primary resistance standard : The S.J. unit of the resistance is ohm and in $11. units the absolute value of ohm is defined interms of the fundamental unit of length, mass and time. The absolute measurement of ohm is cartied out by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Severes near Paris and also by the National laboratories, which Preserve a group of primary resistance standards. This group is periodically checked against each other and ocassionally verified by the absolute measurements. The Fig. 1.20 shows the cross-section of a resistance standard of 1 ohm. gs ———,, Copper binding post Hard rubber ‘Thermometer tube ‘ Resistance wire (Mangarin) Brass spool Metal container Fig. 1.20 Primary resistance standardaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMand 1 1-32 | Measurement and Instrumentation Thoory As the liquid pressure changes, the piston moves to which pointer is connected. Thus the liquid pressure, due to which piston and hence pointer moves, is solely responsible for the measurement. No other input energy source other than liquid pressure is used in this instrument. Liquid The instruments in which the quantity to be measured Fig. 1.23 Liquid level indicator just activates the magnitude of some extemal power input source which incur produces the measurement (instrument output) are called active instruments. Apart from quantity to be measured, another external energy input source is present in such instruments. The example of such an active instrument is the liquid level indicator as shown in the Fig. 1.23. The potentiometer and the external power input is used to sense the position of float which is proportional to the level of the liquid in a tank. When the level changes, the float moves and hence slider of the potentiometer also moves. This derives the voltage, which is the part of the external power input, which produces the output. Thus the variable to be measured just modulates the magnitude of external power source. In passive instrument, resolution is less and cannot be increased very easily. In active instrument, by adjusting the magnitude of the external energy input, control over resolution can be obtained. The passive instruments are simple to design and hence cheaper. The active instruments are complicated to design and hence costly. Depending on the required resolution, the passive or active instrument can be selected for the measurement purpose. The differences between passive and active instruments can be summarized as, Sr.No.| Passive Instruments Active instruments 1. | The output is produces entirely | The quantity to be by the quantity being measured activates some measured, external power input source, which intur produces the output, 2. | Additional energy input source | Adcitional extemal energy not required. input source is required. The resolution is less. The resolutoaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Dependent variable Independent variable Fig. 1.28 Digital signal Measurement and instrumentation Theory The instrument which gives the output which varies in discrete steps and thus take only finite different values in the given range is called digital instrument. For example if the value shown by analog instrument having a range of 0-10 is 35 unit, then the digital instrument with 10 equal parts show the same reading as 3. The analog reading of 05 means a reading zero of a digital instrument. The digital signal is shown in the Fig. 1.28. By subdividing the various steps, the accuracy of digital instruments can be improved. In digital instruments, the magnitude is measured only at the instant the reading is taken. This reading persists till the another reading is taken. In present days, the digital instruments are well suited for the digital computer control systems. As computer input and output both are in digital form, the use of digital instruments is very easy in computer control systems. To interface analog instrument to computer, it is necessary to use analog to digital converter to convert analog signal to digital, which is complicated. This reduces the speed of operation, affecting the accuracy. This is because finite time is required to convert analog signal to digital and this time may be very critical in the fast processes. 1.16.4.1 Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments Analog Digital Accuracy Less upto + 0.1 % of full scale. | Very high accuracy upto + 0.005 % ; of reading. 2 | Resolution Limited upto 1 part in several High upto 1 part in several hundreds. thousands. 3. | Power Power required is high hence Negiobie power is required hence can cause loading. no loading effects. 4 | Cost Low in cost. High in cost compared to analog but now-a-days cost of digital i= instruments is also going down. present. Errors due to moving parts are No moving parts hence no errors. sutopolarity. No facility of autoranging and Has the facility of autoranging and autopolarity. _| Low input impedance. Very high input impedance.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and | 1-40 | Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 1.17.23 Observational Errors These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many sources of observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong, scale selection, the habits of individual observers etc. To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the instruments with mirrors, knife edged pointers, etc. Now a days, the instruments with digital display are available which can largely eliminate such observational errors. The systematic errors can be subdivided as static and dynamic errors. The static errors are caused by the limitations of the measuring device while the dynamic errors are caused by the instrument not responding fast enough to follow the changes in the variable to be measured, 1.17.3 Random Errors Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or atleast accounted for. The causes of such errors are unknown and hence, the errors are called random errors. These errors can not be determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurements. These errors are generally due to the accumulation of large number of the small effects. These errors are generally small. Hence, these errors are of real concern only when the high degree of accuracy is required. The random errors follow the laws of probability and hence, these errors can be analyzed statically and treated mathematically. These errors can not be corrected by any method of calibration or other known method of control as the causes of such errors are unknown. The only way to reduce these errors is by increasing the number of observations and using the statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading. Examples with Solutions ‘> Example 1.5: An ammeter reads 8.3 A and the true value of the current is 8.5 A. Determine the absolute error and relative percentage error. Solution : A, = true value = 85 A Am = measured value = 83 A Absolute error = A, - A, =85-83=02A tee = At Amx199 = 9? 100 = 235 % Ay 85aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMand! 1-46 Measurement and Instrumentation Theory 6. Explain how the accuracy can be specified for an instrument. 7. Distinguish clearly between accuracy and precision. 8. State and explain the characteristics of precision. 9. Explain the terms relative error and relative percentage error. 10, What is scale span of an instrument ? 11. Define the following terms, 1) Speed of response ii) Lag ii) Fidelity iv) Dynamic error 12. What are the different standard inputs for studying the dynamic response of a system? Define and sketch them, 13, Define and explain the types of errors possible in an instrument. 16. What is standard ? Which are the different types of standards? (17. What is the difference between international and absolute standards ? 18, What are primary standards ? Where are they used ? 19. What is the difference between secondary and working standards ? 20. What are the diferent calibration methodologies 7 Explain, 21. How the instruments are classified ? Explain with suitable examples. . What is hysteresis ? What is dead space ? 23. Write a short note on validation of stondards. 30. A moving coil voltmeter has a uniform scale with 100 divisions, the full scale reading is 200 V and 1/10 of scale division can be estimated with a fair degree of certainity. Determine the resolution of the instrument in volt. [Ans. :0.2 V] 31. A digital voltmeter has a read out range from 0-999 counts. Determine the resolution of the instrument in volt when the full scale reading is 9.999 V. (Ans. :1 mV] 32. A true value of voltage across resister is 50 V. The instrument reads 49 V. Calculate a) Absolute error b) Percentage error —_c) Percentage accuracy [Ans. :1V, 2%, 98 %] 33. What is the true value of voltage across the 500 KO resistor connected between the terminals AB as shown in the Fig. 1.30 ? If a voltmeter having a sensitivity of 20 KO/V is used, having a range of 50 V then what will be the reading on voltmeter ? [Ans. : 10 V, 8 V] 1.30 34. Draw and explain the block diagram of generalized instrumentation system. 35. How various instruments are classified ? 36. State and explain various types of secondary instruments.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EMandI 2-2 of Voltmeters - Ammeters J) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque T; 2) Controlling system producing controlling torque T. 3) Dainping system producing damping torque. Let us see the various ways in which these torques are obtained in an indicating instrument. 2.3 Deflecting System In most of the indicating instruments the mechanical force proportional to the quantity to be measured is generated. This force or torque defiects the pointer. The system which produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the torque is denoted as Ty. The deflecting torque overcomes, 1) The inertia of the moving system. 2) The controlling torque provided by controlling system. 3) The damping torque provided by damping system. The deflecting system uses one of the following effects produced by current or voltage, to produce deflecting torque. 4) Magnetic Effect : When a current carrying conductor is placed in uniform magnetic field, it experiences a force which causes to move it. This effect is mostly used in many instruments like moving iron attraction and repulsion type, permanent magnet moving coil instruments etc. 2) Thermal Effect: ‘The current to be measured is passed through a small element which heats it to cause rise in temperature which is converted to an emf. by a thermocouple attached to it. When two dissimilar metals are connected end to end to form a closed loop and the two junctions formed are maintained at different temperatures, then emf. is induced which causes the flow of current through the closed circuit which is called a thermocouple. 3) Electrostatic Effects : When two plates are charged, there is a force exerted between them, which moves one of the plates. This effect is used in electrostatic instruments which are normally voltmeters. 4) Induction Effects : When a non-magnetic conducting disc is placed in a magnetic field produced by electromagnets which are excited by alternating currents, an em4f. is induced in it.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating instruments and Theory EM and! 2-6 of Voltmeters - Ammeters ‘The springs are made up of non-magnetic materials like silicon bronze, hard rolled silver or copper, platinum silver and german silver. For most of the instruments, phosphor bronze spiral springs are provided. Flat spiral springs are used in almost all indicating instruments. ‘The inner end of the spring is attached to the spindle while the outer end is attached to a lever or arm which is actuated by a set of screw mounted at the front of the instrument. So zero setting can be easily done. The controlling torque provided by the instrument is directly proportional to the angular deflection of the pointer. The controlling torque produced by spiral spring is given by, ; mL °= Ko where Young’s modulus of spring material in N/m? Thickness in metres Depth in metres Length in metres . Ebt? Rociig comeing 97° Rove f T «6 Now deflecting torque is proportional to current. Tg —Ringbar magnet the taut band instruments is higher than jewel-pivot instruments. The Zz o Soe taut band instruments are Coil relatively insensitive to shocks and temperature and are capeble of withstanding overloads. Fig. 2.10 Taut band instrument 2.6.5 Temperature Compensation The basic PMMC instrument is sensitive to the temperature. The magnetic field strength and spring tension decrease with increase in temperature. The coil resistance increases with increase in the temperature. Thus pointer reads low for a given current. The meter tends to read low by approximately 0.2 % per °C rise in the temperature. Hence the temperature compensation is provided by appropriate use of series and shunt resistances of copper and manganin.