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Fundamentals of Radio Link Engineering - Path Engineering
Fundamentals of Radio Link Engineering - Path Engineering
1.0 Introduction
This paper introduces the fundamental elements involved in atmospheric propagation and lineof-sight microwave systems, which often inter-connect remote locations in todays voice or data
communications networks. These basics must be mastered before learning how to properly
design and implement a line-of-sight (LOS) microwave path. This information is crucial,
because the serial path that a point-to-point RF link system represents frequently becomes the
single-point-of-failure in the reliability model for the overall system.
Although many believe that establishing a line-of-sight radio link merely requires a visual lineof-sight between the antennas, this is not the case. It may be possible to establish very short
radio links using point-and-shoot methods, but the reliability of such systems is usually
unpredictable, and this approach is likely to result in system outages.
Creating reliable radio frequency line-of-sight systems generally requires path clearances greater
than those required in achieving visual line-of-sight. The amount of additional clearance
depends on the particular frequency at which the system operates.
2.0 An Overview of Microwave Radio System Planning
The process of establishing a reliable microwave system should include the following steps.
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Step 4:
Step 5:
Step 1: The preliminary feasibility engineering study. Based on topographical map work and
customer-provided coordinates or site locations, this engineering documents assumptions that are
made to determine whether a microwave path is feasible. It does not involve any site visits or a
field path survey. These studies can appear quite detailed to the inexperienced, which may tempt
them to use the information for implementation of the systemwithout any further engineering.
While they may get lucky occasionally, in most cases they will end up regretting that decision.
Step 2: The site survey. Frequently combined with other pre-sales visits to the prospective
customer, this survey identifies where equipment will be installed at each end of the link. It also
documents cabling, powering, and grounding requirements, so that installation costs can be
determined, based on assumed equipment installation locations.
Step 3: The field path survey. Although this step is strictly path related, it might be possible to
combine it with Step 2, during a single visitif the system involves a very short path that can be
visually verified and if a qualified engineer is available to perform both functions. Longer paths
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frequently require more than one virtual day. That means it either requires two or more days
in the field, or more than one person will be needed to complete the work in one day.
Step 4: Final system engineering. This work can only be performed after the previous steps
have been completed and the results are documented.
Step 5: The fixed-price quotation. This quotation can only be developed based on the outcome
of the previous steps. For example, the antenna height requirements could significantly affect
system costs or result in a zoning impact that requires mitigation or renders the system
unfeasible.
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Frequency
Wavelength
Free-space Loss
Precipitation Loss
Antenna Gain
Antenna Beam-width
Fresnel zones
Phase Relationships
Multi-path Reflections
Atmospheric Refraction
Earth Bulge
These elements must be clearly understood before attempting to undertake the design of a
mission critical line-of-sight microwave radio link.
3.1 Frequency
Frequency is measured in terms of the number of events in a given time duration. The moon
completes a single cycle in about a monthor a frequency of approximately 12 cycles per year.
The human auditory system can detect cyclical barometric pressure changes occurring at rates
between 20 to 20,000 cycles per second. It is interesting to note that low frequency sounds tend
to propagate in a less directional manner than high frequency sounds, as evidenced by the low
frequency boom, boom we can hear (or feel) from a high-powered audio system three cars
away at a signal light. High frequency sounds tend to propagate in a more directional or lineof-sight manner than lower frequencies, and they are, therefore, attenuated to a larger degree by
obstructions. This difference explains why the low frequency output from a woofer appears to
be omni directional and can be easily heard around the corner in the next room, while the highest
frequency sounds from a tweeter are usually not audible unless one is situated in front of the
speaker.
This same characteristic applies to radio frequency signals, particularly signals in the microwave
frequency range where most wireless broadband communication systems operate. Since
microwave frequencies have short wavelengths, they generally require a line-of-sight (LOS)
propagation path. They also need clearance for what is referred to as the 1st Fresnel zone,
whose boundaries vary with the frequency and wavelength of the specific system.
Fresnel zones will be discussed in depth later in this paper. For now, the key point to remember
is that the 1st Fresnel zone is a boundary surrounding the signal path between the two antennas
which requires additional clearance beyond simple visual line-of-sight. This extra clearance is
needed because the wavelength of visible light is extremely short, compared to microwave
frequenciesapproximately 0.55 microns, or 0.0000216 inches. This results in a 1st Fresnel
zone boundary that is virtually non-existent for a visual line-of-sight path.
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At microwave frequencies, however, wavelength is considerably longer (4.92 inches at 2.4 GHz
and 2.036 inches at 5.8 GHz). The resulting 60% 1st Fresnel zone boundaries range from
approximately 3 feet, for a 528-foot-long, 5.8 GHz path, to over 57 feet for a 15-mile-long, 2.4
GHz path. By including the clearance needed for 60% of the first Fresnel zone, radio frequency
line-of-sight differs significantly from visual line-of-sight.
