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Petroleum Ste Kno Lo Gijs G 2008
Petroleum Ste Kno Lo Gijs G 2008
LECTURE NOTES
Jon Steinar Gudmundsson
November 2008
INTRODUCTION (Petroleum Production Engineering)
- Flow and pressure in near wellbore formation
- Flow and pressure in well/tubing
- Wellhead and template conditions
- Flowline, from template to platform or terminal
- Processing subsea, platform or terminal
PRODUCTION WELLS
Deliverability
- Analyze and then synthesize
- Rate and pressure main parameters
- Reservoir performance
- Inflow performance
- Outflow performance, tubing performance
Pressure Profile and Pressure States in Reservoirs
- Pressure profile from rw to re, from well radius to outer boundary
k = permeability
= porosity
c = compressibility
h = reservoir thickness
rw = well radius
re = reservoir radius (radial system) e = exterior
pw = pwf well flowing pressure
pe = pressure at reservoir outer boundary
pR = reservoir pressure (volume average)
-
Darcys Law
u=
k dp
dr
q = uA
A = 2rh
Integrating from r and p to rw and pwf, thereby cancelling the minus sign.
p = pwf +
o qo Bo r
ln
2kh rw
q = qs.c. Bo
Bo =
V
Vs.c.
u = Darcy velocity = filtering velocity (based on the whole area; that is, not only on the
pore spaces)
Superposition
- The total pressure drop at any point in a reservoir is the sum of the pressure drops at
that point caused by the flow in each of the wells in the reservoir.
- The diffusivity equation describes the pressure distribution in a reservoir with time
and distance. The solutions to the diffusivity equation are linear; therefore can the
pressure values be added.
- The principle of superposition can also be used to take into account the presence of
faults, by using imaginary wells.
N p Bo = V p ct ( pi pR )
ct = c f + So co
pR = pi
qo Bo
t
Act h
ct is total compressibility = Soco+cf where S stands for saturation, f stands for formation.
If oil, gas and water are produced, the total compressibility is given by the expression
ct = c f + So co + S g cg + S wcw
qo =
2kh( pR pwf )
re
3 / 4 + s
rw
o Bo ln
-
Productivity index
qo = PI ( pR pwf )
PI =
2kh
re
3 / 4 + s
rw
o Bo ln
-
pwf = pR
o qo Bo re
ln 3 / 4 + s
2kh rw
The figure above shows the inflow performance of an oil well. At zero flow, the well flowing
pressure is similar to the reservoir pressure. With increasing kh the oil flows more easily into
the wellbore. The opposite applies to increasing skin, s.
Skin factor
- Damaged near wellbore formation, s >0
- Stimulated near wellbore formation, s<0
- Geometric skin or partial penetration skin, results from uneven flow path from
reservoir to perforations
- Deposits (BaSO4, asphaltenes), s>0
Deliverability
- Reservoir performance
- Inflow performance
- Outflow performance
Imagine two nearby wells in a heterogeneous reservoir. One of the wells is fully penetrating
while the other well is partially penetrating. The production tubing in the wells are identical.
Therefore, the reservoir performance and the outflow performance of the two wells are the
same, but the inflow performances are different; this due to geometric skin.
qg =
p
2kh Ts.c 1 e p
dp
re T ps.c pwf g z
ln
rw
Solution method, the pressure function, because gas viscosity and z-factor change with
pressure
F ( p) =
z
g
Specific/limiting solutions
Low pressure, pressure function increases linearly with pressure such that
2
" p" = pR2 pwf
High pressure, pressure function constant (same expression as for oil)
" p" = pR pwf
Outflow performance
- Outflow performance, also called vertical lift performance
- Pressure drop measured/calculated from wellhead to bottomhole (from pth to pwf)
- Analytical equations and/or wellbore flow packages can be used for calculations
- Each curve for each wellhead pressure (and, one production tubing design)
- Production rate given by point where inflow and outflow curves meet.
Reservoir temperature
- Fouriers Law, heat conduction (not convection)
- Temperature gradient with depth (heat flux constant)
q = kA
dT
dx
p = gL
-
gM
p = po exp
zRT
Well design
- Casing cemented from wellhead to bottom
- Casing perforated in oil producing formation(s)
- Production tubing inside the casing (annulus between)
- Packer at bottom of tubing to seal between casing and tubing
- Production through perforations and up the tubing.
- Downhole safety valve, typically at 200-400 m depth
10
Artificial lift
- Downhole pumping
- Gas lisft
Pumps
- Volumetric (piston pump)
- Dynamic (centrifugal)
o Rate depends on wheel diameter
o Pressure depends on number of wheels
Ideal pump power (W)
P = qp
Real pump power (W)
1
P = qp
All pumps must have high enough suction pressure, otherwise the liquid will begin to boil
upstream of the pump. This is expressed by NPSH (=Net Positive Suction Head), the head
necessary to prevent boiling.
