BE3254 ELECTRICAL AND INSTRUMENTATION

ENGINEERING
UNIT V BASICS OF POWER SYSTEMS

Power system structure

Electricity is generated at central power stations and then transferred to loads (i.e,
Domestic, Commercial and Industrial) through the transmission and distribution system.
A combination of all these systems is collectively known as an Electric Power System.

A power system is a combination of central generating stations, electric power

transmission system, Distribution and utilization system. Each one of these systems
is explained in detail in the next sections.

An electric supply system consists of three principal components viz., the power station,
the transmission lines and the distribution system. Electric power is produced at the power
stations which are located at favourable places, generally quite away from the consumers.
It is then transmitted over large distances to load centres with the help of conductors known
as transmission lines. Finally, it is distributed to a large number of small and big consumers
through a distribution network, supply system can be broadly classified into (i) d.c. or a.c.
system (ii) overhead or underground system.

Nowadays, 3-phase, 3-wire AC system is universally adopted for generation and

transmission of electric power as an economical proposition. However, distribution of
electric power is done by 3-phase, 4-wire a.c. system. The underground system is more
expensive than the overhead system. Therefore, the overhead system is mostly adopted for
transmission and distribution of electric power.
Typical AC Power Supply in a Power System
The large network of conductors between the power station and the consumers can be
broadly divided into two parts viz., transmission system and distribution system. Each part
can be further sub-divided into two—primary transmission and secondary transmission
and primary distribution and secondary distribution. In Fig. 2, the layout of a typical AC
power supply scheme in a power system is shown by a single line diagram. It may be
noted that it is not necessary that all power schemes include all the stages shown in the
figure. For example, in a certain power scheme, there may be no secondary transmission
and in another case, the scheme may be so small that there is only distribution and
no transmission.

Generating Stations
Energy is generated (transformed from one to another) at the generating stations.
Generating stations are of different type, for example, thermal, hydel, solar power
sations, nuclear. The generated electricity is stepped up through the transformer and then
transferred over transmission lines to the load centres.
In Fig. 2, G.S. represents the generating station where electric power is produced by 3-
phase alternators operating in parallel. The usual generation voltage is †11 kV. For
economy in the transmission of electric power, the generation voltage (i.e., 11 kV) is
stepped upto 132 kV at the generating station with the help of 3-phase transformers.
The transmission of electric power at high voltages has several advantages including the
saving of conductor material and high transmission efficiency.

It may appear advisable to use the highest possible voltage for transmission of electric
power to save conductor material and have other advantages. But there is a limit to which
this voltage can be increased. It is because the increase in transmission voltage introduces
insulation problems as well as the cost of switchgear and transformer equipment is
increased. Therefore, the choice of proper transmission voltage is essentially a question of
economics. Generally, the primary transmission is carried at 66 kV, 132 kV, 220 kV or
400 kV.

Primary transmission.
The electric power at 132 kV is transmitted by 3-phase, 3-wire overhead system to the
outskirts of the city. This forms the primary transmission.
Secondary transmission
The primary transmission line terminates at the receiving station (RS) which usually lies
atthe outskirts of the city. At the receiving station, the voltage is reduced to 33kV by step-
down transformers. From this station, electric power is transmitted at 33kV by 3- phase,
3-wire overhead system to various sub-stations (SS) located at the strategicpoints in the
city. This forms the secondary transmission.

Primary distribution
The secondary transmission line terminates at the sub-station (SS) where voltage isreduced
from 33 kV to 11kV, 3-phase, 3-wire. The 11 kV lines run along the important road sides
of the city. This forms the primary distribution. It may be noted that big consumers (having
demand more than 50 kW) are generally supplied power at 11 kV for further handling with
their own sub-stations.
 Secondary distribution
In the last stage in a Power System, the electric power from primary distribution line (11
kV) is delivered to distribution sub-stations (DS) or Distribution Transformer. A typical
pole mounted distribution transformer is shown in Fig. 5. These sub-stations are located
near the consumers’ localities and step down the voltage to 400 V, 3-phase, 4-wire for
secondary distribution. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any
phase and neutral is 230 V. The single-phase residential lighting load is connected between
any one phase and neutral, whereas 3-phase, 400 V motor load is connected across 3-
phase lines directly. It may be worthwhile to mention here that secondary
distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains.

Earthing
To connect the metallic (conductive) Parts of an Electric appliance or installations to the
earth (ground) is called Earthing or Grounding.
In other words, to connect the metallic parts of electric machinery and devices to the earth
plate or earth electrode (which is buried in the moisture earth) through a thick conductor
wire (which has very low resistance) for safety purpose is known as Earthing or
grounding.
To earth or earthing rather, means to connect the part of electrical apparatus such as
metallic covering of metals, earth terminal of socket cables, stay wires that do not carry
current to the earth. Earthing can be said as the connection of the neutral point of a power
supply system to the earth so as to avoid or minimize danger during discharge of electrical
energy.