3.2 Wavelength
To be able to solve radio system engineering problems, you need to understand wavelength.
Wavelength is related to system frequencies and is an important factor in determining free space
loss, antenna gain, and Fresnel Zone boundariesas well as the phase relationship between two
signals.
Electromagnetic waves propagate at the speed of light (in free-space or a vacuum), or
300,000,000 meters per second. As a result, wavelength in meters can be calculated by dividing
the number 300 by the frequency in MHz. To derive wavelength in inches, one can divide 11811
(the number of inches in 300 meters) by the frequency in MHz. From a practical standpoint, the
results of these formulae are approximate, since real-world electromagnetic waves propagate
through a medium, whether its the atmosphere, a conductor, or some other transmission
medium.
Our atmosphere consists of numerous gases and water vapor, each of varying density. These
materials slow the propagation of radio waves to approximately 99.97% of their speed in a
vacuum or free space. Coaxial cable slows the signal down even more. For example, Times
Microwave LMR 400 coaxial cable, which is commonly used in RF antenna systems, has a
velocity factor of 85%. This means that the RF signal transmitted through that particular cable is
slowed to 85% of its free-space velocity.
What does this have to do with wavelength? As shown in the following example, the density of
the transmission medium produces changes in radio wavelengths; similar to the way it affects
speed.
One 2400 MHz wavelength in free-space = 11811/2400 = 4.921 inches
One 2400 MHz wavelength in normal atmosphere = 11811/2400 x .9997 = 4.920 inches
One 2400 MHz wavelength in LMR 400 coax = 11811/2400 x .85 = 4.183 inches
These seemingly minute differences can be far more important than they seem at first, since
radio link systems have path lengths that are measured in miles. Over these distances, the minute
differences in each wavelength become very significant, because of the vast number of
wavelengths required to cover even a single mile.
This information may seem to contradict what we have all been taughtthat wavelength is
related to frequency and that for wavelength to become shorter, frequency has to go higher.
Although this principle is true, exceptions must be made when there are differences in
propagation velocity.
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Lets use the example of a fish swimming in a still lake. With every cyclical movement of its
tail, the fish moves forward in the water one meter. This establishes his wavelength (or linear
distance per cycle) at 1 meter. If the fish can complete and maintain 2000 tail cycles per hour,
then his frequency would be 2000 cycles per hour. With that frequency and wavelength, the fish
could cover a linear distance of 2000 meters in an hour, with 2000 cycles of tail movement.
Keep in mind, however, that this distance is achieved in still water, representing propagation in
free space.
Now, lets say the fish must swim out of the still lake and move upstream in a river flowing at 1
kilometer per hour. The fish would still complete 2000 cycles of tail movement in one hour, but
it would only cover a linear distance of 1 kilometer in that same time period. Its wavelength
under these conditions would now be meter in linear distance per cycle, rather than 1 meter as
in still water.
These same principals apply to radio signals propagating through mediums that modify their
propagation speed. As propagation velocity decreases, wavelength is shortened without a
corresponding change in frequency. If you keep this phenomenon in mind, it will help you
understand atmospheric refraction, which will be explained later in this document.
3.3 Free Space Loss
Free space attenuation, commonly referred to as path loss, and is dependent upon the frequency
of the system involved and the length of the signal path. Free space attenuation (or loss)
increases as frequency goes up, for a given unit of distance. This occurs because higher
frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and to cover a given distance; they must complete many
more cycles than lower frequency signals, which have longer wavelength. During each cycle
(wavelength) the signals propagate, some of their energy is spent. Consequently, the higher
the frequency (and shorter the wavelength), the more rapidly the signals weaken as they
propagate. Although the formula for computing free space attenuation assumes signal
propagation in a vacuum (outer space), the attenuation through the atmosphere is reasonably
similar.
The amount of free space attenuation can be computed using the following formula:
36.6 + 20 Log (F) + 20 Log (D)
Where:
F = Frequency in MHz
D = Distance in Miles
Example: A 2.4 GHz 5 mile path
Log (2400) = 3.380211 (x20) = 67.604225
Log (5) = 0.698970 (x20) = 13.979400
Path Loss = (36.6 + 67.604225 + 13.979400) = 118.183625 dB
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formula for computing parabolic antenna gain assumes 55% illumination efficiency of the
antennas capture area. The term illumination efficiency refers to the percentage of power
being radiated by the source at the antennas focal point that illuminates the antenna reflector
surface. This formula, shown below, results in gain figures that fall within the median
distribution of antennas available on the market:
7.5 + 20 Log (F) + 20 Log (D)
Where:
F = Frequency in GHz
D = Diameter in Feet
Example: A 2.4 GHz, 6 foot diameter, parabolic antenna
Log (2.4) = 0.380211 (x20) = 7.6
Log (6) = 0.778151 (x20) = 15.56
Parabolic Antenna Gain = (7.5 + 7.6 + 15.56) = 30.66 dBi
3.6 Antenna Beam-width
Antenna beam-width is another important antenna parameter, which is closely related to the
forward gain of an antenna. Since antenna gain results from redirecting available radiated
energy in a given direction, the higher the antenna gain of an antenna in its forward direction, the
lower its gain in other directions. Thats why larger antennas with higher gain are more
directional. Consequently, they are often used to solve interference problems when the
interference source may be located off-azimuth from the affected system path.