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EM and! 2-18 of Voltmeters - Ammeters Field Magnetic Coil Poles Induced by Field Flux Moving Fixed Vane Vane Fig. 2.14 Radial vane repulsion type instrument 27.22 Concentric Vane Repulsion Type Instrument The Fig. 2.15 shows the concentric vane repulsion type Control Pointer instrument. The instrument has Song > two concentsc vanes. One is attached to the coil frame rigidly while the other can rotate coaxially inside the stationary vane. Both the vanes are magnetised to the same polarity due to the current in Field the coil. Thus the movable vane rotates: under the repulsive force. As the movable vane is attached to the pivoted shaft, the repulsion results in a rotation of the Fixed Vane Movable Vane shaft. The pointer deflection is Fig. 2.15 Concentric vane repulsion type instrument proportional to the current inaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating instruments and Theory EM and! 2-22 of Voltmeters - Ammeters 3) Stray magnetic field error : The operating magnetic field in case of moving iron instruments is very low. Hence effect of external ie. stray magnetic field can cause error. This effect depends on the direction of the stray magnetic field with respect to the operating field of the instrument. 4) Frequency error ; These are related to a.c. operation of the instrument, The change in frequency affects the reactance of the working coil and also affects the magnitude of the eddy currents. This causes errors in the instrument. 5) Eddy current error : When instrument is used for a.c. measurements the eddy currents are produced in the iron parts of the instrument. The eddy current affects the instrument current causing the change in the deflecting torque. This produces the error in the meter reading. As eddy currents are frequency dependent, frequency changes cause eddy current error. yum> Example 2.2: The inductance of a moving iron instrument is given by, L=(12+60-0)yH where 0 is the deflection in radians from zero position. The spring constant is 12x10 New/radians. Calculate the deflection for a current of 8 A. Solution : The rate of change of inductance with deflection is, au_ a apt 7 ag 12+ 60-87) = 6—20 pH/radians = (6-28) x10~ H/radians From the torque equation, LP da ®= aKa _ 1, @ 25 B= 3x0 X66 28]x10° 0.3758 = 6-29 ® = 2526 radians = 1447a° 2.8 Basic D.C. Ammeter The basic d.c. ammeter is nothing but a D'Arsonval galvanometer. The coil winding of a basic movement is very small and light and hence it can carry very small currents. So as mentioned earlier, for large currents, the major part of current is required to be bypassed using a resistance called shunt. It is shown in the Fig. 2.16.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EMand 2-26 of Voltmeters - Ammeters The second range is 0 - 50 mA, 1, = 50mA Ry = _tmRn_ 2x75 2° @-1,) C= = 312359 The third range is 0 - 100 mA, 1, = 100mA TR in . 2x75 Ra = Got)” Goa) ~ 1588 The designed multirange ammeter with a selector switch is shown in the Fig. 2.18. Fig. 2.18 2.10 The Ayrton Shunt or Universal Shunt |e ¢ YF ~ Basic meter Fig. 2.19 Ammeter with Ayrton shunt We have seen that in multirange ammeter, a make before break switch is must. The Ayrton shunt or the universal shunt eliminates the possibility of having a meter without a shunt. The meter with the Ayrton shunt is shown in the Fig. 2.19. The selector switch S, selects the appropriate shunt required to change the range of the meter. When the position of the switch is 'I' then the resistance R, is in parallel with the series combination of R,, R, and R,,. Hence current through the shunt is more than the current through the meter, thus protecting the basic meter. ‘When the switch is in the position '2', then the series resistance of R, and R, is in parallel with the series combination of Ry and R,,. The current through the meter is more thanaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EM and! 2-30 of Voltmeters - Ammeters. The voltmeter must be connected across the two points or a component, to measure the potential difference, with the proper polarity. The multiplier resistance can be calculated as : Let R,, = Internal resistance of coil i.e. meter R, = Series multiplier resistance I,, = Full scale deflection current ‘V = Full range voltage to be measured From Fig. 2.21, . V = In(Rn+R,) V = TaRmtImR, Inks = V-IgRm The multiplying factor for multiplier is the ratio of full range voltage to be measured and the drop across the basic meter. Let v = drop across the basic meter = I, Ry m = multiplying factor = = In(Ra+®s) © Tn Re m = 1488 “OR Hence multiplier resistance can also be expressed as, R, = (m-1)R,, Key Point : Thus to increase the range of voltmeter 'm’ times, the series resistance required is (m-1) times the basic meter resistance. This is nothing but extension of ranges of a voltmeter. ‘=> Example 2.7 : A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with a current of 40 pA, while the internal resistance of the meter is 500 82. It is to be used as a voltmeter to measure a voltage range of 0 - 10 V. Calculate the multiplier resistance needed.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indlostng f Instruments and Theory EM and! 2-34 ‘Voltmeters - Ammeters Solution: The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.24. Ry R, Rg Ry n= 2ma V, = 500 V 2500 Fig. 2.24 For a meter, = 502 and I,,=2mA For position V, = 10 V, Series multiplier is R,. ‘ = Ma_g = __ * Ree Ty Be ore = 495 For position V; = 50 V, series multiplier is (Ry + Rs). Re +R) = YO Re 50 R3.= >= - e 2x10-3 oe = 20kQ For position V; = 100 V, series multiplier is (R,+ R3 + Ry). (+R, +R) = V-R, R, = = 100. - 50-4950 - 20000 2x10" = 25kQ For position V, = 500 V, multiplier is (R,+ Ry + Ry +R, ). (BER, + R9+ Ry) = -R, 500 Ry = 559-3 ~ 50-4950 ~ 25000 - 20000 R, = 20k2 Thus R,, Rp, Ry and R, forms a series string of multipliers.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EM andi 2-38 of Voltmeters - Ammeters Solution : By the voltage divider rule, the voltage across R, is, _ 20 V = Bora x = 13888V This is the true voltage across Ry. Case i) S = 500 2/V ‘The voltmeter resistance will be, Ry = $xV= 500 x 150 = 75kQ 25x75 (5475) nm 1 = Ril Rv= = 18.75 kQ Hence the voltage across Rg is, R 18.75 = ee 2 oe Y= eR) = Ga75+20 * 250 = 12096V Thus first voltmeter will read 120.96 V. Case ii) $ = 10,000 0/V The voltmeter resistance will be, Ry = SV = 10000x 150 as voltage range 150 V = 15 MO Rg = RellRy _ _25x1.5x10° x10 ~ (25x105+ 15x10) = 2459kQ Hence the voltage across R., is, R, 24.59 ea = 2 V = RR) = aos By 7? = 13786 ‘Thus the second voltmeter reads more accurately.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating Instruments and Theory EM and | 2-42 of Voltmetors - Ammeters Solution : The deflection torque varies as square of the current. wi Ty = Ky? 4) Spring controlled T, = Ke te T. = Ty ie Ké = Ky? = Ka 2 2 @ = 33 P=KI 9 = Kx)? ie. Ky = 36 ® = K, I? =3,6x(10)? =360° » ForI=10 A T, = K, sind T. = Ty ie. K sin @ = Ky I? i Kap 2 sin@ = S412 = KI K * sin (90) = K,x(5)? ie. K, = sin® = K, P= gex(10)? =4 w Forl=10A @ = sint4 But this is mathematically undefined. Thus for | = 10 A, with gravity control, the instrument cannot achieve steady state and may get damaged. ww Example 2.17 : A moving coil instrument whose resistance is 25 Q. gives a full scale deflection with a current of 1 mA. This instrument is to be used with a manganin shunt to extend its range to 100 mA. Calculate the error caused by a 10 °C rise in tentperature when, i) Copper moving coil is connected directly across the manganin shunt. ii) A 75 Q manganin resistance is used in series with the instrument moving coil. The temperature coefficient of copper is 0.004/°C and that of manganin is 0.00015)°C. Solution : The arrangement is shown in the Fig. 2.28. I fy =1mA Fig, 2.28aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Indicating instruments and Theory EM and! 2-46 of Voltmeters - Ammeters Solving equations (1) and (4), R, = 0.0939 0 R; = 0.91052 ‘Thus the various sections of the universal shunt are 0.0105 Q, 0.0939 Q and 0.8955 Q. mm Example 2.20: A moving coil instrument gives full scale deflection with 10 mA and hes a resistance of 50 Q. Calculate the value of the resistance to be put in series or parallel with the instrument in order that it may be used as : 0-5 A ammeter ii) 0-250 V_ voltmeter. Solution: 1,,=10mA and R,,=502 i) O05 Aammeter, I=5A Ry = Imm _ 10x10 x50 T-I, — 5-10x10% = 0.1002. To be connected in parallel. ii) 0-250 V voltmeter, V = 250 V Re oa “oa 8 = 249500 This is to be used in series. ‘mp Example 2.21: Explain how you would modify the basic meter of 1 mA. and 100 Q range to be useful for 100 mA, 1 A, 1 V and 100 V ranges. Solution: I,,=1mA and R,,=1002 i) T= 100 mA range Im Rm _ 1103x100 Ra = To, 7 Tox s-1x193 = bE M To be connected in parallel. i) 1= 1A range Tn Rm _ Ra = fiypz = 01a To be connected in parallel. iti) V = 1 V rangeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 3-2 Digital Meters 9. With the development of IC chips, the cost of DVMs, size and power requirements of DVMs are drastically reduced. 10. Due to small size, they are portable. 11. The internal calibration does not depend on the measuring circuit. 12. The BCD output can be printed or used for digital processing. 13.The inclusion of additional circuitry make them suitable for the measurement of quantities like current, impedance, capacitance, temperature, pressure etc. 3.3 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeters ‘The various performance parameters of DVMs are, 1, Number of measurement ranges : ‘The basic range of any DVM is either 1 V or 10 V. With the help of attenuator at the input, the range can be extended from few microvolts to kilovolts. 2. Number of digits In readout : The number of digits of DVMs vary from 3 to 6. More the number of digits, more is the resolution. 3. Accuracy : The accuracy depends on resolution and resolution on number of digits. Hence more number of digits means more accuracy. The accuracy is as high upto 0.005% of the reading. 4, Speed of the reading : In the digital voltmeters, it is necessary to convert analog signal into digital signal. The various techniques are used to achieve this conversion. The circuits which are used to achieve such conversion are called digitizing circuits and the process is called digitizing. The time required for this conversion is called digitizing period. The maximum speed of reading and the digitizing period are interrelated. The instrument user must wait, till a stable reading is obtained as it is impossible to follow the visual readout at high reading speeds. 5. Normal mode noise rejection : This is usually obtained through the input filtering or by use of the integration techniques. The noise present at the input, if passed to the analog to digital converting circuit then it can produce the error, especially when meter is used for low voltage measurement. Hence noise is required to be filtered. 6. Gommon mode noise rejection : This is usually obtained by guarding. A guard is a sheet metal box sourrounding the cizcuitry. A terminal at the front panel makes this ‘box’ available to the circuit under measurement. 7. Digital output of several types : The digital readout of the instrument may be 4 line BCD, single line serial output etc. Thus the type of digital output also determines the variety of the digital voltmeter. 8, Input impedance : The input impedance of DVM must be as high as possible which reduces the loading effects. Typically it is of the order of 10 MQ.