Methods and Types of Electrical Earthing

Earthing can be done in many ways. The various methods employed in earthing (in house
wiring or factory and other connected electrical equipment and machines) are discussed as
follows.

Plate Earthing:
In plate earthing system, a plate made up of either copper with dimensions 60cm x
60cm x 3.18mm (i.e. 2ft x 2ft x 1/8 in) or galvanized iron (GI) of dimensions 60cm
x 60cm x 6.35 mm (2ft x 2ft x ¼ in) is buried vertical in the earth (earth pit) which should
not be less than 3m (10ft) from the ground level.
For proper earthing system, follow the above mentioned steps in the (Earth Plate
introduction) to maintain the moisture condition around the earth electrode or earth plate.
Pipe Earthing:
A galvanized steel and a perforated pipe of approved length and diameter is placed
vertically in a wet soil in this kind of system of earthing. It is the most common system of
earthing.
The size of pipe to use depends on the magnitude of current and the type of soil. The
dimension of the pipe is usually 40mm (1.5in) in diameter and 2.75m (9ft) in length for
ordinary soil or greater for dry and rocky soil. The moisture of the soil will determine the
length of the pipe to be buried but usually it should be 4.75m (15.5ft).
Rod Earthing
it is the same method as pipe earthing. A copper rod of 12.5mm (1/2 inch) diameter or
16mm (0.6in) diameter of galvanized steel or hollow section 25mm (1inch) of GI pipe of
length above 2.5m (8.2 ft) are buried upright in the earth manually or with the help of a
pneumatic hammer. The length of embedded electrodes in the soil reduces earth resistance
to a desired value.
General Method of Electrical Earthing Installation (Step by Step)
The usual method of earthing of electric equipments, devices and appliances are as follow:
1. First of all, dig a 5x5ft (1.5×1.5m) pit about 20-30ft (6-9 meters) in the ground.
(Note that, depth and width depends on the nature and structure of the ground)
2. Bury an appropriate (usually 2’ x 2’ x 1/8” (600x600x300 mm) copper plate in that
pit in vertical position.
3. Tight earth lead through nut bolts from two different places on earth plate.
4. Use two earth leads with each earth plate (in case of two earth plates) and tight
them.
5. To protect the joints from corrosion, put grease around it.
6. Collect all the wires in a metallic pipe from the earth electrode(s). Make sure the
pipe is 1ft (30cm) above the surface of the ground.
7. To maintain the moisture condition around the earth plate, put a 1ft (30cm) layer
of powdered charcoal (powdered wood coal) and lime mixture around the earth
plate of around the earth plate.
8. Use thimble and nut bolts to connect tightly wires to the bed plates of machines.
Each machine should be earthed from two different places. The minimum distance
between two earth electrodes should be 10 ft (3m).
9. Earth continuity conductor which is connected to the body and metallic parts of all
installation should be tightly connected to earth lead. Make sure to use the
continuity by using continuity test.
10. At last (but not least), test the overall earthing system through earth tester. If
everything is going about the planning, then fill the pit with soil. The maximum
allowable resistance for earthing is 1Ω. If it is more than 1 ohm, then increase the
size (not length) of earth lead and earth continuity conductors. Keep the external
ends of the pipes open and put the water time to time to maintain the moisture
condition around the earth electrode which is important for the better earthing
system.
SI specification for Earthing
Various specifications in respect to earthing as recommended by Indian Standards are
given below. Here are few;
1. An earthing electrode should not be situated (installed) close to the building whose
installation system is being earthed at least more than 1.5m away.
2. The earth resistance should be low enough to cause the flow of current sufficient
to operate the protective relays or blow fuses. It’s value is not constant as it varies
with weather because it depends on moisture (but should not be less than 1 Ohm).
3. The earth wire and earth electrode will be the same material.
4. The earthing electrode should always be placed in a vertical position inside the
earth or pit so that it may be in contact with all the different earth layers.

protective devices
switch fuse unit
Switch Fuse Unit (SFU): Switch fuse is a combined unit and is known as an iron clad
switch, being made of iron. It may be double pole for controlling single phase two-wire
circuits or triple pole for controlling three-phase, 3-wire circuits or triple pole with neutral
link for controlling 3-phase, 4-wire circuits. The respective switches are known as double
pole iron clad (DPIC), triple pole iron clad (TPIC), and triple pole with neutral link iron
clad (TPNIC) switches.
For Two-wire DC Circuits or Single Phase AC Circuits: 240V, 16A, DPIC switch fuse 2.
For Three-Wire DC Circuits: 500V, 32A (63/100/150 or higher amperes), IS approved
TPIC switch fuse. 3. For Three-Phase Balanced Load Circuits: 415V, 32A (63/100/150 or
higher amperes), IS approved TPIC switch fuse.

