CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Underground cables have been extensively used for power distribution networks
over the years (Roberto Benato, et al, 2010) This is because of their suitability for
underground connections, better security from activities of vandals and thieves,
and resistance to hazardous climatic conditions such as thunderstorms and
whirlwind (Roberto Benato, et al, 2010). They are cheap, easy to maintain and
environmental friendly (Abdulkareem A. et al 2016). They have reduced
maintenance and operating costs such as lower storm restoration cost. Also,
underground cables eliminate the menace of wind-related storm damage. They are
not subjected to destruction caused by flooding which usually spoil and interrupt
electric service (J. Densley, 2001). They ensure fewer transitory interruptions
through tree falling on wires or electric poles falling down thereby improving
public safety. Life-wire contact injuries are drastically reduced. It leads to the
elimination of unattractive poles and wires on the streets thereby enhancing the
visual range of the drivers and pedestrians on the streets.

To lessen the threat posed by environmental impacts on the highly sensitive

distribution networks, the underground high voltage cables are increasingly used.
Despite these advantages, locating faults in underground cables can be a very
cumbersome task. It is therefore very necessary to develop very efficient technique
for detecting faults in these cables. This Research is geared towards designing a
system that can locate the faulty points in an underground cable in order is to
facilitate quicker repair, improve the system reliability and reduced outage period

1
to the barest minimum. The underground cable system is very useful for
distribution mainly in metropolitan cities, airport and defense services.

When faults occur, the power flow is redirected towards the fault and the supply to
the neighborhood is impeded (B. Anderson 2016). Voltages turn out to be
destabilized. Timely detection of fault is highly essential in electrical cables. To
achieve this, the microcontroller is used in this Research to quickly detect four
main types of faults and give trip signal to relay. Our contribution in this Research
is the design and implement underground cable fault distance locator device that
can be used to detect faults in the line and isolate the connected system or
instrument connected to it. The device has the capacity to detect the type of fault
that has occurred in a faulty line. The Atmega328p microcontroller is used to
detect the fault through the designed circuit and it also displays on the LCD screen.
A relay circuit is also connected to the circuit to save the system from being
damaged by disconnecting the faulty circuit from the healthy one. The proposed
system works by first converting analog signals to digital signals. These signals are
generated by the microcontroller, the microcontroller will compare the input digital
signal of the ADC and will compare with the given set range of value, if the input
is above or below the range of set value, the microcontroller will send a signal to
the relay to trip the circuit and also send a parallel signal to the LCD to display the
type of fault that has occurred. Thus, the tripping and display of the fault type are
achieved in this Research. There are many ways to find the cable fault location.
This Research deals with the method to Locate Faults in a Damaged Cable. Before
fixing any fault in cables, the fault has to be identified first.

2
1.2 Types of common underground Cable Faults:

1. Open-Circuit Faults: Open circuit fault is a kind of fault that occurs as a

result of the conductor breaking or the conductor being pulled out of its
joint. In such instances, there will be no flow of current at all as the
conductor is broken (conveyor of electric current).
2. Short-circuit or cross fault: This kind of fault occurs when the insulation
between two cables or between two multi-core cables gets damaged. In such
instances, the current will not flow through the main core which is connected
to load but will flow directly from one cable to another or from one core or
multi-core cable to the other instead. The load will be short circuited.
3. Ground or earth faults: This kind of faults occurs when the insulation of the
cable gets damaged. The current flowing through the faulty cable starts
flowing from the core of the cable to earth or the sheath (cable protector) of
the cable. Current will not flow through the load then.

1.3 Advantages of Underground Fault Detector

The underground cable system installations are mostly carried out for economic
reasons amongst others. Some of the advantages of its installation are highlighted
below.

1. A greatly reduced probability of damage from weather conditions e.g. lightning,

winds, freezing, among others.

2. Underground cable system provides a reduced range of Electromagnetic Fields

(EMF) emission.

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3. Less components are installed alongside the underground cables. This is the
opposite in the use of overhead lines as more components are installed alongside
for safety, maintenance or repair.

4. Underground cable system reduces the probable hazard that could have been
imposed on flying aircraft and wildlife.

5. There are reduced chances of conductor theft, sabotage and illegal connections.

6. In environmental conscious countries, underground cable system provides

spaces for large trees to be planted and grow freely.

The advantages of underground system process can, in some cases, outweigh its
disadvantages generally. One of the most observed and more practical
disadvantage of underground system process is the fault location difficulty
whenever it occurs.

Fig 1.3 Part of underground cable

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1.4 Problem Statement

The frequent fault in underground electrical cables, poor workmanship at the time
of installation and difficulty in indicating the appropriate fault area has led to the
invention of underground cable detector. An underground cable fault detector is
supposed to determine the distance of the cable from the base station in kilometer.
However many researchers such as (B.Clegg 2017) used a method of underground
cable fault location and could not attain such distance. Another researcher known
as X.Yang used a method called line to ground fault location algorithm for
underground cable system, but was also faced with challenge of determining the
distance of the cable from the base station in kilometer. I therefore had to develop
a method of underground fault detector by using ULN2003a, 12v Relay, liquid
crystal(16x2),Atmega328p,Arduino IDE; this is to put the components in check in
other to meet with the challenging situation.

1.5 Significance of the Study

Underground cables constitute the heart of any distribution system such as the
power and communication utilities. This research work will help these utilities in
easy identification and location of underground cable fault without unearthing the
entire length of the cable before repair or replacing the entire cable due to
difficulties in detecting or locating the fault. The research will also help to reduce
the loss of revenue due to damage in trying to locate or detect faults and long
power down time will be reduced as minimum time will be used to restore supply.
Thus, the research will help to enhance the quality and reliability of the power or
signal delivered to the customers and also reduces. Thus, the research will help to
enhance the quality and reliability of the power or signal delivered to the customers

5
and also reduces cost of services to the customers. This project will also help
researchers for future work. The device is different from other previous devices
because it provides a cheap way of measuring an underground cable fault without
compromising it accuracy. This project can be used to detect underground cable
faults in various industries and underground communication lines.

1.6 Project Aims and Objectives

The aim of this project is to design and construct an underground cable fault
detector that is capable of locating the exact fault location of cable using Arduino
Uno R3. The objectives of this project are:

1. To design a low-cost method of detecting cable faults in underground cables

without compromising it efficiency.
2. To determine the extent of which resistance varies in cable of various
lengths and materials
3. To use Ardiuno R3 feedback pins for testing the resistance and length
variation of cable.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This project of underground cable detector construction extends it area to the basic
knowledge of electronics, physics and digital electronics, it uses semiconductor
electronic devices such as: Transistor, integrated circuits are also used or
configured in a manner to create such detecting system.

The scope of this study is to carry out a comprehensive research into the nature, the
working principles, the objectives and methodology of underground cable detector.