In the oil industry where oil is to be pumped from a separator, the oil at the saturation point.
Pumps must therefore be place well below the separator. Bubbles can be made; when these
collapse, it is called cavitation, which eats away the metal in the pump.
11
Downhole pump or compressor can increase the flowrate (Accelerate Recovery) and/lor
increase the recoverable oil/gas (Increase Recovery).
12
Flow diagram, shows what equipment used (same process as shown above)
PID (Piping and Instrument Diagram) shows valves and instruments, also flow steam
number, with reference to tables with physical values
Flow diagram for Nyhamna and Kristin
13
Kristin Prosess
18.3 MSm/sd
210 bar
Fuel Gas
Scavenger, back-up
Meter
50C
Pcric <105 barg
31C
sgard Transport
GT
25C
26C
30C
30C
30C
Kristin
87 bar
121C
20000 Sm3/sd
67 bar
70C
26 bar
2 bar
Meter
sgard C
14
Surge control
m
k p2 k
P=
RT1
1
M
k 1 p1
p
T2 = T1 2
p1
k=
k 1
k
Cp
Cv
Product specifications
- Oil
TVP (true vapour pressure), RVP (Reid vapour pressure)
BS&W (basic sediment & water)
Temperature over pour point (wax)
Salt content (NaCl etc.)
Sulphur (H2S etc.)
- Water
Oil content, < 40 ppm when discharged to sea (more stringent regulations on
way)
Particles, < 50 g/m3
- Gas
Hydrocarbon (HC) dew point, 5-10 C under ambient
Water dew point, 5 C under HC dew point
Heating value, (GCV=gross calorific value)
Wobbe index (WI=GCV/ )
15
Natural gas at reservoir conditions contains water vapour, according to diagram shown
below (hand drawing of more accurate diagram from AGA). On production to the surface
and along flowlines, the pressure and temperature (main effect) will decrease. Thereby
reduces the solubility of water vapour in the natural gas and water condenses. This is
the condensed water that combines with natural gas to form hydrate.
16
T =
K x
M 1 x
M (kg/kmol)
32
62
106
150
58
K (-)
1297
1222
2425
3000
3000
(kg/m3)
800
1110
1120
-
Ud
T2 = T + (T1 T ) exp
L
mC p
17
Darcy-Weisbach equation for incompressible fluids (oil and/or water) for wall friction.
Friction factor f from empirical experiments.
f L 2
p f =
u
2d
Compressible fluids (gas), wall friction in horizontal pipe (not for vertical wellbore)
d A2 M
d p 22
2
2
p
p
ln + L = 0
2
1
f p12
f m 2 z RT
For typical long gas pipelines from Norway to the Continent and Great Britain, the
frictional pressure drop is on average 6 bar/100 km. It means that the natural logarithm
term is quite small and can be ignored. Thereby, for example, the diameter can be
found as the 5th root (note,A2 has d4).
-
Friction factor
Hydraulically smooth pipes, Blasius equation can be used for low Reynolds
number, Re < 105.
f =
0,316
Re 0, 25
Re =
ud
Pipes with rough walls, Haalands equation is recommended for general use.
6,9 n k 1,11n
1,8
= log
+
n
f
Re 3,75d
18
Material
Average
Absolut
Roughness
(inch)
0.20010-3
0.49210-3
1.1810-3
1.3010-3
1.3810-3
1.5010-3
2.1010-3
Average
Absolut
Roughness
(m)
5.1
12.5
30.0
33.0
35.1
38.1
53.3
Droplet mechanics
- TSV = terminal settling velocity, uD
- General theoretical equation for drops
19
4 gd
3 fD
uD =
uD = ks
L G
G
L G
G
uD =
gd 2 L G
18 G
When separation takes place in a hydrocyclon, for example, the gravitational constant g
can be replaced by (u2/r) where u is tangential velocity and r the hydrocyclon radius.
Gas capacity of separators
- Vertical separator
p Ts.c. 1
p
s
.
c
.
T z
(qG )s.c. = AG k s L G
Horizontal separator
qG = AG k s
L G L
G 6
0 , 58
pV = znRT
Gas density
20
n
(mol / kg ) = p
V
zRT
(kg / m3 ) =
pM
zRT
M (kg / kmol )
n = ns.c.
pV
p V
= s.c. s.c.
zRT zs.c. R Ts.c.
zs.c. = 1
p T
z
V = Vs.c. s.c.
p
T
s.c.
p T
z
q = qs.c. s.c.
p Ts.c.
Bg (=FVF gas) =
T ps.c.
V
z
=
Vs.c. Ts.c. p
21
APPENDIX
PVT (pressure-volume-temperature)
- Fasediagram
T
Tc
- Kays Rule (y is mole fraction)
pc = pci yi
Tr =
Tc = Tci yi
i
Corresponding states
z-factor diagram (Standing-Katz diagram, figure from Rojey o.a. 1997)
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