A diagram representing switch-fuse control circuit.

Introduction to Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCBs)

All fuses need to be replaced with MCB “Miniature Circuit Breaker” for better safety and
control when they have done their job in the past. Unlike a fuse, an MCB operates as an
automatic switch that opens in the event of excessive current flowing through the circuit
and once the circuit returns to normal, it can be reclosed without any manual replacement.
MCBs are used primarily as an alternative to the fuse switch in most of the circuits. A wide
variety of MCBs have been in use nowadays with breaking capacity of 10KA to 16 KA,
in all areas of domestic, commercial and industrial applications as a reliable means
of protection.
What is Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)?

An MCB or miniature circuit breaker is an electromagnetic device that embodies a

complete enclosure in a molded insulating material. The main function of an MCB is to
switch the circuit, i.e., to open the circuit (which has been connected to it) automatically
when the current passing through it (MCB) exceeds the value for which it is set. It can be
manually switched ON and OFF as similar to normal switch if necessary.
MCBs are time delay tripping devices, to which the magnitude of overcurrent controls
the operating time. This means, these get operated whenever overloads exist long enough
to create a danger to the circuit being protected.
Therefore, MCBs don’t respond to transient loads such as switches surges and motor
starting currents. Generally, these are designed to operate at less than 2.5 milliseconds
during short circuit faults and 2 seconds to 2 minutes in case of overloads (depending on
the level of current).

Construction of MCB
An MCB embodies a complete enclosure in a molded insulating material. This provides
mechanically strong and insulated housing.
The switching system consists of a fixed and a moving contact to which incoming and
outgoing wires are connected. The metal or current carrying parts are made up of
electrolytic copper or silver alloy depending on the rating of the circuit breaker.
As the contacts are separated in the event of an overload or short circuit situation, an
electric arc is formed. All modern MCBs are designed to handle arc interruption processes
where arc energy extraction and its cooling are provided by metallic arc splitter plates.
These plates are held in a proper position by an insulating material. Also, arc runner is
provided to force the arc that is produced between the main contacts.
The operating mechanism consists of both magnetic tripping and thermal tripping
arrangements.
The magnetic tripping arrangement essentially consists of a composite magnetic system
that has a spring loaded dashpot with a magnetic slug in a silicon fluid, and a normal
magnetic trip. A current carrying coil in the trip arrangement moves the slug against spring
towards a fixed pole piece. So the magnetic pull is developed on the trip lever when there
is a sufficient magnetic field produced by the coil.
In case of short circuits or heavy overloads, strong magnetic field produced by the coils
(Solenoid) is sufficient to attract the armature of the trip lever irrespective of the position
of the slug in the dashpot.
The thermal tripping arrangement consists of a bimetallic strip around which a heater coil
is wound to create heat depending on the flow of current.
The heater design can be either direct where current is passed through a bimetal strip which
affects part of electric circuit or indirect where a coil of current carrying conductor is
wound around the bimetallic strip. The deflection of a bimetallic strip activates the tripping
mechanism in case of certain overload conditions.
The bimetal strips are made up of two different metals, usually brass and steel. These
metals are riveted and welded along their length. These are so designed such that they will
not heat the strip to the tripping point for normal currents, but if the current is increased
beyond rated value, the strip is warmed, bent and trips the latch. Bimetallic strips are
chosen to provide particular time delays under certain overloads.
Working & Operation of MCB
Under normal working conditions, MCB operates as a switch (manual one) to make the
circuit ON or OFF. Under overload or short circuit condition, it automatically operates or
trips so that current interruption takes place in the load circuit.
The visual indication of this trip can be observed by automatic movement of the
operating knob to OFF position. This automatic operation MCB can be obtained in two
ways as we have seen in MCB construction; those are magnetic tripping and thermal
tripping.
Under overload conditions, the current through the bimetal causes it to raise the
temperature of it. The heat generated within the bimetal itself is enough to cause deflection
due to thermal expansion of metals. This deflection further releases the trip latch and hence
contacts get separated.
In some MCBs, the magnetic field generated by the coil causes it to develop pull on
bimetals such that deflection activates the tripping mechanism.
Under short circuit or heavy overload conditions, magnetic tripping arrangement comes
into the picture. Under normal working conditions, the slug is held in a position by a
light spring because the magnetic field generated by the coil is not sufficient to attract the
latch.
When a fault current flows, the magnetic field generated by the coil is sufficient to
overcome the spring force holding the slug in position. And hence slug moves and then
actuate the tripping mechanism.
A combination of both magnetic and thermal tripping mechanisms are implemented in
most miniature circuit breakers. In both magnetic and thermal tripping operations, an arc
is formed when the contacts start separating. This arc is then forced into arc splitter
plates via arc runner.
These arc splitter plates are also called arc chutes where arc is formed into a series of
arcs and at the same time energy extracted and cools it. Hence this arrangement achieves
the arc extinction.