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 3-6 Digital Meters null balance technique. The input voltage is properly attenuated and is applied to a null detector. The another input to. null detector is the staircase ramp generated by digital to analog converter. The ramp is continuously compared with the input signal. Initially the logical control circuit sends a reset signal. This signal resets the counter. The digital to analog converter is also resetted by same signal. At the start of the measurement, the logic control circuit sends a starting pulse which opens the gate. The counter starts counting the pulses generated by the local oscillator. The output of counter is given to the digital to analog converter which generates the ramp signal. At every count there is an incremental change in the ramp generated. Thus the staircase ramp is generated at the output of the digital to analog converter. This is given as the second input of the null detector. The increase in ramp continues till it achieves the voltage equal to input voltage. When the two voltages are equal, the null detector generates a signal which in turn initiates the logic control circuit. Thus logic control circuit sends a stop pulse, which closes the gate and the counter stops counting. At the same time, the logic control circuit generates a transfer signal due to which the counter information is transferred to the readout. The readout shows the digital result of the count. The advantages of this technique are : i) The greater accuracy is obtained than the linear ramp technique. ii) The overall design is more simple hence economical. ili) The input impedance of the digital to analog converter is high when the compensation is reached. The disadvantages of this technique are : i) Though accuracy is higher than linear ramp, it is dependent on the accuracy of digital to analog converter and its internal reference. fi) The speed is limited upto 10 readings per second. After the discussion of the non-integrating type of DVMs, let us see the operation and features of integrating type of DVMs. 3.6 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM This is the most popular method of analog to digital conversion. In the ramp techniques, the noise can cause large errors but in dual slope method the noise is averaged out by the positive and negative ramps using the process of integration. The basic principle of this method is that the input signal is integrated for a fixed interval of time. And then the same integrator is used to integrate the reference voltage with reverse slope. Henee the name given to the technique is dual slope integration technique.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMandt Measurement of Resistance 4.6.1 Balance Condition When the bridge is balanced, the galvanometer carries zero current and it does not show any deflection. Thus bridge works on the principle of null deflection or null indication. To have zero current through galvanometer, the points B and D must be at the same potential. Thus potential across arm AB must be same as the potential across arm AD. Thus LR, = LR As galvanometer current is zero, I, = 13 and Considering the battery path under balanced condition, (1) h=h «= 2) E Ls Is-g ~@) E and "RR, h=h = Using (3) and (4) in (1), E Ry E R+k, *™ Ri (Rs Ry). + RRs+RRy Rj +R, © R, (Ry +R) R, Ry +R, Ry = ©) This is required balance condition of Wheatstone bridge. The following points can be observed, 1. It depends on the ratio of Ry and R, hence these arms are called ratio arms. 2. As it works on null indication, the results are not dependent on the calibration and characteristics of galvanometer. 3. The standard resistance RK, can be varied to obtain the required balance. 4.6.2 Industrial Form of Wheatstone Bridge In an industrial or laboratory form of Wheatstone bridge, the resistances R,,R, and Rs are mounted in a box. The values are selected by the dial switches. The ratio R, /R is adjusted as per the requirement using ratio selector switch. The resistances R, and R, generally consist of four resistors each of 10, 100, 1000 and 10,000 © respectively. The resistance R, can be adjusted using 4 dial or 5 dial decade arrangement and thus its valueaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4-13 Measurement of Resistance _ 5v Ve _SyER,ARR, Sy ER: Ry B BRIR, (R3#R,)? R4+2Ry Ry +RF Sy B a Ry ,,,Rs -@ tet 6) ‘Thus the bridge sensitivity depends on the bridge parameters, the supply voltage and the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer. Koy Point : Thus maximum sensitivity occurs when a For higher or lower values of R,/R,, the sensitivity decreases considerably. 4.5.1 Thevenin’s Equivalent and Galvanometer Current The Thevenin’s voltage Vy; across the galvanometer is already obtained. Let us obtain equivalent resistance as viewed across the terminals BD, when battery E is replaced by short circuit. Thus circuit becomes, Ry A Ry B i—9D zt I ' i 4 Ro © Ry 8 | Reg Fig. 4.10 Rifle) +(RsllRa) 0) While Vin = Eap-Eag with Ry not changed by AR = 2 __=— = DROLR ARR RRR w= (10)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMand1 4-28 Measurement of Resistance 4.15.4 Applications The megger can be used to determine whether there is sufficiently high resistance between the conducting part of a circuit and the ground. This resistance is called The megger can also be used to test continuity between any two points. When connected to the two points, if pointer shows full deflection then there is an electrical continuity between them. 4.16 Measurement of Earth Resistance The connection of electrical machinery to the general mass of earth, with a conducting material of very low resistance is called earthing or grounding. The conducting material used for connection of machinery to earth is called earth electrode. The advantages of earthing through an earth electrode are, 1. Once the various parts of the machines such as casing, armouring of cables etc. are earthed, then all such parts are at zero potential. Such a connection to earth -has very low resistance. Thus if there is a leakage in the machine and if person touches the equipment, the leakage current flows through the low resistance path, provided by earth electrode. And person touching to the faulty equipment gets protected. 2. Due to earthing, spikes of overvoltages due to lightning or other faults get easily dissipated to the earth, protecting the equipment. 3. Ina three phase system, the neutral is earthed. So earthing helps to maintain the line voltage constant. 4. Earthing acts as a return conductor for telephone and traction work. In such a case, all the complications in laying a separate cable and the cast of such cable is saved. The earth electrode ensures very low resistance path from the appliance to the earth. So earth electrode is said to be in good condition as long as it provides very low resistance path and hence able to carry large leakage currents without deteriorating. Thus to check the condition of earth electrode, its resistance is measured. Such a resistance is called earth resistance. The resistance of earthing system depends on the following factors, 1, The material and shape used for the electrodes. 2. The depth in the earth upto which electrodes are buried. 3. The specific resistance of soil surrounding the buried electrode. The specific resistance of soil changes from soil to soil. It is different for rocky soil, dry soil, wet soil etc, As the moisture content of the soil changes from season to season, the Hence it is necessary to check the value of earth resistance from time to time. Let us study the methods of measurement of earth resistance.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and I 4-32 Measurement of Resistance 4.17 Methods for Measurement of High Resistances There are different methods that can be employed for the measurement of high resistances. Some of the important methods are as follows. i) Direct deflection method ii) Loss of charge method iii) Megohm bridge iv) Megger Let us discuss above method one by one. 4.17.1 Direct Deflection Method In this method, a high resistance (more than 1000 ) and very sensitive moving coil galvanometer is connected in series with the resistances to be measured along with supply voltage as shown in the Fig. 4.29. Insulating Material Fig. 4.29 Measurement of insulation resistance with metal sheath By this method, insulation resistance can be obtained with respect to the deflection of galvanometer. The galvanometer measures current between core and metal sheath. The leakage currents over the surface of the insulating material are carried by the guard wire wound on the insulation. These currents do not flow through galvanometer. The ratio of the voltage applied between core and metal sheath and current flowing between them gives the insulation resistance of the cable. A typical direct deflection method for measuring the insulation resistance is as shown in the Fig. 4.30. Before testing the cable is immersed in water at least for 24 hours. The temperature of water is maintained constant. The water enters through the pores if any, and soaks through the defects and at the same time, the cable attains the temperature of water. In the earlier phase of the measurement, the galvanometer must be properly shunted. It includes a series resistance of high value. The true value of insulation resistance can be determined by subtracting the value of series resistance from the observed resistance. In tests on cables, the galvanometer should be short circuit before applying voltage. After theaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4-36 Measurement of Resistance t Vv, = Ve He + Thus the value of the leakage resistance of the capacitor can also be found out using this method, Note that in this method, leakage resistance of the voltmeter can be neglected if its value of low. If it is high, then it must be considered alongwith R,. 4.17.3 Megohm Bridge Binding R To avoid the leakage current external to the post kage bridge, the junction of ratio arms Ry and Ry is R. R brought out as a separate guard terminal on the a 2 front panel of the instrument. This can be used to connect three terminal resistance. The three terminal resistance is shown in the Fig. 4.34. The high resistance is connected between two binding posts which are fixed to metal plate. The two main terminals of the resistor are connected to the R, terminals in the bridge. The third terminal is the common point of resistances R, and R,, which represents the leakage paths, from the main terminal along the insulating post of the metal plate. The guard is connected to the guard terminal on the front panel of the bridge as shown in the Fig. 435. Guard point Fig. 4.34 Three torminal resistance Guard terminal Variable ratio arm >-O Amplifier and null detector ‘Three-terminal Resistance resistance mutter Fig. 4.35 Guarded bridge with three terminal resistor This connection puts R, in parallel with ratio arm resistance Ry but since R, is very much larger than Rq, its shunting effect is negligible. Similarly R, in parallel with galvanometer has no effect as R, is much higher than galvanometer. It slightly reduces the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Thus the effect of external leakage path can be removed by using the guard circuit on the three terminal resistance.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 4-40 Measurement of Resistance Solution : For the bridge shown, R= 5002 and dr = 202 Using approximate result, vi, = Bar _ 10x20 mH “@R ~ 4x500 = 01Vv while R, =R R, = = 160A ump Example 4.8 : In the Fig. 4.39, the Keloin’s double bridge is shown. The ratio-of R, to Ry # 1200 Q while R, is 10 Qand R, = 05 R;. Calculate the value of unknown resistance R ,. Fig. 439 Solution : From the Fig. 4.39 and the balance condition we can write, = R, Rs RR, For Kelvin’s double bridge, 3S = ratio of resistances of ratio ams 7 and Be = ratio of resisiances of second ratio arms . Rs Ry XR” RYaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMandt 4-46 Measurement of Resistance Rys5Q Ve100V Fig. 4.44 b) Current under balance condition, v 100 = ReReS ~ S++ ooor ~ 9A ©) The value of R is changed by 0.1 %. 2. New value of R= 0.001 x 0.1 = 000019 R+r+S Vee = [RrRers| ¥ Neglecting r, 0.0001 + 0.001 Vee + Coon + 00g * 100 = 29.995 mv = 1000 =) = = 000 +1000 (29.995 x 10-3) = 14.9978 mV Fr Rt ptq?r Vana = |———“fpr qe | Ye R+S+ pratr Neglecting 1, R O. 0001 9 toms aor 05) Vani = 4 5 Ye = C0001 = 1.3634 mV Hence output voltage is given as, Vow = Vay — Vana = 14.9978 mV - 1.3634 mV = 0.01362 Vaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and I 5-2 AG. Bridges 5) The balance condition remains unchanged if the source and detector are interchanged. 6) The bridge circuit can be used in the control circuits. When used in such control applications, one arm of the bridge contains a resistive element that is sensitive to the physical parameter like pressure, temperature etc. which is to be controlled. 