The beam-width of a parabolic antenna can be approximated with the following formula:
70/F x D
Where:
F = Frequency in GHz
D = Parabola diameter in feet
Example: A 2.4 GHz, 6 foot diameter, parabolic antenna
70/(2.4 x 6) = 4.86 degrees
It is important to realize that the beam-width of an antenna is merely the peak-to-peak angle of
the antennas power (or 3dB) point and not an absolute tight beam. If an antenna has 30 dBi
of gain and a 6-degree beam-width, then at +/- 3 degrees off the antennas beam peak, the
antenna still has 27 dBi of gain. From the standpoint of interference rejection, this specification
has little value. It only provides an industry-standard method of defining the antennas main
forward gain characteristics, nothing more.
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For interference engineering and analysis purposes, it is necessary to obtain accurate antenna
radiation pattern data from the antenna manufacturer, which includes antenna gain characteristics
out to +/- 180 degrees off the main gain lobe or beam. This data is required in both the vertical
and horizontal planes, since solution of interference problems frequently requires cross
polarization of the antennas with respect to the interference source. However, we will not
discuss the complexities of interference engineering in this document, since this topic probably
requires its own dedicated paper.
3.7 The Fresnel Zones
Creating RF line-of-sight for a microwave path requires more clearance over path obstructions
than is required to establish a visual line-of-sight. The extra clearance is needed to establish an
unobstructed propagation path boundary for the transmitted signal, based on its wavelength.
These boundaries are referred to as Fresnel zones. which are concentric areas surrounding the
direct path of the signal beam between the two antennas. To establish RF line-of-sight, it is
necessary to clear 60% of the 1st Fresnel zone boundary, from the signal beam centerline
outwards, across the entire signal path. Failure to do so will result in additional signal loss
caused by diffraction; the amount of loss will depend on the degree of Fresnel zone
encroachment.
Although we are primarily concerned with clearing 60% of the 1st Fresnel zone radius to avoid
signal diffraction loss, it is important to realize that Fresnel zones are infinite in number. Each
succeeding Fresnel zone has an exact wavelength relationship to the previous one, and the
distance separating each Fresnel zone diminishes as the Fresnel zone number increases. For
now, we can simply focus on the definition of the 1st Fresnel zone boundary, which is described
as follows:
The reflection point offset from a direct signal path, where the length of the reflected path is
exactly wavelength longer than the direct signal path. These boundaries can be calculated
with the following formula:
F1 = 72.1
d1 d 2
f D
Where:
F1 = First Fresnel zone radius in feet
d1 = Distance from one end of path to reflection point in miles
d2 = Distance from reflection point to opposite end of path in miles
D = Total length of path in miles
f = Frequency in GHz
A reflected path length that is exactly wavelength longer than the previous one defines the
succeeding Fresnel zone boundaries. Therefore, the boundary for any Fresnel zone radius can be
calculated directly using the following formula:
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Fn = 72.1
n d1 d 2
f D
Where:
Fn = Specific Fresnel zone radius in feet
d1 = Distance from one end of path to reflection point in miles
d2 = Distance from reflection point to opposite end of path in miles
D = Total length of path in miles
f = Frequency in GHz
n = number of specific Fresnel zone
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90
180
270
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Since atmospherically propagated radio signals can take many paths between one point and
another, as in the case of a multi-path reflected signal, it is possible for them to arrive at the
destination in different phase states.
As long as the signals travel a direct path between the antennas, they will arrive fairly closely in
phase with one another, as depicted by the red and green signals in the following drawing. In
this case, there will be no problem, because the two signals will add, resulting in an increase of
signal strength.
90
180
270
In the following example, however, the red and blue signals have a 180-degree phase (or
opposing) relationship with one another. This relationship frequently occurs in the case of a
multi-path reflected signal, causing the signals to cancel each other. The degree of signal
cancellation depends on the degree of phase opposition and the relative amplitude of the two
signals.
90
180
270
Obviously, these illustrations present extreme cases, but the results always follow the same
principle. Just as in-phase vectors add, opposing ones subtract.