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The scope of these projects is;

1. Describe underground cable detector system and its component parts.

2. Design and implement the underground cable detector system that can
detect any electrical fault in the underground.

1.8 Structure of Report

This project report is divided into five chapters.

Chapter one is the introductory chapter where the proposed objectives,

Significance, expected benefits, scope and Statement of problem are discussed.

Chapter two of this research is aimed at reviewing the past works of other
researchers on this subject and how this research improves the previous researches.

Chapter three of this research work explains in details, the design and methodology
of the research work. The computation of values, working principles of the system
modules and circuit simulations, description of components and their features.

Chapter four focuses on results and data interpretation. The data retrieved from the
system output devices will be analyzed and interpreted accordingly. The
interpreted result will help maintenance teams in decision making and the
reliability of the system.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In order to achieve and test the Underground cable fault detection system, several
theories and techniques are needed to be reviewed through some past related
research work. The review includes the technology development and control
method used.
2.2 Review of Related Work

Over the years, researchers have made several efforts to design and implement an
electronic underground cable fault detector that will help to overcome the problems
as well as challenges encountered in the use of underground cables and detection
of faults that occurs in the underground cables but unfortunately, there were
limitations to their designs.

M.M. Amarnath, et al (2021) in the research “IOT based on underground cable

fault identification using Arduino” in April 2021. With the development and
advancement in technology, things changes. as technology helps us to understand
its importance like in urban areas, the electricity runs underground through
electrical cable instead of typical overhead lines, which occupies less space and is
considered as the most effective and efficient way of transmission but the problem
arises when a fault occurs in the underground cable and is also difficult to detect
the exact location of the fault during the process of repairing that particular cable
and the methods in existence till now follow some algorithm in order to identify
the location of the fault. We use IoT knowledge that allows the doyens to observer
and check faults over internet. The edifice advert fault with the help of likely

8
divider network laid across the cable. Faults are fast repair to revive back the
power system. Higher initial cost and insulation problems at high voltages.

Padmanaban Et al (2017) this research proposes fault location model for

underground power cable using microcontroller. The aim of this project is to
determine the distance of underground cable fault from base station in kilometers.
This project uses the simple concept of ohm’s law. When any fault like short
circuit occurs, voltage drop will vary depending on the length of fault in cable,
since the current varies. A set of resistors are therefore used to represent the cable
and a dc voltage is fed at one end and the fault is detected by detecting the change
in voltage using a analog to voltage converter and a microcontroller is used to
make the necessary calculations so that the fault distance is displayed on the LCD
display.

S. Y. King, N. A. Halfter, (2002) Developed a prototype that uses the idea of

OHMs law to detect faults in cables. The proposed system uses a set of resistors
representing cable distance in Kilo meters and fault detection is by a set of
switches at every Kilometer (kms) to validation the accuracy of the detection. The
type of fault at any particular distance is displayed on the LCD interfaced with the
microcontroller. Their work is only simulation as no design and construction work
is involved.
Butler-Purry, M. J. Mousavi and K. L,(2002) proposed a microcontroller based
underground cable fault distance locator. However, there was no evaluation to
know the performance of their proposed system.

A, Paulose et al (2016) worked on an underground cable measuring technique

using Murray loop test, this method uses a transmitter and receiver unit. in order to

9
determine the location of fault in a cable, first the cable is isolated from both the
feeder end and consumer end using a megger to check the types of fault in the
cable, after isolating the cable, the core and shielded from the underground cable
and it is then connected to the output controller of the transmitter unit, the
transmitter unit consists of step up transformer with output controller and delay
time for injecting a series of high voltage pulse streams into the faulted cable
shortly after the cable fault has been established. The receiver unit is traced along
the length of the cable. The fault in the UG cable produces arching which is
accomplished by high frequency noise. The effect of noise caused by arching
voltage is received by a receiver.
S.C Kor et al (2016) the research proposed a modify Murray loop test using a
GSM module which is an improvement of other authors work. The proposed
system is used to find out the exact location of the fault and send an SMS with
details to a remote mobile phone using GSM module.
All the above work has one limitation or the other. For this reason, we designed
and implemented a microcontroller based underground cable fault detector that is
capable of running on dual power supply i.e. AC mains supply as well as a DC
battery pack, and display results on an LCD module. This is an improvement on
the previous work available in literature. This design also runs on computer
software program because it uses an ATmega328p microcontroller that also
requires “sketch” or “source code.” Another advantage of this proposed system is
that it is cheaper when comparing to its Arduino based counterpart.
2.3 Present Research Work

The growing concern for safety and infrastructural proliferations in the densely
populated urban and suburban areas as well as the quest to preserve the aesthetic
values in many modern localities have necessitated the need for underground
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installations. The underground cabling installations are devoid of faults common to
the overhead transmission lines but are associated with certain kinds of faults such
as short circuit and open circuit faults. Locating the exact position of any of these
kinds of faults is very exhausting, costly and time-consuming because its power
distribution system is invisible. Hence, a microcontroller based underground cable
fault distance locator powered by Arduino is designed to detect and pinpoint
location of faults in underground cable lines. A basic ohm’s law is employed to
achieve the variation of current with respect to resistance that determines the
position of the fault. This device has a power supply unit, cable unit, control unit,
tripping unit and display unit. The power supply unit provides power to the other
components. The cable unit consists of a three-phase cabling system with switches
between each phase to activate faults. The control unit takes in signals from the
cable unit to cause control of tripping unit and display unit. The tripping unit then
detect the phase which encounters the fault and the display unit shows the fault
characteristics on the LCD. The distance to the fault is displayed, alongside the
phase which encounters the fault for easy clearance.

2.4 Fault Finding

Underground cables are used in 33kV, 11kV and 415V distribution networks.
Faults are major disturbance to the power system. Hence the need to locate the
faulty point in an underground cable in order to facilitate quicker repair, improve
the system reliability and reduced outage period. Power cable fault location
techniques are used in power system for accurate pinpointing of the fault positions.

The benefits of accurate location of fault are:

1. Fast repair to restore back the power system.

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 2. Improve the system availability and performance.
3. Reduce operating cost and save the time required by the crew searching in
bad weather, noisy area and tough terrains.

Various fault classification and location methods have been proposed and they can
be categorized as analytical methods, artificial intelligence (AI) based methods,
travelling wave methods and software based methods.

2.5 Ageing phenomenon of underground cables

As cable ages, deterioration is inevitable. Most utility components, especially

underground cables, have higher failure rates as time passes. N. H. Malik,et al
(1998). This deterioration is caused by thermal, mechanical, electrical and
environmental factors or combination of any of these factors T. Sandri. The
underground cable eventually fails due to persistence of the acting factor.

The activation of any of these factors could cause either an intrinsic aging, or an
extrinsic aging. Intrinsic aging occurs when the aging mechanism changes the bulk
properties of the material used for insulation. On the other hand, extrinsic aging
occurs when the aging mechanism causes degradation of the cable Butler-Purry,
M. J. Mousavi (2002). This degradation comes about by the persistent presence of
defects, contaminants, protrusions or voids and their intercourse with any of the
aging mechanisms. https://www.elprocus.com/what-are-the-different-types-of-
faults-in-electrical-power-systems/. (Accessed 02 03 2018).