5.2 Types of Bridges The two types of bridges are, 1) DC. bridges and 2) A.C. bridges The d.c. bridges are used to measure the resistances while the a.c. bridges are used to measure the impedances consisting capacitances and inductances. The d.c. bridges use the d.c. voltage as the excitation voltage while the a.c. bridges use the altemating voltage as the excitation voltage. ‘The two types of dc. bridges are, 1. Wheatstone bridge 2. Kelvin bridge ‘The various types of a.c. bridges are, 1. Capacitance comparison bridge 2. Inductance comparison bridge 3. Maxwell's bridge 4, Hay’s bridge 5. Anderson bridge 6. Schering bridge Let us now discuss the various types of the bridges in detail. 5.3 A.C. Bridges An a.c. bridge in its basic form consists’ of four arms, a source of excitation and a balance detector. Each arm consists of an impedance. The source is an a.c. supply which supplies a.c. voltage at the required frequency. For high frequencies, the electronic oscillators are used as the source. The balance detectors commonly used for a.c. bridges are head phones, tunable amplifier circuits or vibration galvanometers. The headphones are used as detectors at the frequencies of 250 Hz to 3 to 4 kHz. While working with single frequency a tuned detector i is the most sensitive detector. The vibration galvanometers are useful for low audio frequency range from 5 Hz to 1000Hz but are commonly used below 200 Hz. Tunable amplifier detectors are used for frequency range of 10 Fiz to 100 Hz. The simple ac. bridge is the outcome of the Wheatstone bridge. The impedances at audio and radio frequency range can be casily Fig. 5.1 A.C. Wheatstone bridge determined by such simple ac. Wheatstone bridge. It is shown in the Fig. 5.1. Ac. ‘supplyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 5-6 A.C. Bridges ‘> Example 5.2: The arms of an ac. bridge have impedances as shown in the Fig. 5.2. Determine whether the bridge is balanced or unbalanced. Fig. 5.2 Solution : From the given bridge, Z, = 50 240° 9, Z, = 100 £-90° Q, Z, = 15 245° O, Z, = 30 230° 2 The bridge balance equation is, ZZ, = DZ Equating magnitudes, |Z,Z4| =|Z2Z| |Z,Z4) = 50x30= 1500 and |Z,Z,| = 100 x 15 = 1500 Thus magnitude condition is satisfied. Now 0; = 40°,0) =~ 907,05 = 45%, 0,= 30° 0, +0, = 0,405 ++ Angle condition 0, +0, = 40+30=70 and 6, +0, =- 90° + 45° =~ 45° Thus angle condition is not satisfied. Hence the bridge is not under balanced condition. 5.4 Capacitance Comparison Bridge In the capacitance comparison bridge the ratio arms are resistive in nature. The impedance Z, consists of the known standard capacitor C3 in series with the resistance Rs. The resistance R, is variable, used to balance the bridge. The impedance Z, consists of the unknown capacitor C, and its small leakage resistance R,. The unknown aapacitor C, is compared with the standard capacitor. By using the balance equation, the capacitor and its leakage resistance value is obtained. The bridge is shown in the Fig. 5.3. ac. supply Hz Fig. 5.3 Capacitance comparison bridgeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMandI 5-10 A.C. Bridges 5.6 Maxwell’s Bridge Maxwell's bridge can be used to measure inductance by comparison either with a variable standard self inductance or with a standard variable capacitance. These two measurements can be done by using the Maxwell's bridge in two different forms. 5.6.1 Maxwell's Inductance Bridge Using this bridge, we can measure inductance by comparing it with a standard variable self inductance arranged in bridge circuit as shown in Fig. 5.7 (a). i { dtr = hy iy = igRe {a) Circuit diagram {b) Phasor diagram Fig. 5.7 Maxwell's Inductance bridge Consider Maxwell's inductance bridge as shown in the Fig 5.7 (2). Two branches consist of noninductive resistances R, and Rj. One of the arms consists variable inductance with series resistance r. The remaining arm consists unknown inductance L,. At balance, we get condition as a ee ae [@s+r)+joL,] Rial, = () R,[R. +joL, ] = R,[(R3+r)+joL,] RR, +ORL, = Ra(Ry+1)+joRLs Equating imaginary terms, we can write RL, = Ril; * w= Fils = Q) Equating real terms, we can write, R, R= Ro(Ra tr) R Rate » B)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 5-14 A.C. Bridges Fig. 5.9 From the bridge, C, = O5pF, R, = 12002 R, = 709, R,=300 From bridge balance equation, Rr = 1752 And Ly = R, RC, = 700x300x0.5x10~ = 105 mH Key Point : If the branches are not given in standard form as they are assumed for deriving bridge balance equation, derive the bridge balance equation again from the basic condition Z, Z, = Z Zp. 5.7 Anderson Bridge It is another important a.c. bridge used for the measurement of self inductance interms of a standard capacitor. Actually this bridge is nothing but modified Maxwell's bridge in which also the value of self inductance is obtained by comparing it with a standard capacitor. This bridge is basically used for the precise tof inductance over a wide range of value. The Anderson bridge is as shown in the Fig. 5.10 (a). One arm of the bridge consists of unknown inductor L, with known resistance in series with L,. This resistance R, includes resistance of the inductor. C is the standard capacitor with r, R,, R3 and R, are nor-inductive known resistances.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.A.C. Bridges The Fig. 5.13 shows the connections of Schering bridge. It can be used for low voltages. ‘The C, is perfect capacitor to be measured. R, is series resistance. C, is standard air capacitor having very stable value. R, and R, are non-inductive resistances while C, is variable capacitor. From the general balance equation, Fig. 5.13 Schering bridge ZQ,=2, 23 oe, Now 4° -ige = wedi 2a = aC, Z; = Rg ai) “— a, 2. = Rigg = tS (Reiser) . z, = 2B HiRA(@RyCa+)) | Re~jOR] Cy OR, Cy=j~ (@R, Cy-)(@R, G+) RECTH (-se)@) (1+? R? Example 5.18 : The four impedances of an ac. bridge are Zap = M0L5P 2, Zap = 20L40 Q, Zac = 8002-5 2, Zep = 400.20 9, Find out whether the bridge is balanced under these conditions are not. Solution: For an a.c. bridge, the balance conditions are given by, ZZ = ZoZs «+. condition of balance for magnitudes £0,420, = 20,4205 .. condition of balance for phases. Consider the basic a.c. bridge with four impedances as shown in the Fig. 5.27. Fig. 5.27 Applying the condition of balance for the magnitudes, we get, ZZ = ZyZy w= @) ie. (400) (400) = (200) (800) ie. 160000 = 160000 That means condition of balance for magnitudes is satisfied. Applying the condition of balance for phases, we get 20,+20, = 20,+20, 0) LHS. = 20,+26, = [50%20°]=70" RHS. = 20,+203 = [4P-50°]--10°aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMand! 5-39 AC. Bridges Headphone as null detector E, 450 Hz Fig. 5.30 1 = y-jo8 & = hae Zy = (Rp +m)-j A = (4.8+04)-j ——__1 _ a 2nx450x 05x 10% = 52-j 707.3553. = 707.3744 2 — 89.5788 Q Zs = 200+j0Q= 20 20°2 Zy = 2850 +j09= 2850 20°Q At a bridge balance, no current flows through the detector. i's ma ye E 1” QtZ 2 tL, Now 1,2, = 1,2, _ for null deflection of detector . EZ, _ EZ a8 QtZ, Z,+Z, ZiZy = ZaZo » Balance equation 2asol -ige| = 200 20°x 7073744 Z- 89.5788° 5 “ier = 49,6403 Z— 89.5788° = 0.3649 — j 49.6389 2 Comparing both sides, m= 08692 and Go = 99.6089 1 & = sax asx ageag9 ~ 7925uF Dissipating factor = «mC, = 2m x 450 x 0.3649 x 7.125 x 10-6 0.007351aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power 6.1 Introduction to Power Measurement In a dic. circuit if V, is the voltage supplied to load and I, is the load current then the dic. load power is given by the product of the load supply voltage V;, and the load current I, . Thus employing voltmeter and ammeter, power can be measured. Pac = Vz 1, watts ~ (1) If R, is the resistance of the load then, R, = TL + Q) 6.1.1 Necessity of Wattmeter Consider the circuit using voltmeter and ammeter for the measurement of power, as shown in the Fig. 6.1. i ° ) BV net omy =) M | The ammeter measures the load current I, and there is voltage drop V, = across the ammeter where R, is the ammeter resistance. V=V-\y Po = Vit =(V-VA) (6-1) ° Fig. 6.1 Power measurementaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-5 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power For using electrodynamometer instrument as ammeter, fixed and moving coils are connected in series and carry the same current. A suitable shunt is connected to these coils to limit current through them upto desired limit. The electrodynamometer instruments can be used as a voltmeter by connecting the fixed and moving coils in series with a high non-inductive resistance. It is most accurate type of voltmeter. For using electrodynamometer instrument as a wattmeter to measure the power, the fixed coils acts as a current coil and must be connected in series with the load. The moving coil acts as a voltage coil or pressure coil and must be connected across the supply terminals. The wattmeter indicates the supply power. When current passes through the fixed and moving coils, both coils produce the magnetic fields. The field produced by fixed coil is proportional to the load current while the field produced by the moving coil is proportional to the voltage. As the deflecting torque is produced due to the interaction of these two fields, the deflection is proportional to the power supplied to the load. 6.2.2 Torque Equation Let i, = Instantaneous value of current in fixed coil i, = Instantaneous value of current in moving coil L, = Self inductance of fixed coils L, = Self inductance of moving coil M = Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils The electrodynamometer instrument can be represented by an equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig. 6.4. ‘The flux linkages of coil 1 are, 4 /\ 2 eli Mi, 1 \ t ‘The flux linkages of coil 2 are, * mi Ma % 6: =1y ig + Mi, | | Now ¢, = 38. Fig. 6.4 and, = St Electrical input enes#” = qyijdt +e,i, at = i do, +i, do; =i d (hi, +Mi) tind (Ly, + Mi) = ij Ly di +i AL, +i, i, aMei, Madi, + iLydis+ 2 dL, +1 i@M+ i, Mdi, naa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-9 Wattmotor Theory and Measurement of Power 6.2.3 Advantages of Electrodynamic instruments 1) As the coils are air cored, these instruments are free from hysteresis and eddy current losses. 2) They have a precision grade accuracy. 3) These instruments can be used on both ac. and dc. They are also used as a transfer instruments. 4) Electrodynamometer voltmeters are very useful where accurate rms. values of voltage, irrespective of waveforms, are required. 5) Free from hysteresis errors. 6) Low power consumption. 7) Light in weight. 6.2.4 Disadvantages of Electrodynamic Instruments 1) These instruments have a low sensitivity due to a low torque to weight ratio. Also it introduces increased frictional losses. To get accurate results, these errors must be 2) They are more expensive than other type of instruments. 3) These instruments are sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts. Therefore care must be taken while handling them. 4) They have a non-uniform scale. 5) The operating current of these instruments is large due to the fact that they have weak magnetic field. 6.2.5 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments The various errors in electrodynamometer instruments are, 1. Torque to weight ratio : To have reasonable deflecting torque, m.mf. of the moving coil must be large enough. Thus m.m.f. = NI hence current through moving coil should be high or number of turns should be large. The current can not be made very high because it may cause excessive heating of springs. Large number of turns hence is the only option but it increases weight of the coil. This makes the system heavy reducing torque to weight ratio. This can cause frictional errors in the reading. 2, Frequency errors : The changes in the frequency causes to change self inductances of moving coil and fixed coil. This causes the error in the reading. The frequency error can be reduced by having equal time constants for both fixed and moving coil circuits. 3, Eddy current errors : In metal parts of the instrument the eddy currents get produced. The eddy currents interact with the instrument current, to cause change in the deftecting torque, to cause error. Hence metal parts should be kept as minimum as possible. Also the resistivity of the metal parts used must be high, to reduce the eddy currents.