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Atmospheric Refraction
In normal atmosphere near the earths surface, propagation velocity is approximately 99.997%
of that in free space. Under normal circumstances, atmospheric density decreases linearly with
altitude, resulting in a propagation velocity differential between the top and bottom of a wave
front. Since the upper part of the wave front propagates through less dense atmosphere than the
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lower part to which it is coupled, it propagates faster than the lower part. The result is a signal
path that normally tends to follow earth curvature, but to a lesser to a degree. The bending of the
radio signal path caused by differences in atmospheric density is referred to as atmospheric
refraction.
In radio engineering, atmospheric refraction is also referred to as the K factor, which describes
the type and amount of refraction. For example:
A K factor of 1 describes a condition where there is no refraction of the signal, and it propagates
in a straight line.
A K factor of less than 1 describes a condition where the refracted signal path deviates from a
straight line, and it arcs in the direction opposite the earth curvature.
A K factor greater than 1 describes a condition where the refracted signal path deviates from a
straight line, and it arcs in the same direction as the earth curvature.
Later, this document will explain the importance of the K factor in line-of-sight radio
engineering. For now, we are simply introducing the concepts of atmospheric refraction and the
K factor.
h=
d1 d 2
1 .5
h
d1
Where:
h=
d1 =
d2 =
d2
Data
Point B
point
Vertical distance from a horizontal reference line in feet
Distance from the data point to point A in miles
Distance from the data point to point B in miles
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Point A
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The data point shown in the example above happens to be the mid-path point, or maximum
physical earth bulge point, but it could be any point along the path.
Physical Earth Bulge reflects earth curvature only and does not take into account the effects of
atmospheric refraction. For purposes of line-of-sight radio link design, we must always combine
Physical Earth Bulge with the effects of atmospheric refraction, or K. When these two
parameters are combined, a modified earth bulge profile results, which is known as Effective
Earth Bulge. This modified profile, discussed in the following section, must be used in
determining path clearance.
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5. When K = Negative, the refractive signal path is an arc that exceeds physical earth
curvature (beyond K = infinity), and effectively reverses the curvature of the earth with
respect to the signal path, making its surface appear like a bowl.
The following formula can be used to compute effective earth bulge, in feet, at any data point
in a path. It includes the effects of the applicable K factor:
h=
d1 d 2
1 .5 k
h
d2
d1
Point A
Where:
h=
d1 =
d2 =
k=
data point
Point B
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The second effect of a change in refraction is that it alters the signal beam path and effectively
moves the signal beam off the far-end antenna. The effect would be similar to mis-aiming both
antennas for the duration of time that the refraction index is changed. Assuming that the
antennas were aimed with atmospheric conditions of K=4/3, the signal beam alignment would be
restored to the original conditions when atmospheric conditions of K=4/3 return.
Industry-standard practice in designing point-to-point microwave paths under 30 miles involves
factoring in refractive conditions of K=4/3 and K=2/3. Although atmospheric refraction can
exceed either of these values on occasion, these criteria virtually assure that path availability
objectives will be met, provided that adequate fade margin is designed into the system.
One exception might be a challenging path implemented over water or in a region subject to
temperature inversions and/or ducting. These systems typically require space diversity, which is
not supported by most products, which were specifically designed for building-to-building data
networking applications.
4.0 Summary
As you can see, much more is involved in reliable radio-link design than just establishing a
visual line-of-sight path between the two antennas of a line-of-sight radio link. Consideration
must be given to maintaining adequate clearance for the inner 60%, the invisible Fresnel zone,
while not allowing the reflection point on the path to be visible to both antennas. If visibility of
the reflection point cannot be avoided, then system designers must choose antenna heights that
will place the point on a non-reflective surface along the path, position it on an odd-numbered
Fresnel zone, and analyze where the reflection point may move within the range of possible
refraction conditions that can occur. In addition, path clearances must be checked under these
same conditions, since an increase or decrease in the height of path obstructions will occur,
depending on K factor. The physics of each individual path, and the atmospheric refractivity
conditions that can occur in the environment that the path is located in, will dictate what the
maximum reliable path distance will be. If the required path distance exceeds what can be
reliably achieved, some sort of space diversity path design will be required.
None of these problems are impossible to manage, and none of them fall into the category of
black magic. They are simply engineering issues that must be addressed by the designer of the
system. It is possible to effectively address them all up front, so that an accurate bill of materials
can be developed and quoted, proper antenna support structures ordered and put in place, and the
predicted level of system performance can be achieved when the system is installed and cut-over.
However, there are no short cuts to success in reliable microwave radio link design. A
systematic and detailed engineering approach is required to assure predictable results. By its
nature, engineering is a discipline of science and precision, not guesswork and shortcuts. Further
details of microwave path and system design will be provided in a separate paper.
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