Electrical stresses tend to be the most dominant ageing factor. Consequently, this
stress causes the underground cable to fail via partial discharge or water treeing
mechanism (that is, heightened by the presence of moisture) Butler-Purry, M. J.
Mousavi (2002). Water treeing activities is the major and the worst cause of cable

12
failures in organic extruded dielectric and cross-linked polyethene, in particular.
The cable encounters damages in its insulation in which the path of deterioration
resembles a tree. In dry insulators, the main cause of treeing is the presence of
partial discharge under high electric stress and water (or moisture) at low electrical
stresses. In laminated cables, treeing is caused by drying of oil and burning of the
insulating Researchs, leaving carbon deposits (carbon treeing). This forms a
conductive path through the dielectric material leading to cable failure. Generally,
they are formed by the presence of moisture, impurities, contamination and electric
field over time (Quora," Online Available). Treeing occurs in two forms: -

1. Bow-tie treeing

2. Vented treeing.

Bow-tie trees grow from the insulation outwards towards the surface; the growth is
in the direction of the electric field and in the both directions towards the two
electrodes. They exhibit faster initial growth rate, but don’t grow so large enough
to cause failure in insulation. Vented trees grow from the surface of the polymer
inwards towards the dielectric system. They also grow in the direction of the
electric field. However, they exhibit lower initial growth rate and can grow right
through the entire dielectric thickness. This type of trees tends to cause more
damage and, if not checked, lead to cable failure.

Nevertheless, reoccurring cable failures are caused by thermally aged insulation

breakdown. This is mostly observed in the Research insulated cables. Insulation
losses are increased by presence of moisture. This causes heat localization which
gradually degrades the Research insulation.

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2.6 Advantages

This includes aesthetics, higher public acceptance, and perceived benefits of

protection against electromagnetic field radiation (which is still present in
underground lines), fewer interruptions, and lower maintenance costs. Failure rates
of overhead lines and underground cables vary widely, but typically underground
cable outage rates are about half of their equivalent overhead line types. Potentially
far fewer momentary interruptions occur from lightning, animals and tree branches
falling on wires which de-energize a circuit and then re- energize it a moment later

Primary benefits most often cited can be divided into four areas: Potentially-
Reduced Maintenance and Operating Costs:

1. Lower storm restoration cost Lower tree-trimming cost

2. Increased reliability during severe weather (wind- related storm damage will
be greatly reduced for an underground system, and areas not subjected to
flooding and storm surges experience minimal damage and interruption of
electric service.
3. Less damage during severe weather
4. Far fewer momentary interruptions
5. Improved utility relations regarding tree trimming Improved Public Safety
6. Fewer motor vehicle accidents
7. Reduced live-wire contact injuries
8. Fewer Fires Improved Property Values:
9. Improved aesthetics (removal of unsightly poles and wires, enhanced tree
canopies) Fewer structures impacting sidewalks

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Areas of Applications

Underground cable faults find it application in the following areas:

i. Urban Area

ii. Suburban Area

2.8 Underground cable faults

Faults, if not attended to, tend to cause adverse or drastic effects on the workings
of power systems in a number of ways. They cause an abnormal increase in voltage
or current levels at specific points of the system, and this rise shortens the life span
of the equipment. Faults also cause instability of the power system, causing three-
phase equipment to operate abnormally. Faults are also liable to cause dangers to
personnel and could also start a fire (B. Anderson). Therefore, it is expedient that
a fault be disconnected or cleared as soon as it occurs, in order to maintain normal
working conditions of the rest of the system.

As earlier seen, lengthy transmission lines are victims of environmental

topography, giving it an increased fault probability. These faults are broadly
classified to shunt and series faults. Shunt faults, however, have higher chances of
occurrence (e.g. single line-to-ground fault). These faults can be caused by
lightning, trees growing on lines, among others.

Generally, faults in power systems can be broadly categorized into two, which are
symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults. Symmetrical faults are faults that
occur in a power system without causing an imbalance of the system (i.e. the
phases still maintain phase angles of 120° between the phases). This type of faults
rarely occurs and exhibits a large amount of current flow. An example of

15
symmetrical fault is when the three phases are short circuited to earth (G. Ojha, A.
G. Roy and R. Verma).

Unsymmetrical faults occur on one phase or two phases. An unsymmetrical fault

causes an imbalance in the power system (i.e. the phases are no longer separated
by a phase angle of 120°). They occur between phases or between phase (or
phases) and ground (K., Padmanaban et al).

Faults, whether symmetrical or unsymmetrical, are unsafe to the power system and
personnel alike. They are usually caused by persisting ageing mechanisms and
other factors. Some of these factors are: -

1. Poor workmanship.
2. Inherent defects during manufacture.
3. Damage by improper handling.
4. National Electric Energy Testing, Research & Applications Center
(NEETRAC) by Georgia Institute of Technology estimated 42.7% of
outages to faulty splices and terminations.

2.9 Types of underground faults

2.9.1 Short Circuit and Earth Faults

Short circuit faults decrease impedances but increase phase angle. This, however,
depends on the distance of the fault from the source. Short circuit faults closer to
source reduces impedance dramatically and increases fault current, therefore
making it hazardous in nature (P.S. Pooja et al 2015). They could be as a result of
a damage in the cable insulation and causes overheating of conductors. Usually,
arcing occurs at the point of fault or an area close the fault location. Earth faults,

16
on the other hand, are the most common faults in power system. This type of fault
occurs when a current carrying conductor comes in contact with the lead (or
metallic) sheath, which transfers current to the earth (Sawatpipat P. et al 2010).
These faults manifest themselves in several ways.

2.9.2 Open Circuit Faults

These types of faults are also called ferro-resonance (Victory, Itodo Friday, et al
2012). This ferro-resonance causes very high voltage level across transformer
windings and from line to ground. The voltage level is so high, it could damage the
insulators and windings of the transformer. However, no current flows through the
open circuit, making it less hazardous to personnel. An example of this is a loose
joint connection or a broken conductor, usually caused when cable has been
stretched beyond its limit (Sawatpipat P. et al 2010). It can also be caused by a
malfunction of a protective device (e.g. circuit breaker, fuses, etc.). Open circuit
faults isolate the load side from the generation or supply side and could cause an
imbalance in the system (P.S. Pooja . M. Lekshmi, 2015)

2.10 Fault detection techniques

Faults have negative effects on power system as a whole. They constitute a major
fraction of losses in the power system (Akash Jagtap, 2013), and also pose a hazard
to instrument and personnel. Therefore, it is necessary to locate and rectify a fault
as soon as it is detected. Apart from reduced reliability, cable faults tend to be
costly. Detection of these faults quickly would, not only save working time, but
also play a part in loss of revenue for the power company (S. Y. King, 1993)
Structural changes and reviewed policies have put the power sector in a position
where they give customers quality and reliable supply of electrical power at

17
reduced costs. This place power companies in positions where they can condone
only a very small amount of losses and also, to optimize their maintenance culture
as much as possible.