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-13 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power 6.3.3 Shape of Scale of Dynamometer Wattmeter ‘The deflection is given by v 1 aM aM 0 = Leese Ge GP Gy where Kg and P= VI, cos = Power measured Thus the deflection is directly proportional to power being measured and the scale is uniform over the range in which (dM/ d8) remains constant Practically the wattmeters are designed such that dM/d3 remains almost constant over a range of 40° to 50° on either side of zero mutual inductance position. The M varies Iinearily in this zone with respect to 8. Thus if zero mutual inductance position is kept in the midale of the scale then M varies linearily for the deflections upto 80° to 100° and thus scale is uniform over the range of 80° to 100°, Practically this covers the entire scale range. The shape of scale and variation in mutual inductance is shown in the Fig. 6.8. Mutual inductance M Fig. 6.8 Shape of scale of dynamometer watimeter 6.4 Errors in Wattmeter Practically there are errors in dynamometer wattmeter due to pressure coil parameters such as inductance, capacitance and due to method of connections. Some corrections are to be applied to compensate for these errors.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EMandI 6-21 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power tm Example 6.2: An electrodynamometer wattmeter is used for measurement of power in a single phase circuit. The load voltage is 100 V and the load current is 10 A at a power factor of 0.2. The wattmeter voltage circuit has a resistance of 3000 Q and an inductance of 30 mH. Estimate the percentage error in the wattmeter reading when pressure coil is connected i) on the supply side and ii) on the load side. The current coil has a resistance of 01 Qand negligible inductance. The frequency is 50 Hz. Solution; Power consumed by load, Py = Vicos@ = 100x10x 02 = 200 W cos = 02, = 78.46° R, = 3009 L = 30 mH X= nfl = (2n)(50)(30%10-) = 942 2 1 982 "Be tant X= tan 2S. = 0.00313 rad . - Consider pressure coil is connected on load side. Using the expression for effect of inductance, Actual Wattmeter Reading = [1+tan 9-tan i] True power = [1+ tan 78.46-tan(0.00313 rad)]}200 = [1+(4897)(313x10-)]200 = 203.06 W _... Use proper mode of calculator 2 _ V2 _ (100)* _ Power loss in pressure coil = p~ = “aig = 3.33 W P Total Wattmeter Reading = 203.06 + 3.33 = 206.39 W Pw Py 206.39-200 = ——s00 100 = 3.196 % % Error +x100 Now consider that pressure coil is on supply side Total power = True power + [?R, = 200 + (10)(01) = 200+ 10 = 210 Waa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM'and 1 6-25 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power Find the reading on it. Will it measure phase power ? Let us find it out. For wattmeter : I =I, = Line current while Vee = Vey = Vp, = Vpn as delta load W = Vpc1_ c08(Vpe" I.) = Vpy-Ip.cos(Vay Ip) Now Ty = I, and Vey = Vi = Vpn Hence angle between Vay and I, is not ‘#. Te, To find Vpy*Ig let us draw phasor diagram as shown in the Vav=ViRVpn Assume load having Fig. 6.16. os ¢lagging pf. teeta For delia connected load, ” = rs € Vpn" bn in = inv — ior Phase current Iy lags phase . voltage Vgy assuming that load pe. is cos $ lagging. Tetler tor ee From phasor diagram it is Fig. 6.16 clear that, Vay"Ig = (3046) W = Vpy XIp xc0s(30+ 6) W = V,I,cos (30+) W This is not a phase power reading. Case ii) : Now let us shift the same wattmeter in such a way that it has to read phase power V,, 1,,cost. For this 1,= Ij, =Ipy oF lyg Or Igp and V,.= Vj,= Vi= Vay or Vyg Of Vag. Accordingly wattmeter coils must be connected such that I,= I,, and Vpe = Vpts 25 In” Vpn and then it Will read V,, I,,cos} which is phase power. The connections can be shown as in the Fig. 6.17. Re Three phase supplyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-33 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power Consider delta connected balanced load, as shown in the Fig. 6.26. Fig. 6.26 Two wattmeter method for delta connected load For Wy, I and W, Tn and Vj, = Vas and Vye = Ws W, = TpV ps 608 (ln Va) Wz = TyVyacos y*Vyp) To find Ip*Vpp and Iy*Vyy let us draw phasor diagram. Assume load having cos @ lagging pal Fig. 6.27 Delta connected load, lagging p.f. Veo = Van = Vphase = Vine and Ip = ly tine Tg = “TyyTig and Ty= Tye =dey 4 Vgnos (30-4) = I, V, cos(30-0) Wz = TyVygeos(3e ea) =f, Vy cen (30+ 0)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 42 Wattmeter Theory and W = 1, Vpe 208 Ic * Voc) = Ip Vyp cosy * Vyp) To find 1,“ Vyg , assume load to be star connected having cos ¢ lagging p.f. .. Phasor diagram is as in the Fig. 6.34. Fig. 6.34 Vp = W-Ve In *Vyp = 90-6 W = Ig Vyp c0s(90-$) Ig Vyn sing =I, V, sing Thus in this method the wattmeter reading is, W = V.ising But total reactive volt amperes are V3 V, I, sin Key Point : This reading must be multiplied by V3 to get total reactive volt amperes. v3.W = Total reactive volt amperes ‘m= Example 6.5: In a particular test the two watimeter readings are 4 kW and 1 kW. Calculate the power and power factor if i) Both meters read direct ii) One meter connections reversed. Solution ; i) Both meters read direct W, = +4kW WW) =+1kW P = W,+W,=5kWaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-46 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power Tay = W, and Ty = W, Ta © (la + Ta) & (Wy + W,) &< W where Ty = Total deflecting torque W, = Power measured by element 1 W, = Power measured by element 2 W = Total power Thus the total deflecting torque is proportional to the total power. ‘As the coils are mounted very near each other, errors due to mutual interference are possible. To eliminate such errors, the laminated iron shield is placed in between the two elements. ‘The compensation for mutual interference can be obtained by using the resistances as shown in the Fig. 6.36. The value of R can be adjusted using R’ to compensate the errors due to mutual effects between the two elements. Arrangement to ‘com pen: mutual interference between two elements. Element 1 Element 2 ‘Three phase wattmeter Fig. 6.36 Connections of three phase wattmeter Examples with Solutions ‘m> Example 6. A certain circuit takes 10 A at 200 V and the power absorbed is 1000 W. If the current coil of the wattmeter has a resistance of 0.15 Q and its pressure coil has a resistance of 5000 Q and inductance of 0.3 H, find i) the error due to resistance for each of the two possible methods of connection. ii) the error due to the inductance if the frequency of 50 Hz. ifi) the total error in each case.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 6-51 Wattmeter Theory and Measurement of Power Caleulate : i pf. of the motor, ii) readings on the too wattmeters connected to measure the input power to the motor, iti) total reactive power. L. Two wattmeter method is used to measure power, consumed by delta conmected load. Each branch of load having impedance of 20 2 60° Q. Supply voltage is 400 V. Calculate the total power and readings on individual wattmeters. . Power input measurement to a synchronous motor is done using « two wattmeter method. Each of the wattmeters reads 40 KW at certain operating condition. If the power factor is changed 10 08 lead now, what would be the new wattmeter readings ? TAns. : 22.6 kW, 574kW] 3. Power input to a 3-phase, 415 volts, 50 Hz induction motor is measured using two wattmeters. It ‘was observed that one wattmeter reads 7.5 KW while the other reads 2.5 kW after reversing the connections of pressure coil. Calculate : i) Total power i) Power factor fii) Line current. Also identify which wattmeter was reading 25 KW if it is given that the two wattmeters were connected in lines R and Y. . Write short nole on measurement of reactive power in a three phase balanced circuit using single ‘wattmeter. . Write a note on three phase wattmeter. . Explain the features of low power factor wattmeter. Prove that the error due inductance of pressure coil in the wattmeter is [tang tanB]] times actual power. . Explain the error in wattmeter reading due to method of connection. Q00aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM andi 7-5 Special Purpose Measuring instruments An important advantage of the instrument is that the great sensitivity is achieved as the inductance of the moving coil changes slowly with variation of its position on the core. This meter is also called ferrodynamic frequency meter. 7.1.3 Weston Frequency Meter This is moving iron type instrument. It works on the changes in current distribution between two parallel circuits, one of which is inductive and other non-inductive, when the frequency changes. This is due to the fact that the impedance of the inductive circuit changes with the change in the frequency. (X, =2nfL) The Fig. 75 shows the constructional details of the Weston frequency meter. Normal Frequency scale Lower Higher Pointer wese ‘Axis of coll A,-Ap Axis of Ly coi! ByBy Ra © ‘Supply Fig. 7.5 Weston frequency meter It consists of two fixed coils, each divided in two parts A,-A2 and B,-B2. The axes of the two coils are mutually perpendicular to each other. At the centre of the axes, a soft iron needle is pivoted which is thin and long. The needle carries a pointer and damping vanes. There is no controlling device to produce controlling torque.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 7-12 ‘Special Purpose Measuring Instruments 7.7 Frequency Ratio Measurement By using the frequency counter, the ratio of two frequencies can be measured. It is again similar to period measurement. The block diagram is as shown in the Fig. 7.13. () Input « ampliior Fig, 7.13 Frequency ratio measurement using frequency counter In this mode, the low frequency signal is used as gating signal, while the pulses are counted for the high frequency signal. Hence it is clear that the low frequency represents the time base. The number of pulses corresponding to the high frequency signal f, are counted during the period of the low frequency signal {,, by the decade counters and displayed by the display unit. 78 Universal Counter The universal counter is a counter which can measure time period and frequency in one circuit itself. Various circuits for the time measurement, frequency measurement, ratio measurement etc. are connected to form one single generalized block which is known as the universal counter. The block schematic of universal counter is as shown in the Fig. 7.14. Fig. 7.14 Block diagram of universal counter-timeraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 7-16 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments Similar to a dynamometer type wattmeter, torque on coil A is given by, Th = K Vicos 6 cos (90-0) w=» (1) where K = Constant The equation is similar to the torque equation of a dynamometer type instrument. The current through coil A is in phase with system voltage V and it moves in a magnetic field which is proportional to system current I, and dM/d8 which is generally constant for radial field is not constant for parallel field and is proportional to cos (90° - 8). Similarly current in coil B lags the supply voltage by 90° and it moves in same field. Hence the torque on B is proportional to cos (90° - 4) ie. sin and cos @. Ty = KVisin 600s 8 = Q) In equilibrium position, Ty = Tp «cos @ cos (90°-8) = sin 6 cos @ : sin® = tang cos® tan® = tang e=9 ‘Thus the angular position taken up by the moving coils is equal to the system power factor angle. The scale of the instrument can then be calibrated interms of power factor values. The operation of the instrument is dependent on the specific supply frequency. If the frequency is different or it contains harmonics then inductance of choke coil changes, due to which there will be serious errors in the instruments reading. Thus the operation of the meter is not dependent on the values of current and voltage but dependent on the frequency and the waveform. 7.11 Moving Iron Power Factor Meter The advantages of moving iron power factor meter over the dynamometer type are, 1. The working forces in moving iron are larger. 2. All coils in moving iron are fixed so no ligaments are required. 3. A scale extends over 360°. But due to the losses in the iron parts, the accuracy of moving iron power factor meters is much less than electrodynamometer type. There are two types of moving iron power factor meters, 1. Rotating field type 2. Alternating field typeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 7-22 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments Signal 1 AK flip-flop 1 set Fig. 7.20 ‘The display unit displays accurately the phase difference between the two signals. For accurate measurements, if input signal frequency is f, then the clock frequency must be 360 times the input frequency. ‘The advantages of the method are : i) High accuracy. ii) Any phase angle difference can be detected and measured. iil) The speed of operation is fast. iv) The circuit is simple to design. ‘The disadvantages of the method are : i) Both inputs must have same frequency. ii) It is difficult to measure small phase differences. iii) For very accurate results, the clock frequency should be 360 times the input frequency.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 7-27 ‘Special Purpose Measuring Instruments Thus four such detailed load evaluation uptill now comparatively less efficient electromechanical sensing devices were used. But now in a modem era, such devices are replaced by electronic devices completely which are more efficient and facilitate detail continuous monitoring on line computation of the load requirements. This gives rise to development of power analyzer. 2) In recent years, it is found that various power electronic equipments draw not only pure sinusoidal supply voltage but also the non-sinusoidal currents drastically. This gives rise to electromagnetic interference (EMI) affecting the power supply system badly. It becomes necessary to put up a restriction on the waveform of a non-sinusoidal current drawn by consumers. Thus it becomes necessary to analyze the current waveforms completely on-line. This push forward development of the power analyzer. 3) In the modem era, computers, network components, various electronic precision equipments and cell phones are susceptible to the EMI. To prevent EMI exceeding specified limit, it is necessary to limit harmonics of the current within specified range. 4) In addition to above requirements, nowadays modern electronic devices, elements are available at cheaper rates. All these factors contributed to the development of advanced modem power analyzer. 7.13.1 Block Schematic of Power Analyzer The block schematic of a modem power analyzer is as shown in the Fig. 7.25. The schematic shown in this figure is typically for a 3 phase, 4 wire system of supply. Serial link Fig. 7.25 Block schematic of power analyzer for three phase four wire supply ‘systemaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 7-33 Special Purpose Measuring Instruments 2) To limit the magnitude of the input signal, RANGE switch is provided. By properly adjusting input attenuator input signal can be limited. 3) It also includes rectifier section which converts a.c. input signal to the d.c. voltage. 4) It facilitates resistance measurement with the help of internal battery and additional circuitry. 5) The various parameters measurement is possible by selecting required function using FUNCTION switch. © The measurement of various parameters is indicated with the help of Indicating Meter. A multimeter measures a.c. and d.c. voltage, ac. and d.c. currents and resistance. The Fig. 7.28 shows the moder laboratory type multimeter. Fig. 7.28 Laboratory type multimeter 7.16.1 Use of Multimeter for D.C. Voltage Measuroment The Fig. 7.29 shows the arrangement used in multimeter to measure the d.c. voltages. Re oi selector switch 3 D.C. volt 5000 Vdc. + oe 2 Fig. 7.29aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and 7-39 ‘Special Purpose Measuring Instruments vill) Overload protection : The overload protection of 1000 V d.c. and 750 rms. a.c. is provided. Ix) Diode test : The voltage drop across the diode can be measured for which 1 mA + 10 % of constant current source is used. x) Conductance = It can display conductance in siemens. xi) Relative reference : When “REL! button is pressed, the displayed reading is stored as a reference and then subtracted from the subsequent readings to indicate only amount of deviation from the reference. xil) Frequency : ‘The frequency range is 200 Hz to 200 kHz autoselection. Review Questions 1. Explain the construction and working principle of i) Weston frequency meter ii) Electrodynamometer type power factor meter. Explain the working of rotating type phase sequence indicator. . Explain the working of static type phase sequence indicator. Write a note on phase sequence indicators. Why Neon lamps are more suitable in etatic type phase sequence indicators? Explain the operation of vibrating reed type frequency meter. Explain the operation of electrical resonance type frequency meter. 3. Explain the operation of weston type frequency meter. . Explain the operation of moving iron power factor meter. . Explain analog frequency meter with the help of block diagram. |. Write advantages and disadvantages of the analog frequency meter. Explain the principle of digital frequency meter. |. Explain digital frequency counter with nect diagram. Explain each block of digital frequency counter in detail. . Explain how frequency is measured using the digital frequency counter. . Explain how digital frequency counter is used to measure, (i frequency, (ii) period, (iti) time interoal, (io) ratio of frequencies. Write a note on universal counter. 7. Write a note on digital multimeter.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 8-3 Energymeter Theory supported between jewel bearings. The moving system runs on hardened steel pivot. A pinion engages the shaft with the counting mechanism. There are no springs and no controlling torque. 3) Braking system : A permanent magnet is placed near the aluminium disc for , braking mechanism. This magnet reproduced its own field. The disc moves in the field of this magnet and a braking torque is obtained. The position of this magnet is adjustable and hence braking torque is adjusted by shifting this magnet to different radial positions. ‘This magnet is called Braking magnet. 4) Registering mechanism : It records continuously a number which is proportional ‘to the revolutions made by the aluminium disc. By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears, the pinion on the shaft drives a series of pointers. These pointers rotate on round dials which are equally marked with equal divisions. Practically the pointer type registering mechanism is used. The pointer indicates one kWh when the disc completes certain number of revolutions. The second dial represents 10 kWh, third 100 kWh while onthe other sides, dials ‘measuring 1/100 and 1/10 kWh are also provided. The Fig. 6.2 (a) shows the pointer type register while the Fig, 82.) hong he tometer pe ah In some meters the cyclometer type registering Fig. 8.2 Registering mechanisms used In Induction energymeteraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 8-7 Energymeter Theory The braking torque is due to eddy currents induced in the aluminium disc. The magnitude of eddy currents is proportional to the speed N of the disc. Hence the braking torque T, is also proportional to the speed N. ho«N ie. ~@) For the steady speed of rotation, Ty =. K; Vicos@ = KN ” N = K Vicos$=K[power] wn (4) ' \ Total number of revolutions = [ N dt = K (power) dt a 0 A Total number of revolutions = K P dt=Kx energy ©) ° ‘Thus the number of revolutions of the disc in a given time is the energy consumption by the circuit in that time. N_ _ Number of revolutions K = Moter constant = orey ——{wh a ©) Thus the number of revolutions of the disc per kWh of energy consumption is called the meter constant. 8.4 Errors and Compensations ‘There are various errors present in the single phase induction type energymeter. The driving system can cause the errors due to inaccurate phase angles, abnormal frequencies, effect of temperature on the resistance and unsymmetrical magnetic circuit. The braking system also can cause error due to change in the strength of the braking magnet, change in resistance of the disc, abnormal friction of moving disc etc. To get accurate reading, these errors are required to be compensated. Hence some adjustments are provided in the energymeter to minimize these errors. 8.4.1 Lag Adjustment or Power Factor Adjustment It is absolutely necessary that meter should measure correctly for all power factor conditions of the loads. This is possible when the flux produced due to current in the pressure coil lags the applied voltage by 90°. But the iron loss and resistance of winding do not allow the flux to lag by exact 90° with respect to the voltage.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 2 Energymeter Theory ‘These various effects neutralize each other and hence errors due to temperature are not serious. But at low lagging power factor loads, such effects may cause serious errors. These effects are compensated by providing a temperature shunt on the brake magnet. Special magnetic materials such as Mutemp is used for the shunt whose permeability decreases considerably as temperature increases. This provides temperature compensation and does not allow the disc to rotate faster as temperature increases. 8.4.7 Main Speed Adjustment ‘The measurement of energy is dependent on the speed of the rotating disc. For accurate measurement, speed of the disc must be also proportionate. The speed of the meter can be adjusted by means of changing the effective radius of the braking magnet. Moving the braking magnet in the direction of the spindle, decreases the value of the effective radius, decreasing the braking torque. This increases the speed of the -meter. While the movement of the braking magnet in the outward direction ie. away from the centre of the disc, increases the radius, decreasing the speed of the disc. The fine adjustments of the speed can be achieved by providing an additional flux divertor. 8.5 Advantages of Induction Type Energymeter The various advantages of induction type energymeters are, 1. Its construction is simple and strong. 2. It is cheap in cost. 3. It has high torque to weight ratio, so frictional errors are less and we can get accurate reading. 4. It has more accuracy. 5. It requires less maintenance. 6. Its range can be extended with the help of instrument transformers. 8.6 Disadvantages of Induction Type Energymeter 1. The main disadvantage is that it can be used only for a.c. circuits. 2. The creeping can cause errors. 3. Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuit may cause errors. 8.7 Three Phase Energymeter In a three phase, four wire system, the measurement of energy is to be carried out by a three phase energymeter. ‘For three phase, three wire system, the energy measurement can be carried out by two element energy meter, the connections of which are similar to the connections of two wattmeters for power measurement in a three phase, three wireaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 8-19 Energymeter Theory 230 V, 50 Hz 1-HAC. mains supply Voltage controlled oscillator Fig. 8.16 Block diagram of electronic energymeter Basically the average power is equal to the mean product of the instantaneous voltage across load and instantaneous current through it. By using potential divider, the supply voltage is brought to required level. This voltage is then scaled appropriately in the required range by using voltage scaling device. While the current scaling device scales the load voltage which is proportional to the load current. Both these scaled voltages are connected to voltage and current multiplier unit. This unit outputs the current as a result of the product of ac. voltage and current. The current proportional to an instantaneous power is applied to the voltage-controlled oscillator. It works on the principle of constant current charging of the capacitor. As the voltage controlled oscillator is basically voltage to frequency converter, it produces a square wave output. The frequency of this square wave is proportional to the output current of voltage-current multiplier. Thus the power dependent current and the frequency dependent current decides the value of the consumed energy. The analog signal is converted by using analog to digital converter. The display unit displays energy is watt-hour. 8.10.1 Advantages The advantages of the electronic energymeter are as follows : i) High sensitivity ii) No friction lossesaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 8-23 Energymoter Theory But 1W = 1)/sec E, = 83333 x 3600 J = 300000J The true energy for full load is E, = Vit = 230x20x66 -08g=1 = 303600 J _ EE _ 300000 303600 = 8g, 100 = “S050 = ~ 1.185% (Reading error) Now actual energy consumed is 303600 J i.e. a wh x100 4. FE, = 843333 Wh = 0.08433 kWh It makes 480 rev/kWh so for 0.08433 kWh it has to complete 480 x 0.08433 = 40.48 revolutions. But it completes 40 revolutions, so error in terms of time taken is, 40-4048 7048 100 = - 1.185% Error = Thus meter is slow. ‘m> Example 89 : A 230 V, single phase, watthour meter has a constant load of 5 A passing through it for 8 hours at 0.9. pf. If the meter disc makes 4968 revolutions during this period, find the meter constant in the revolutions per KWh. Calculate the power factor of the load if the number of revolutions made are 2100 when operating at 230 V and 6 A for 5 hours. Solution : Energy supplied = V I cos $x t = 230x5x09%8 8280 Wh = 8.28 kWh No. of revolutions = 4968 Meter constant = = 600 rev/kWh Now energy consumed = VI cos ¢t and for 2100 revolutions, energy consumed is — 2100 _ a = Sq = 35 kWh = 3500 Wh 35x10? = 230x6xcos@x5 cos @ = 0.5072 +» power factoraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 9-2 Instrument Transformers: 9.2.1 Working Principle . ‘These transformers are basically step up transformers ie. stepping up a voltage from primary to secondary. Thus the current reduces from primary to secondary. So from current point of view, these are step down transformers, stepping down the current value considerably from primary to secondary. Let N, = Number of turns of primary. N, = Number of turns of secondary. I, = Primary current. 