There have been permanent and fully functional methods for locating faults on
overhead distribution lines. On the contrary, this is not the case for underground
distribution lines, as methods required to perform the fault location are still in
development and implementation stages. This doesn’t stand to meant that there are
no functional means by which underground distribution cable faults could be
located in the power sectors. However, researches are being conducted to discover
a means in which these faults can be located easily, in no time and with little side
effects on the service old cables S. Y. King, 1993.

Protective equipment is installed in power stations in order to clear faults or to

isolate vital equipment from adverse effects due to the fault. In the event where
actions protective equipment is unable to rectify a fault, it is necessary for skilled
personnel to locate and clear the fault manually. Basically, three steps are involved
when clearing a fault;

1. Fault localization.

2. Fault detection.

3. Fault clearing.

Fault localization is the process of fault location where the entire cable is examined
and a hypothesis is made for the faulty region. Sectionalizing is a widely used
method of fault location, in which the cable is cut and spliced physically into
smaller lengths in order to identify the faulty area. Fault detection aims at

18
confirming a fault is present, meanwhile, fault location aims at discovering the
exact physical location of the fault (S. Y. King, 1993.

When clearing a fault, it is of utmost importance that the exact location of the fault
be found.

There are mainly two means of fault location;

1. Online method and

2. Offline method.

The online method employs the voltage and current levels which have been
sampled, to determine the exact location of the fault (Abdulkareem A., C.O.A
Awosope, 2016). This method has its applications mainly in underground cables as
compared to overhead lines.

Offline method is performed with the aid of some dedicated instruments. These
instruments are used to test for the service of the cable [20]. There are two major
methods used based on offline location method.

a. Tracer method.
b. Terminal method.

Tracer method- This is the most widely used method by power stations generally.
It involves walking along the cable route. Here, fault location is identified from
acoustic or electromagnetic signals. It indicates the exact location of the fault
Abdulkareem A., C.O.A Awosope 2016. Application of this method can be seen
in Tracing coil method and Sheath coil method.

19
Terminal method- it involves the identification of a range for the fault location
from one or both ends of the cable. The objective of the terminal method is to
identify a general area of the fault so as to quicken tracing process [20].
Applications of the terminal method can be seen in Murray Bridge loop method
and Impulse current method Abdulkareem A., C.O.A Awosope 2016.

2.11. Murray Bridge Loop Method

This is the simple basic method to localize cable fault testing using basic
equipment that obtain easily. These tests are performed for the location of either
earth (open) fault or short circuit fault in underground cable. In these tests the
resistance of fault does not affect the result obtained except when the resistance of
the fault is very high. There are two loop test usually used. Theses test imply the
principle of Wheatstone bridge.

The necessary connection of the Murray loop test is shown in the figure below.
The figure 1 shows that the circuit connection for finding the fault location when
the ground fault occurs and figure 2 shows the circuit connections of finding the
fault location when the short circuit occurs.

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 Fig 2.11 Murray loop Underground Cable Fault Locator

2.12 Conclusion

The Underground cable fault detection System project required extensive research
into previous related works. By reviewing others work, this insight was used to
develop our system. To this end, research from various Underground cable fault
detection System were used as guides in the development of this work.

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 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter deals with the conceptual process followed in the design of the
Underground Cable Fault Detector, the actual design by analytical approach which
led to the determination of some components used in the project was reviewed.
The explanations on this chapter are achieved with the help of block diagrams and
circuit diagrams.

3.2. Block Diagram of the System

In this design, the building block or the working principle of the system is
evidently presented using a simple block diagram, as you can see below,

DISPLAY UNIT

POWER SUPPLY MICROCONTROLLER CABLE LINES

UNIT UNIT

Fig 3.3.1: Block diagram of power supply

3.3 Description of block diagram of the system

The block diagram consists of;

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 1. Power supply unit
2. Display unit
3. Micro controller
4. Cable lines

3.3.1 Power supply

The power supply of the circuit, is a different circuit all together. In order to make
construction work lots easier, we used a 5volt power regulator or any compatible
5volts adapter though we can choose to build our stand by power supply and it
constitute of the simple block diagram presented below;

AC
STEP FILTER
FULL
DOWN
BRIDGE
RECTIFIER

REGULATOR

Fig 3.3.1: Block diagram of power supply

The circuit below, further elaborates the block diagram above;

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 Fig 3.3.1.: circuit diagram of the power supply

3.3.2 AC Step down TRANSFORMER

The transformer device is used to bring or step down the incoming AC grid line
voltage which is 220v AC down to 12v AC, for the proper working functionality of
the rest of other passive components in the system.

For calculation the transformer rating of the power supply unit, we use the
specifications of the transformer used. Transformer ratings:
Vrms = 12v
Irms = 500mA
(1)
= 12 x √
16.97v
(2)
= 500mA x
= 707mA
The load resistance of the entire circuit RL, is given by:

(3)

RL 24
Voltage after rectification is given by;

(4)
where VD is the voltage drop across the two diodes of the positive half
cycle of the bridge rectifier circuit (VD = 0.7)

24
 Current after rectification, Idc is given by:
(5)

The filter capacitor (C1) is designed to hold the peak to ripple voltage
at approximately 10% of the voltage. Therefore,
(6)

To obtain the value of capacitor C1, we use the equation;

(7)
Where 2.4 is a constant value.

= 0.554 farads, C1 = 554

But a standard value of 1000 was used for the construction of the
power. In order to supply the ATmega328p Microcontroller with the
required + 5v, a LM7805 voltage regulator was used. The minimum
input voltage required by the LM7805 voltage regulator is given by;
Vin = Vout + 2
Vin = 5 + 2 = 7v
This means that the minimum input required by the LM7805 to
produce an output of 5v is 7v.

3.3.3 Full bridge rectifier circuit

The full bridge rectifier circuit, comprises four set of semiconductor device known
as diode, which is basically configured in such a manner that the stepped down AC
25
voltage from the transformer device, will be easily converted into a DC voltage, in
order to suit the operational working of the system.
3.3.4 Filter

The filter circuit in this system, constitute of a simple electrolytic capacitor, which
is connected across the converted DC voltage from the transformer. The filter
network serve the basic purpose to smooth out ripple that made their way out of the
DC output, and to ensure a constant dc voltage output, all through the whole
process of power supply.

3.3.5 Voltage regulator

The surge effect in most electronics is quite bad and destructive in nature and in
this system, we would not like the same effects of surge prevailing in the system,
and in order to subdue these effects, we integrate the use of voltage regulator 7805,
to protect our system from any sudden surge that might likely surface.
The regulator also provides the actual voltage requirement of the sensor we are
using in this project and hence 5volt rating.

3.4 Microcontroller Unit ( MCU)

The processor circuit in this system comprises of the programmable IC

ATmega328, which is commonly found in arduino uno board. The chip is the main
building processor of the system, as it takes information from the sensor and stores
it via its register and further utilizes the data to control the output alarm system.

The micro controller is further programmed to respond by sending a notification

massage immediately it gets its information from the receiver module. This process

26
of the micro controller aids an instant notification once there is a change in the
water level. Either when the water level is low, and when the water has reach it
maximum level.
3.5 Display Unit

The fault occurring at what distance and which phase is displayed on a 16

character, 2-line alphanumeric LCD display interfaced with the microcontroller.

3.6 Circuit Diagram of the System

Fig 3.6 Circuit diagram of Underground cable fault detector

3.7 Components Specification

The right components were selected based on their design specifications,

durability, availability and reliability in order to achieve the construction
objectives. Some of the major components are outlined here:

1. Arduino controller: ATMEGA 328P

27
 2. Buzzer
3. 12V Adapter
4. Regulator: LM7805
5. 12V Relay
6. Crystal oscillator :16MHZ
7. Capacitors: 100uf 50v, 22pf
8. Led
9. Resistor: 1K and 10K
10.Vero board: dotted
11.IC socket
12.Switch

3.7.1 The ATmega328p Microcontroller

The ATmega328p microcontroller is a 28pin, 8-bit microcontroller with 32kb flash

memory with read-while-write capabilities. The ATmega328p microcontroller is
shown in fig

28
 Fig.3.7.1 ATmega328p microcontroller

The ATmega328p microcontroller has an endurance of 1000 write/erase cycle

which means that it can be erased and programmed to a maximum of 1000 times
without being damage or destroyed. The ATmega328p microcontroller is
sometimes referred to as the Arduino based microcontroller because of its
popularity on the Arduino board.

3.7.2 LM7805 Voltage Regulator

The LM7805 voltage regulator is a fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuit
(IC). It belongs to the family of the 78xx. The xx is output voltage. The 7805 has
an output voltage of 5v, others like 7812 have output shown in figure 7

Fig 3.7.2 voltage regulator

The LM7805 is used to supply a regulated + 5v supply to the ATmega328p

microcontroller.

3.7.3 Buzzer

A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical,

electromechanical, or piezoelectric. Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include
29
alarm devices, timers and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or
keystroke. Early devices were based on an electromechanical device to an electric
bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay maybe connected to interrupt its
own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz. Often these units were
anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word ‘buzzer’
comes from rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made. Buzzer is mainly
used as warning tone and alarm sound. As an acoustic component with integrated
structure, buzzer supplies power with DC voltage. And it is widely used in
computers, printers, duplicator, alarm, digital toy, car electronics device, telephone
stopwatch.

Fig 3.7.3: Buzzer

Applications of Buzzer

Applications of buzzer includes;

1. Electronic metronomes
2. Game show lock out device
3. Microwave ovens and other household appliances
4. Sporting events such as basketball games
5. Electrical alarms

30
3.7.4 12V Relay

Relays are switches that open and close circuits electromechanically or

electronically. Relays control one electrical circuit by opening and closing contacts
in another circuit. As relay diagrams show, when a relay contact is normally open
(NO), there is an open contact when the relay is not energized. When a relay
contact is Normally Closed (NC), there is a closed contact when the relay is not
energized. In either case, applying electrical current to the contacts will change
their state. Relays are generally used to switch smaller currents in a control circuit
and do not usually control power consuming devices except for small motors and
Solenoids that draw low amps. Nonetheless, relays can "control" larger voltages
and amperes by having an amplifying effect because a small voltage applied to a
relays coil can result in a large voltage being switched by the contacts. Protective
relays can prevent equipment damage by detecting electrical abnormalities,
including overcurrent, undercurrent, overloads and reverse currents. In addition,
relays are also widely used to switch starting coils, heating elements, pilot lights
and audible alarms.

Figure 3.7.4: 12V Relay

31
3.7.5 The Display using LCD 16x2 (Lm016l)

The project requires a display system in order to enable its user to see whether an
open circuit or short circuit fault has been introduced by the switch. LM016L is a
16 x2 crystal liquid display (LCD), hence, it has two rows and each can
accommodate 16 characters. To control the backlight of the LCD, a fixed 2200
ohm resistor was used to set the backlight to a brightness level rather than using
variable resistor to allow user to set it. This help to avoid damage to the LCD and
avoid setting it to the level where characters cannot seen. RS,EN,D4,D5,D6, and
D7 were connected to pin 11,10,9,8,7, and 6 as shown in the circuit diagram.

Fig 3.7.5 Crystal Liquid Display Board

3.7.6 Resistor

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element. Resistors act to reduce the current flow and at the
same time act to lower voltage levels within circuits. In electronic circuits resistors
are used to limit current flows, to adjust signal levels, bias active elements,
terminate transmission lines among other uses. Fixed resistors have resistances that
only change slightly with temperature, time or operating voltage. Variable resistors
can be used to adjust circuit elements (such as a volume control or a lamp dimer)
32
or as sensing devices for heat, light, humidity, force or chemical activity. Resistors
are common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuit.

Fig 3.5.1: below shows the physical representation of a resistor.

Fig

Resistors can be made from carbon compositions molding from metal wire wound
in a form or from semi-conductor elements similar to field effect transistor. The
unit of the resistor is ohms (Ω) which can be defined as the resistance of a circuit
which a current of 1 amperes generate heat at a rate of 1 watt. If V represents the
potential difference in volts across the circuits having resistance R in ohms
carrying a current I in amperes, the relationship is thus:

V¿ IR;

V
Hence, R ¿ I

33
Resistors can be connected either in series or in parallel in an electric circuit. When
resistors are connected in series, their total resistance is equal to the sum of
individual resistors connected together.

Therefore, the effective resistance R is calculated thus;

R1×R2
R = R 1+ R 2

1 1 1 1
For “n” number of resistors in parallel, we have; R = R 1 + R 2 +…..+ Rn

After evaluations, the effective resistance is given as the inverse of I/R.

Most resistors have four (4) bands.

1. The 1st band gives the 1st digit

2. The 2nd band gives the 2nd digit
3. The 3rd band is the multiplier (number of zeros)
4. The 4th band is used to show the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits.

3.7.7 Capacitor

Capacitor is a component which has the ability or capacity to store energy in the
form of an electrical charge producing a potential difference (static voltage) across
its plates, much like a small rechargeable battery. Capacitors (sometimes known as
condenser) are energy-storing devices that are widely used in television, radio and
other kinds of electronic equipment.
In its basic form, capacitors consists of two or more parallel conductive (metal)
plates which are not connected or touching each other, but are electrically

34
separated either by air or by some form of a good insulating material such as
waxed Research, mica, ceramic, plastic or some form of a liquid gel as used in
electrolytic capacitors. The insulating layer between a capacitors plate is
commonly called the Dielectric

Fig 3.7.7 Capacitor

Due to this insulating layer, DC current cannot flow through the capacitor as it
blocks it allowing instead a voltage to be present across the plates in the form of an
electrical charge.