1, = Secondary current. Nz ZN As N, is very high compared to Nj, the ratio I, to I, is also very high for current . Such a current ratio is indicated for representing the range of current transformer. For example, consider a 500 : 5 range then it indicates that C.T. Steps down the current from primary to secondary by a ratio 500 to 5. TL _ 500 . I, 2 Knowing this current ratio and the meter reading on the secondary, the. actual high. line current flowing through the primary can be obtained. wm> Example 9.1: A 250 : 5, current transformer is used along with an ammeter. If ammeter reading is 2.7 A, estimate the line current. Solution : L _ 20 7S But as ammeter is in secondary, I, = 2.7 A “ i, 20 LF 5 # I, = 135A So line current is 135 A. 9.3 Construction of Current Transformers ‘There are two types of constructions used for the current transformers which are, 1, Wound type 2. Bar typeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.. Instrument Transformers VY, _ 11000 87.5 ~ “i10 * Vv, = 8750V ‘This is the value of high voltage to be measured. 9.5.1 Construction ‘The potential transformer use larger core and conductor sizes compared to conventional power transformer. In potential transformer, economy of material is not an important consideration at the time of design. The accuracy is an important consideration. The shell type or core type construction is preferred for potential transformer. The shell type is used for low voltage while core type for high voltage transformers. At the time of assembly special core is required to reduce the effect of air gap at the joints. \ The co-axial primary and secondary windings are used, to reduce the leakage reactance. The secondary winding which is a low voltage winding is always next to the core. The primary winding is a single coil in low voltage transformers. For high voltages, insulation is the main problem. Hence in high voltage potential transformers, primary is divided into number of small sections of short coils to reduce the need of insulation between coil layers. The cotton tape and varnished cambric are used as the insulations for windings. Hard fiber separators are used in between the coils. The oil immersed potential transformers are used for the voltage levels above 7 kV. For cil filled _potential transformers, oil filled bushings are used. Two bushings are required when no side of the line is at earth potential. The overall construction of single phase, two winding potential transformer is shown in the Fig. 9.6. Fig. 9.6 Single phase potential transformeraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and | 9-16 Instrument Transformers 9.10 Theory of Potential Transformers The loading of potential transformer is very small in practice hence exciting current Ip is of the order of [, ie. secondary winding current. While in a normal power transformer Ip is very small compared to I,. The equivalent circuit of potential transformer is shown in the Fig. 9.9. Fig. 9.9 Equivalent circuit of potential transformer The various symbols are, @ = Working flux. N, = Primary tums. N, = Secondary tums. I, = Primary current. I, = Secondary current. I, = Magnetising component of Io 1, = Core less component of Io. Ip = No load current ie. exciting current ty, X, = Resistance and reactance of secondary winding. = Resistance and reactance of primary winding. TerXe = Resistance and reactance of burden. > = Primary induced voltage. E, = Secondary induced voltage. A = Phase angle of secondary load current = tan“! ~£ . = Primary applied voltage =_ Secondary terminal voltage For PT.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Instrument Transformers Np = 1 and N, = 400 hence n = Na = 400 Np In = AT for magnetisation _ 100 _ 499 9 Np Ip = 100A Now I, = 5A and R, = 2Qpurdy resistive. 1g = Reversed secondary current = nI, = 2000 A As load is purely resistive, 8=(° and E, and I, are in phase as shown in the Fig. 9.12. L= V@Ly +h, Ben p---plp Ee 2 z = (2000)? + (100); e = 2002.498 A _ _ Actual I, b Actual ratio = asary . 202.498 & R= SEE = 400.499 Fig. 9.12 = Jn 210 _ While tan® = SF = ap99 = 005 © = 2.86°=2° 51.6’ For transformer, E, = 444f9,,N, and E, =I, R, (8x2) = 4.44x50x6,,% 400 4m = 1126x104 Wb 1.126x104 5, = $e = Lee .. A = Area of cross-section. = 0.1407 Whim? A particular bar type current transformer has 300 secondary turns. The secondary winding carriers a burden of ammeter having resistance of 1 Q and inductive reactance of 0.53 Q while the secondary winding resistence is 0.25 O and reactance 0.35 Q. isi f. required is 85 A while the current component for core losses is i) The primary current when secondary carries 5 A. ti) The ratio error iti) The reduction in the number of turns of secondary to obtain zero ratio error.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.9-29 ‘ A= tnt X= 3.45404" R = 604761 4.504761 [2x cosA + sind] i Now a = Z, = ¥i007 +200? = 223.6067 @ R = 60.9599 and K, = Nominal ratio = n = 60.4761 % Ratio error = Ka FR 100 = - 0.799 % = - 0.8 % a= Xe %y, cas A—Rag sin A] in radians 1 ; = ap gpay lens 63.43 2 sin 63.43] -3 = 59x10 rad = B2x10 18" degrees = -0.338° Phase angle error 9.13 Difference between Instrument and Power Transformers Power transformer Instrument transformer Mainly used to change the voltage levels in a power system. ‘They are required to transform huge ‘amount of power to the load. They can be used to step up or step down the voltage. Mainly used to extend the ranges of the Instruments while measuring parameters voltage, current, power, eneray etc. ‘They are required to transform very small power ‘They are basically step down transformers and devices As the load Itself Is small, the exciting current is of the order of the secondary winding load current. Accuracy is the main consideration while designing to keep ratio and phase angle errore to minimum. Cost is the second consideration. ‘The power output is very small as loads are light hence heating is not severe. ‘The accuracy is the main load limitation factor and not the temperature rise. Examples are current and potential transformers.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.and! 9-36 Instrument Transformers Fig. 9.20 Three element energymeter with C.T. and P.T. Examples with Solutions tm Example 9.15: The resistance and reactance of the secondary of a S00/5 A current transformer are 0.02 2 and 0.03 9 respectively and the transformer characteristics are given by, EMF. on secondary V 03 Magnetising current A 09 Coreloss component A 0s An ammeter, a watimeter current coil and an induction relay are connected in series with the secondary winding. Their resistances are 0.08 Q, 0.1 Q and 0.14 Q and their reactances are 0.09 &, 0.07 Q.and 0.08 O respectively. If the secondary current is 4 A, calculate ratio and phase angle error a) When all meter are in the circuit. b) Only watimeter is in the circuit. Calculate the load VA in each case. Solution: a) All meters are in the secondary winding 1, = 029, x, = 0.0332 o-Z, = (ty + Resistances of all meters) + j (x, + Reactances of all meters) = (0.02 +0.08 + 0.1 + 0.14)+j(0.09 + 0.07 + 0.08 + 0.03) = 0.34 +j 027 = 04341 2 38.459" 9 o 3 = 38453 E, = I, Z,=4x0.4341 = 1.737 Vaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Oscilloscope 10.1 Introduction In studying the various electronic, electrical networks and systems, signals which are functions of time, are often encountered. Such signals may be periodic or non periodic in nature. The device which allows, the amplitude of such signals, to be displayed primarily as a function of time, is called cathode ray oscilloscope, commonly known as C.R.O. The C.RO. gives the visual representation of the time varying signals. The oscilloscope has become an universal instrument and is probably most versatile tool for the development of electronic circuits and systems. It is an integral part of electronic laboratories. The oscilloscope is, infact, a voltmeter. Instead of the mechanical deflection of a metallic pointer as used in the normal voltmeters, the oscilloscope uses the movement of an electron beam against a fluorescent screen, which produces the movement of a visible spot. The movement of such spot on the screen is proportional to the varying magnitude of the signal, which is under measurement. The electron beam can be deflected in two directions : the horizontal or x-direction and the vertical or y-direction. Thus an electron beam producing a spot can be used to produce two dimensional displays. Thus C.R.O. can be regarded as a fast x-y plotter. The x-axis and y-axis can be used to study the variation of one voltage as a function of another. Typically the x-axis of the oscilloscope represents the time while the y-axis represents variation of the input voltage signal. Thus if the input voltage signal applied to the y-axis of C.RO. is sinusoidally varying and if x-axis represents the time axis, then the spot moves sinusoidally, and the familiar sinusoidal waveform can be seen on the screen of the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is so fast device that it can display the periodic signals whose time period is as small as microseconds and even nanoseconds. The C.R.O. basically operates on voltages, but it is possible to convert current, pressure, strain, acceleration and other physical quantities into the voltage using transducers and obtain their visual representations on the CRO. (10 - 4)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and Oscilloscope High Trigger gap (a) Waveform to be observed — (b) Waveform observed due to ringing Fig. 10.22 Ringing effect The advantages of this mode are : 1) It prevents false triggering caused by the ringing or unwanted transients. 2)No necessity to set the level control or check the correct input coupling because the level control is made inoperative in this mode. 3)No need to check the TTL levels on the screen. Since the intemal triggering gives a stable display which provides quick and sure indication that the logic levels are correct. 10.7 Intensity and Velocity Modulation ‘The intensity modulation is also called z-axis intensity modulation. It is used for brightening the display. Periodic positive pulses are applied to the control grid and alternatively negative pulses are applied to the cathode, to brighten the beam during its sweep period. The beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen by controlling the voltages applied to the horizontal and vertical plates. This is called velocity modulation. The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates called vertical and horizontal. One of the plates in each set is connected to ground. Other plate terminals are taken out called X and Y to which the extemal voltages can be applied. A positive voltage when applied to Y input causes beam to deflect vertically upward while negative voltage applied to Y causes beam to deflect downwards. Similarly the positive voltage applied to X terminal causes beam to deflect horizontally towards right. The negative voltage applied to X causes beam to deflect horizontally towards left. The amount of deflection is directly proportional to the applied voltage. This is called velocity modulation. 10.8 Bandwidth ‘The bandwidth is defined as the range of frequency for which the gain of the vertical amplifier does not drop more than 3 dB, from its zero frequency value. Thus the bandwidth of C.RO. is denoted as d.c. to X Hz where at X Hz, the gain of the vertical amplifier is 3 dB down from its zero frequency value.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 10-28 Oscilloscope ‘The sweep trigger signal, is available from channels A or B and the trigger pick-off takes place before the electronic switch. This technique maintains the correct phase relationship between the A and B signals. The main limitation of this method is that the display is not the actual representation of two events taking place simultaneously. The signals are displayed as if they were existing at two different times. Similarly, the alternate mode cannot be used for displaying very low frequency signals. 