The conductive metal plates of a capacitor can be either square, circular or

rectangular, or they can be of a cylindrical or spherical shape with the general

35
shape, size and construction of a parallel plate capacitor depending on its
application and voltage rating.

There are two types of electrical charge, a positive charge in the form of Protons
and a negative charge in the form of Electrons. When a DC voltage is placed
across a capacitor, the positive (+ve) charge quickly accumulates on one plate
while a corresponding and opposite negative (-ve) charge accumulates on the other
plate. For every particle of +ve charge that arrives at one plate a charge of the same
sign will depart from the -ve plate.

Then the plates remain charge neutral and a potential difference due to this charge
is established between the two plates. Once the capacitor reaches its steady state
condition an electrical current is unable to flow through the capacitor itself and
around the circuit due to the insulating properties of the dielectric used to separate
the plates.

The flow of electrons onto the plates is known as the capacitors Charging Current
which continues to flow until the voltage across both plates (and hence the
capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to
be “fully charged” with electrons.

The strength or rate of this charging current is at its maximum value when the
plates are fully discharged (initial condition) and slowly reduces in value to zero as
the plates charge up to a potential difference across the capacitors

plates equal to the source voltage.

The amount of potential difference present across the capacitor depends upon how
much charge was deposited onto the plates by the work being done by the source
voltage and also by how much capacitance the capacitor has.

36
3.7.8 PCB and Connecting Wires

A printed circuit board (PCB) mechanically supports and electrically connects

electronic components using conductive tracks, pads and other features etched
from a copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. PCBs can be
single sided (one copper layer), double sided (two copper layers) or multi-layer
(outer and inner layers). Multi-layers PCBs allow for much higher component
density. Advanced PCBs may contain components (capacitors, resistors or active
device) embedded in the substrate. Printed circuit boards are used in all but the
simplest electronic products. It require additional design effort to lay out the
circuit, but manufacturing and assembly can be automated.

A connecting wire or a jump wire is a short electrical wire with a solid tip at each
end (or sometimes without them, simply ‘tinned’), which is normally used to
interconnect the components in the breadboard to the input / output pins of a micro
controller. Jump wires are fitted by inserting their ‘end connector’ into the slots
provided in the breadboard that beneath its surface has a few sets of parallel plates
that connect the slots in groups of row or columns depending on the area. The ‘end
connectors’ are inserted into the breadboard, without soldering, in the particular
slots that need to be connected in a specific prototype.

37
 Fig 3.7.8: Connecting Wires

3.7.9 Crystal Oscillator

A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that is used for the mechanical
resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material. It will create an electrical
signal with a given frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of
time for example wristwatches are used in digital integrated circuits to provide a
stable clock signal and also used to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and
receivers. Quartz crystal is mainly used in radio-frequency (RF) oscillators. Quartz
crystal is the most common type of piezoelectric resonator, in oscillator circuits;
we are using them so it became known as crystal oscillators. Crystal oscillators
must be designed to provide a load capacitance.

Fig3.7.9 Crystal Oscillator

38
 CHAPTER FOUR

TESTING AND RESULT

4.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter how the Underground cable fault detection construction
was carried out was explained, what components was used to construct it, its
functionality and what software was used to give it command and instructions. In
this chapter the details on how the Underground cable fault detection was tested
and how the results were achieved is explained.

4.2 Construction

In this particular aspect of the project, great care was taken bearing it in mind that
any wrong placement of component most especially on metal surface could lead to
the malfunction of the device. The components were assembled in accordance with
the circuit diagram one after the other to ensure accuracy of the design
specification. As soon as the circuit design was completed, the schematic diagram
was simulated using electronic work bench. This was done to ensure that the
circuit function well. It was then tested and to work according to the design. The
physical construction was started by arranging the components on the bread board
in accordance with the design schematic diagram. Each stage was constructed and
tests were carried out to ensured desired result. When the circuit on the previous
board was found to be working as expected, the components were transferred to
the Vero board, one after the other and stage by stage according to the project
layout and the power supply was build using the same procedure. Thereafter, all
the components were assembled on Vero board, ensuring that their terminals were

39
not bridge and properly soldered to avoid partial contact. Finally, the components
were all soldered onto the Vero board.

FIG 4.2 Construction Process

4.3 Testing

4.3.1 Power Supply Test

It is important to verify the performance of power supply. Issues with a power

supply can limit the performance of the project, and it even has the potential to
damage the fine electronics components. Proper and regular power supply testing
can help minimize this risk.

Input Power

40
The power provided by your power supply is the key factor, but the first parameter
to test is the voltage and current on the input side of your power supply. Verify the
input power supply falls in the operating range for your power supply as listed in
the specification or datasheet. Just like our sensors, an improper input voltage to a
power supply hinders proper operation whether you are using an AC/DC or a
DC/DC power supply.

Output Voltage Accuracy

The LED display (when applicable) on your power supply may read 5.00VDC, but
this may not always be accurate. Checking the accuracy of the output voltage with
a properly calibrated voltmeter is a great way to verify this output voltage. Strictly
speaking, you only need to verify that the output voltage is stable and within the
operating range of your device. However, you may wish to continue to calculate
the output voltage accuracy.

Noise & Output Ripple

Our sensors operate at peak performance when they receive smooth and clean
voltage with minimum noise and output ripple. Output ripple and noise are also
known as Periodic and Random Deviation (PARD). When there is noise on the
voltage entering the part, it gets added to the amount of noise the part sees.

Specifically, output ripple and noise can be split into separate factors. Noise is a set
of random high or low-frequency spikes to the power supply. Noise is best
mitigated by shielding the wires and operating as far from electrical noise sources
as possible. Output ripple is periodic where noise is random. Output ripple is a

41
periodic shift visible in the output voltage. This ripple is often generated by the
periodic nature of AC power.

Viewing the power supply with an oscilloscope is required to view both output
ripple and noise. Excess ripple or noise outside of a window that you would
typically see in a controlled environment will degrade sensor performance. When
testing the noise and output ripple the bandwidth should be sufficient to capture the
full cycle of any output ripple.

Additional noise can be picked up on the oscilloscope probe itself. Using the
shortest probe to ground length possible minimizes the amount of noise the probe
receives. Take care to minimize any error and noise that you may add to the
system.

4.3.2 Sensor Test

Datasheet information on sensors’ cross-sensitivities and their dependency on

meteorological parameters is often scarce. Even though all sensors undergo
laboratory testing and calibration, test settings only cover a few points in the
sensing range. Given the usually long list of sensor cross sensitivities, extensive
tests and sensor calibration is highly time-consuming and is, therefore, hardly
possible. To solve the problem, we propose a novel method that uncovers sensor
dependencies under deployment-related conditions. We ignore any prior
knowledge about the sensor, i.e., do not rely on any information given in the
datasheet, and treat the sensor as a black-box. We choose the observable universe
as a set of all relevant phenomena for a given application. Our testing methodology
consists of three steps depicted.

Standardization

42
All input traces are converted to a standardized representation with zero mean and
unit variance in order to get scale-invariant sensor traces and thereby scale-
invariant cross-sensitivity factors.

Inverse calibration

Multiple least-squares is used to regress the standardized measurements from the

phenomena in the observable universe U on the measurements of low-cost sensor
The resulting regression parameters give in-sights about the composition of the
sensor measurements, i.e., identifies cross-sensitivities of the sensor.

Error decomposition

The regression error ε is used as an indicator for missing phenomena in and

substantial sensor noise of z. We distinguish the latter on the frequency
characteristics of physical phenomena and, therefore, can decompose the error by
applying a low-pass filter.

4.3.3 Circuit Simulation

Circuit simulation is a process in which a model of an electronic circuit is created

and analyzed using various software algorithms, which predict and verify the
behavior and performance of the circuit. Since fabrication of electronic circuits,
especially integrated circuits (ICs), is expensive and time-consuming, it is faster
and more cost-effective to verify the behavior and performance of the circuit using
a circuit simulator before fabrication.

43
This provides us with a critical view into the behavior of electronic circuit. Given
the expense and time involved in designing electronic circuits, it’s much more
practical to validate circuit behavior and performance via circuit simulation.

4.3.4 Test on the Microcontroller Unit

All relevant information including the pin configuration of the microcontroller was
elaborated in the previous chapter. The microcontroller is the heart of the system
because it controls the activities of all other units of the Research. The
microcontroller was tested using the digital multi-meter and all pins are tested to
ensure that there is no break in continuity of the pins or a faulty contact between
two or more pins of the microcontroller.

4.3.5 Test on the LCD Display Unit

The LCD display unit consist of an LCD module which is also tested using the
digital Multi-meter to ensure that there is no discontinuity in the internal circuitry
of the LCD (open circuit test) and also to ensure that there is no faulty joint of the
pins internally (short circuit test) before connecting it with the project circuit. This
step is very important because the LCD is directly connected to the microcontroller
if it is faulty or damage it could automatically damage the microcontroller too or
make it to malfunction.

44
4.5 Test On The Software Program

In an effort to achieve a successful operating hardware in a project that makes use

of set of instructions, software design and development is very vital. The software
design structure that allows right know-how of the system architecture, detailing
more on which device plays as an input to the system and output from the system.
Despite the fact that, systems hardware cannot function properly without software
programmed installed in the memory. However, on this project software
development and implementation, software programming is a specification
employed to permit the microcontroller read inputs and decide output or logical
action according to the instruction given.

4.6 Result

Table 1

S Open Circuit Short Circuit Test Result

N
1 Power Supply
Ok Ok Ok
2 Microcontroller Unit
OK OK OK
3 Display Unit
OK OK OK
4 Software Program
NIL NIL OK

The results of the tests performed above suggested that the system sub-units are
effectively designed and regard to the system as a whole. After completing all the
various units, the project was cased in a plastic casing for compact presentation.

45
The project operates on mains power supply but also has an alternative source of
power from a battery.

4.7 Conclusion

Considerable efforts have been put into the issue of fault location in an
underground cable power infrastructure. However, a simple ohm’s law-based
technology has been developed to easily locate faults in an underground power
cable layout and invariably helps to easily clear the faults, preserve aesthetics,
reduce time duration, drudgery, and optimize cost.

The progress made in the underground cable detector design can induce high
penetration of the underground cable technologies into the major cities of the
developing countries to minimize environmental disasters associated with
overhead transmission lines.

46
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

This project, we design and implemented a microcontroller based underground

cable fault detector. We have successfully designed, implemented and tested a
cheap underground cable fault detector. Our proposed method can detect both open
and short circuit in underground cables with a maximum distance of 2km. In the
future, effort will be concentrated to increase the maximum distance for fault
detection to 3km or more, and a graphical display monitor to improve on its
information of the underground cable fault could replace the LCD display.

6.2 Recommendations

With respect to the performance of this prototype system, it is recommended that

the actual construction of the underground fault detector system should have an
alert system to indicate the location of fault whenever it detects one and also to
incorporate the automatic switching of the device whenever the distribution system
trips off.

47
 REFERENCES

M.M. Amarnath, B. Ganesh Ram, Mr. V. Chandrasekaran, Mr. G. Mohan Ram,

“IOT Based On Underground Cable Fault Identification Using Arduino” in
April 2021.
Roberto Benato, Antonio Paolucci, EHV AC Undergrounding Electrical Power
(Power Systems), 2010.
Abdulkareem A., C.O.A Awosope, A.A Awelewa “The use of three-phase fault
analysis for rating circuit breakers on Nigeria 330KV Transmission
Lines”. Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 11(12): 2612-2622,
2016.
[Online]. Available: http://www.emfs.info/Sources+of+EMFs/Underground/.
Electronic copy available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3452437 Arduino
Microcontroller Based Underground Cable Fault Distance Locator
http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp 902 editor@iaeme.com
S. Y. King, N. A. Halfter, Underground Power Cables, New York: Longman Inc.,
1982.
Butler-Purry, M. J. Mousavi and K. L, "Study of thermal aging effects on
distribution transformer solid insulation," in 34th North American Power
Symposium, Tempe, AZ, Oct. 2002.
J. Densley, "Ageing mechanisms and diagnostics for power cables – an overview,"
IEEE Electrical Insulation Magazine, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 14 - 22, January –
February, 2001.
N. H. Malik, A. A. Al-Arainy, and M. I. Qureshi, Electrical Insulation in Power
Systems, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1998.
"ELPROCUS," [Online]. Available: https://www.elprocus.com/what-are-the-
different-types-of-faults-in-electrical-power-systems 2018.
"Quora," [Online]. Available: https://www.quora.com/What-are-symmetrical-and-
unsymmetrical-faults 2018.
B. Anderson, Director, Fault Characteristics of Power Grids. [Film].