10.9.2 Chop Mode In this method, there is a switching from one vertical channel to other, many times during a single sweep.This switching from one vertical channel to other is at such a rapid rate that the display is created from small segments of the actual waveform. The electronic switch is free running oscillator at a rate of 100 to 500 kHz entirely independent of the sweep generator frequency. Thus the switch successively connects the small segments of the channel A and B waveforms to the main amplifier. At the chopping rate of 500 kHz, for example 1 jisec segments of each waveform are fed to the display. If the chopping rate is faster than horizontal sweep rate, then the individual little segments fed to the vertical amplifier together reconstitute the original A and B waveforms on the CRT screen, without any visible interruptions. The little chopped segments merge to appear continuous to the eye. Key Point : But if the chopping raie is small, the continuity of the display is lost. In such case, it is better to use alternate mode. The time relationship of dual trace CRO in chop mode is shown in the Fig. 10.26. t chop + rence lnonsiy bit tft Co Chopiransiont Sacre Intnsity of Fig. 10.26 Time relations in chop mode There are advantages and disadvantages of both the methods hence most oscilloscopes have a switch which is capable of selecting either of the modes.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and! 11-47 Transducers A. Bonded Resistance Wire Strain Gauge In bonded resistance wire strain gauge resistive element is cemented to the base which may be a thin sheet of paper, a thin sheet of bakelite or a sheet of teflon. The resistive element may be in the form of wire, foil or film of the material. The most common types of bonded strain gauges are as shown in the Fig. 11.15. Fig. 11.15 Bonded type strain gauges In metallic bonded strain gauge a fine wire element about 25 um or less in diameter is looped back and forth on a base (carrier) or mounting plate. The base is cemented to the member subjected to stress. The grid of fine wire is cemented on a carrier which may be a thinsheet of paper, bakelite or teflon. A tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decreases its cross-sectional area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance. Foil Strain Gauges In this gauge, the strain is detected using a metal foil. The metals and alloys used for the foil and wire are nichrome, constantan, isoclastic (Ni + Cr + Mo), nickel and platinum. On account of their larger surface area, foil gauges have a much greater dissipation capacity. Therefore they can be used at a higher operating temperature range. The characteristics of foil type strain gauges and wire type strain gauges are similar, including almost the same gauge factor. The advantage of foil type strain gauge is that they can be fabricated on a large scale and in any shape. The foil can be etched on the base. The Fig. 11.16 shows the foil type strain gauge. Foil type gauge 41.16 Foil strain gaugeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.EM and 1 11-45 Transducers. 11.17 Thermoelectric Transducers - Thermocouple Thermoelectric transducer is a temperature transducer which converts thermal energy into an electrical energy. The most commonly used thermoelectic transducer is thermocouple. Thermocouple is generally used as a primary transducer for temperature measurement in which changes in temperature are directly converted into an electrical signal. The thermocouple behaviour can be explained on the basis of thermoelectric phenomena namely Seebeck effect, Peltier effect and Thompson effect. Let us study the thermoelectric phenomena in brief. 11.17.1 Thermoelectric Phenomena In 1821, the great scientist Prof. Seebeck discovered that if the two wires of different metals are joined together forming closed circuit and if the two junctions formed are at different temperatures, an electric current flows around a closed circuit. This is called Seebeck effect. He also observed that if the two metals used are copper and iron, then the current flows from copper to iron at hot junction and from iron to copper at cold junction as shown in the Fig. 11.47. Copper Copper _e.m. % Ta Ty 12 Hot Cold Hot Cold Junction Junction Junction Junction Iron Iron @ (b) Fig. 11.47 Seebeck effect If the copper wire is cut, the emf. appears across the open circuit as shown in the Fig. 1147 (b). This emf. is commonly known as Seebeck emf. This Seebeck emf. is Proportional to the difference in the temperatures of the two junctions. In 1824, Prof. Peltier discovered a reverse phenomenon. He observed that when two dissimilar metals form two junctions as shown in the Fig. 11.48 and if an external emf. is connected as shown, then the current flowsthrough the junctions. When current flows through copper-iron junction (Tj) from copper to iron, heat is absorbed making junction T, hot and when current flows through iron-copper junction (T,) from iron to copper, heat is liberated or liberated making junction T, cold. This is called Peltier effect. The amount of heat absorbed or liberated when unit current flows for unit time is called Peltier coefficient. Copper , External e.m.f. th Ta Hot Cold Junction Junction Iron Fig, 11.48 Peltier offectaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Measurement of Non-electrical EM and! 12-11 Quantities But generally 2 tends to zero for wires used in the bulk-modulus pressure gauge. Hence we can write, dR R YR u Nol z di ie. of: De = Ba Constant 1) Thus the change in resistance of a wire can be calibrated directly in terms of applied pressure. 12.8 Vacuum Gauges Pressure below atmospheric pressure is referred as vacuum pressure. The vacuum ranges used in practice are as follows ; Medium high vacuum - 1 to 10> torrs High vacuum - 10-3 to 1077 torrs Very high vacuum = -_—_ess than 10-7 torrs The vacuum gauges are the most important in todays world. Basically high vacuum is essential for the fabrication and processing of television tubes, x-ray tubes, microwave tubes etc. The vacuum measurement can be carried out with the help of following devices. 1) McLeod gauge 2) Thermal conductive gauge : (a) Pirani gauge (©) Thermocouple gauge 3) Ionization gauge Let us discuss above vacuum gauges one by one. 12.8.1 McLeod Gauge The McLeod gauge is used for measurement of low pressures. It is nothing but a special development of a sealed U tube manometer, in which low pressure fluid is compressed to higher pressure and then it read by using basic manometer techniques. Principle of operation ; The operation of McLeod gauge is based on Boyle’s law. The Boyle's law states that “at a constant temperature for a fixed mass of a gas, the product of Pressure and volume of a gas is constant. In a McLeod gauge, a gas of volume V, with a pressure p; is trapped and the compressed to a new volume V, at a new pressure pj. Hence according to Boyle’s law we can write, PIM = p2V2 come)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Measurement of Non-electrical EM and! 12-17 Quantities where = Absolute pressure = Mass of gas P V = Volume of the gas m R = Gas constant T = Temperature on Kelvin scale The temperature measurement has limitation that it can not be related to the fundamental standard of temperature. Due to this it becomes difficult to establish standard for the temperature in the form of a relationship between it and other quantities for which primary standards do exists. So to establish fixed reference points in the form of freezing and boiling points of substances become essential. There are 6 primary fixed points defined as follows, Triple point of equilibrium hydrogen - 259.34 °C Bolling point of oxygen = 182.962 °C Bolling point of water 100.0 °C Freezing point of zinc 419.58 °C Freezing point of silver 961.93 °C. Freezing point of gold 1064.43 °C The instruments for measuring temperature are categorised into following classes according to the principle of operation of these instruments. Some of the important principles are i Thermal expansion ii, Thermoelectric effect Resistance change iv. Resonant frequency change v. Thermography vi. Fiber optic devices. 12.9.2 Thermal Expansion Methods ‘The instruments based on thermal expansion make use of principle that the dimension of substance in solid, liquid or gaseous state changes with the temperature change. The most commonly used instruments based on thermal expansion methods are bimetallic thermometer, liquid-in-gas thermometer, pressure thermometer. A) Bimetallic Thermometer It is based on the principle that if two strips of different metals are joined together then with the change in the temperature applied to it causes bend in the bimetallic strip. So by calibrating the magnitude of bending with respect to temperature change bimetallic strip can be used as thermometer.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Measurement of Non-clectrical EM and! 12-26 Quantities (a) Orifice plate (b) Flow across orifice plato Fig. 12.20 The orifice plate There are cerlain limitations of the orifice plate. For very high flow rates, the permanent pressure losses are very high. Over a period of time, the sharp edges of the hole wear out and the particles in the flowing fluid build up behind the hole reducing diameter. Hence discharge coefficient gradually changes. This problem can be eliminated by using eccentric hole near the bottom of the pipe which sweeps out built-up particles behind the plate. Sometimes bubbles of vapour or gas tend to build up behind plate and obstruct the flow. This can be avoided by mounting the gifice plate in the vertical run of the pipe. ii) Flow Nozzle : ‘As compared to the orifice plate, flow nozzle is better option as no possibility of solid particles or bubbles of gas sticking in the flow restriction. The flow across nozzle is as shown in the Fig. 12.21. Fig. 12.21 Flow across flow nozzle The measurement accuracy of the flow nozzle is very high as no harm of getting warned out. But the cost is comparatively higher as fabrication of flow nozzle is difficult. Also permanent pressure losses are also high similar to the orifice plate. The flow nozzles are typically used for the steam flow measurement. iii) Venturi Tube : Itis a special shaped tube having flow across it as shown in the Fig. 12.22.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Measurement and instrumentation thoery Characerstis of measurna instruments Saic and dynamic, Accurac: Linearity, Spee of response, Dead zone, Repeaiabiliv, eet ete nate eee eet et cul eee eee: Pel eta ee teat ets Rete er erts oat ee eT eae on) +Essentials of indicating instruments Ce ee ee eee ee tet eRe ene Lenn Ceo acre hereerea Extension of range of ammeters and volimeters using shunt, Multiplier, Universal shure, Universal multiple. Block dagram and operation See eee Beene pees ee ee ee eon ee ene cto ee ‘Sources and detec for a.c bridge, General equation for bridge at balance. Measurement of inductance : Maxwells inductance and Le eek a ete eee ees eee Serer Ce ee en a ne pe es Se ete ee er ee Power measurement in tree phase system fc balanced and unbalanced load using three uattreter method, Two wattmeter method cary reee terete Teer arene nets eaemnenen ne ene erie eee meant ee eee coe en a Cee et ee and Multeneter cee ey Construction, working, trque equation, errors and adjustments of since phase conventional induction type) energy meter, Block diagiam and operation of eledronic energy meter. Three phase energy meters Pree et ts Consructon, Connection of CT ard PTin the cet, Advantages of CT / PT over shunt and mubiples fr range exension, eee ae eer en nee eee ene ere ener Pores Various parts, Front pand contol, Block diagram of dal trace and dual beam CRO, Use of CRO for measurement of vitage curent, Ceri nett serait | earecner eaineet Beene Ce ee ene ee ee eee peter ee eee ee ee etd ‘measimment using electc methods Low pressure measurement by MeL.eed auage and pani gaune, Capacitive press ranscucr cea ee ee ee eer Crome ees ences coche een ee oe ee ee ee Poe ert eeonenatd een A cee Re ee eh ee ete eee es Cee ee ce er Prete eee eer eae ger en ean | fee) os i Price INR 350/- ISBN 978-81-8431-660. # 4, Amit Residency, 412 Shaniwar Path, Pune - 411030, MS., India BC erecta OH) PY er aCe (OMe Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com sgis4l3 1660 Rouen | | | il