48
G. Ojha, A. G. Roy and R. Verma, "Underground Cable Fault Distance Locator,"
International Journal of Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in
Technology, vol. 3, no. 2.
K., Padmanaban; G., Sanjana Sharon; K., Vishnuvarthini, "Detection of
Underground cable fault using Arduino".
Victory, Itodo Friday, "Design And Construction Of Digital Underground Cable
Fault Locator," University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria,
February, 2012.
P.S. Pooja . M. Lekshmi, "Fault Detection and Technique to Pinpoint Incipient
Fault for Underground Cables," International Journal of Engineering
Research and General Science, vol. 3, no. 3, May - June, 2015.
Sawatpipat P., Tayjasanant T., "Fault Classification for Thailand's transmission
lines based on discrete wavelet transform," in International Conference on
Electrical Engineering/Electronics Computer Telecommunications and
Information Technology (ECTI-CON), 2010.
Akash Jagtap, Jayesh Patil, Bhushan Patil, Dipak Patil, Aqib Al Husan Ansari,
Atul Barhate, "Arduino based Underground Cable Fault Detection,"
Maharashtra, India.
A. Paulose, A. Ravi, A. Murali and N. John, Fault Location in Undergroung
Distribution Networks, International Journal of Advance Research in
Elelctrical, Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering, ISSN: 2278-
8875Vol 5, no 3, pp. 175-176, march2016.
S.c Kor and V.D. Bavdhane Modified Murray Loop Method for Undergrand Cable
Fault Location Detection using GSM International Journal of Science and
Research (IJSR)2016.
B. Clegg, Underground Cable Fault Location. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1993.
T. Sandri, Director, Cable Fault Locating Webinar. [Film]. PROTEC Equipment
Resources.

49
 APPENDIX

Program code

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>
LiquidCrystal lcd(2,3,4,5,6,7);
#define sensor A0
#define relay1 8
#define relay2 9
#define relay3 10

#define buzzer 13
int read_ADC;
int distance;
byte symbol[8] = {
B00000,
B00100,
B00100,
B00100,
B11111,
B01110,
B00100,
B00000};

void setup() {
pinMode(sensor,INPUT);
pinMode(relay1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(relay2, OUTPUT);

50
 pinMode(relay3, OUTPUT);
pinMode(buzzer, OUTPUT);
lcd.createChar(1, symbol);

lcd.begin(16, 2);
lcd.clear();

lcd.setCursor(0, 0); // set the cursor to column 0, line 2

lcd.print("Welcome to Cable");
lcd.setCursor(0, 1); // set the cursor to column 0, line 2

lcd.print("Fault Detection");
delay(2000);
lcd.clear();
}

void loop(){
lcd.setCursor(1,0);
lcd.print("R");
lcd.write(1);

lcd.setCursor(7,0);
lcd.print("Y");
lcd.write(1);

lcd.setCursor(13,0);
51
lcd.print("B");
lcd.write(1);

digitalWrite(relay1,HIGH);
digitalWrite(relay2,LOW);
digitalWrite(relay3,LOW);
delay(500);

data();
lcd.setCursor(0,1);
if(distance>0){lcd.print(distance); lcd.print("KM ");}
else{lcd.print(" NF ");}

digitalWrite(relay1,LOW);
digitalWrite(relay2,HIGH);
digitalWrite(relay3,LOW);
delay(500);

data();

lcd.setCursor(6,1);
if(distance>0){lcd.print(distance); lcd.print("KM ");}
else{lcd.print(" NF ");}

digitalWrite(relay1,LOW);
digitalWrite(relay2,LOW);
digitalWrite(relay3,HIGH);

52
 delay(500);

data();

lcd.setCursor(12,1);
if(distance>0){lcd.print(distance); lcd.print("KM ");}
else{lcd.print(" NF ");}

void data(){
read_ADC = analogRead(sensor);
distance = read_ADC/100;

if(distance>9)distance = 0;

if(distance>0){
digitalWrite(buzzer,HIGH);
delay(200);
digitalWrite(buzzer,LOW);
delay(200);
}
}

53
 Table ofContents
Cover page ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………i

Approval page …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………ii

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….iii

Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………iv

Acknowledgment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v

List of figures…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vi

Table of contents……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………vii

CHAPTER ONE..........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background of Study....................................................................................................................1
1.2 Types of common underground Cable Faults:.............................................................................3
1.3 Advantages of Underground Fault Detector....................................................................................3
1.4 Problem Statement..........................................................................................................................5
1.5 Significance of the Study..................................................................................................................5
1.6 Project Aims and Objectives............................................................................................................6
1.7 Scope of the Study...........................................................................................................................6
1.8 Structure of Report..........................................................................................................................7
CHAPTER TWO.............................................................................................................................................8
LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................................................................8
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................................8
2.2 Review of Related Work..................................................................................................................8
2.3 Present Research Work.................................................................................................................10
2.4 Fault Finding..................................................................................................................................11
2.5 Ageing phenomenon of underground cables................................................................................12
2.6 Advantages....................................................................................................................................14
2.8 Underground cable faults....................................................................................................................15
2.9 Types of underground faults................................................................................................................16

54
2.9.1 Short Circuit and Earth Faults...........................................................................................................16
2.9.2 Open Circuit Faults....................................................................................................................17
2.10 Fault detection techniques................................................................................................................17
2.11. Murray Bridge Loop Method....................................................................................................20
2.12 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................21
CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................................................22
DESIGN METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................................22
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................22
3.2. Block Diagram of the System..........................................................................................................22
3.3 Description of block diagram of the system..................................................................................22
3.3.1 Power supply.............................................................................................................................23
3.3.2 AC Step down TRANSFORMER........................................................................................................24
3.3.3 Full bridge rectifier circuit.........................................................................................................25
3.3.4 Filter...........................................................................................................................................26
3.3.5 Voltage regulator......................................................................................................................26
3.4 Microcontroller Unit ( MCU)..........................................................................................................26
3.5 Display Unit...................................................................................................................................27
3.6 Circuit Diagram of the System.......................................................................................................27
3.7 Components Specification.............................................................................................................27
3.7.1 The ATmega328p Microcontroller.............................................................................................28
3.7.2 LM7805 Voltage Regulator.......................................................................................................29
3.7.3 Buzzer...........................................................................................................................................29
3.7.4 12V Relay.........................................................................................................................................31
3.7.5 The Display using LCD 16x2 (Lm016l).........................................................................................32
3.7.6 Resistor............................................................................................................................................32
3.7.7 Capacitor..........................................................................................................................................34
3.7.8 PCB and Connecting Wires............................................................................................................36
3.7.9 Crystal Oscillator...............................................................................................................................38
CHAPTER FOUR..........................................................................................................................................39
TESTING AND RESULT................................................................................................................................39
4.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................................39

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4.3 Testing.................................................................................................................................................40
4.3.1 Power Supply Test............................................................................................................................40
4.3.2 Sensor Test.......................................................................................................................................42
4.3.3 Circuit Simulation.............................................................................................................................43
4.3.4 Test on the Microcontroller Unit......................................................................................................44
4.3.5 Test on the LCD Display Unit......................................................................................................44
4.5 Test On The Software Program............................................................................................................45
4.6 Result.............................................................................................................................................45
Table 1.......................................................................................................................................................45
4.7 Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................46
CHAPTER FIVE............................................................................................................................................47
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................................................................................................47
6.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................47
6.2 Recommendations..............................................................................................................................47
REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................................48
APPENDIX..................................................................................................................................................50
Program code............................................................................................................................................50

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